Development of Replaceable Cast Steel Links for

Eccentrically Braced Frames

Kyla G. Tan 1 and Constantin Christopoulos, Ph.D., P.Eng., M.ASCE 2

Abstract: Replaceable links for eccentrically braced steel frames (EBFs) decouple the yielding links from the floor beams to facilitate rapid
repair or replacement after a seismic event. Replaceable links that are composed of rolled or built-up steel sections are, however, susceptible to
the same failure modes as links in conventional EBFs. These failure modes include fracture in the base metal or welds, local buckling, and
lateral-torsional buckling, all of which limit the ductility of the link and consequently, the overall ductility of the frame. An extensive numeri-
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cal analysis study was completed to develop replaceable cast steel link concepts, with practical connection details, that combine the ad-
vantages of replaceable links with the geometric freedom and material properties inherent to castings. Results indicate that the unique
geometry of the proposed concepts achieves a larger rotation capacity and longer low-cycle fatigue life by evenly distributing flexural yielding
over the entire length of the link and minimizing stress concentrations. The replaceable cast steel links have the potential to significantly
improve the performance, reliability, robustness, and resilience of EBFs. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001550. © 2016 American
Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Seismic effects.

Introduction
Eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) are widely used as lateral force
resisting systems because they exhibit high stiffness through their
diagonal braces and high ductility through the yielding of the ec-
centrically loaded links. The link must be designed as the weakest
component of the frame in order to act as the ductile fuse in the
structural system and dissipate energy. The maximum inelastic link
rotation capacity, γ pc , is limited by various possible failure modes.
Although delayed by stiffeners, shear links exhibit web buckling
which can lead to tension fields forming in the webs between
the stiffeners. Stress concentrations develop because of these ten-
sion fields, stiffener welds, and the variable material properties at
the k-line of the link and eventually lead to web fracture (Kasai
and Popov 1986; Okazaki et al. 2005; Kavinde et al. 2014). The
design provisions for steel seismic force-resisting systems in Can-
ada (CSA 2009) and the United States (AISC 2010) expect γ pc to
be at least 0.08 rad for properly designed shear links. For flexural
links, because of the occurrence of flange buckling or lateral-
torsional buckling, as well as flange fracture as a result of the
high flexural strains at the link ends (Engelhardt and Popov
1992), γ pc is only 0.02 rad. Several improved link designs have
been proposed in an effort to increase the link rotation capacity by
mitigating the various failure modes. However, each of these
designs only addresses one of the many possible failure modes.
Consequently, the value of γ pc has not been significantly
1
Structural Designer, Read Jones Christofferson Ltd., 144 Front St.
West, Suite 500, Toronto, ON, Canada M5J 2L7 (corresponding author).
E-mail: ktan@rjc.ca
2
Professor and Canada Research Chair in Seismic Resilience of
Infrastructure, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Toronto, 35 St. George
St., Toronto, ON, Canada M5S 1A4.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 12, 2015; approved on
February 23, 2016; published online on May 3, 2016. Discussion period
open until October 3, 2016; separate discussions must be submitted for in-
dividual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineer-
ing, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445.
increased (Prinz and Richards 2009; Berman et al. 2010; Bruneau
et al. 2011).
Mansour (2010) proposed a method for designing EBFs with
replaceable shear links and found that more efficient and economi-
cal EBF designs can be achieved by decoupling the link from the
beam, which also expedites the design process. Decoupling the link
provides the added benefits of its rapid inspection and replacement
following a seismic event, allowing the structure to return to service
with reduced delays. Since replaceable shear links are composed of
rolled or built-up steel sections, they are however susceptible to the
same failure modes as links of conventional eccentrically braced
frames and thus still only achieve a γ pc of 0.08 rad. The majority
of the replaceable shear links tested by Mansour (2010) failed by
web fracture initiating at stiffener welds.
The use of steel castings as a method of providing improved
seismic performance in various steel lateral force-resisting systems
has recently gained increasing interest. Because of the material and
geometric flexibility that castings offer, stress concentrations can be
minimized and the element can be shaped for an optimal flow of
forces. Examples include the cast steel high-strength connector (de
Oliveira et al. 2008); the yielding brace system (Gray 2012) for
concentrically braced frames; and yielding connectors for mo-
ment-resisting frames, including the panel zone dissipator modular
node (Fleischman et al. 2007) and a modular connector (Sumer et al.
2007). The controlled environment in which castings are produced
can prevent link failure as a result of fabrication errors as found
in the forensic analysis of links composed of rolled sections by
Kavinde et al. (2014).
This paper presents the development of replaceable cast steel
links for EBFs that integrate the advantages of replaceable yielding
links with the benefits of steel castings to achieve greater ductility
and a longer low-cycle fatigue life. Four replaceable cast link con-
cepts were developed and evaluated using finite-element analysis
results in this study. One concept is selected and further optimized,
and the effect of the selected replaceable cast link on the global
performance of a five-story EBF structure is further investigated
through nonlinear time-history analyses.

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 Finite-Element Modeling and Evaluation Criteria
In this study, specimen EPM-11B from the full-scale experimental
program conducted by Mansour (2010) was selected to represent
the performance of replaceable shear links made of rolled or built-
up sections and to provide a benchmark for assessing the perfor-
mance of the proposed cast steel links. Details on the selection of
this benchmark test can be found in (Tan 2014).
Finite-Element Modeling
The replaceable link benchmark (RLB) was modeled using the
finite-element analysis program ABAQUS/CAE 6.10-1 and its re-
sults were used to evaluate the performance of the replaceable cast
link concepts. The material model which included inelastic material
properties used by Mansour (2010) was applied to the RLB finite-
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element model. G40.21-350W grade steel with a nominal yield
strength of 350 MPa, a Young’s modulus of 200,000 MPa, and
a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 were considered. The inelastic material
properties were defined by a nonlinear, kinematic hardening model
with the following parameters: 8,000 MPa for the initial kinematic
hardening modulus, C, and 75 for the rate factor for kinematic hard-
ening, γ. The isotropic hardening parameters were 110 MPa for the
maximum change in yield stress, Q∞ , and 4 for the parameter b.
Ten-node tetrahedral elements with second-order shape func-
tions, referred to as C3D10M, were used to model the RLB.
Automatic meshing with a global seed size of 20 and automatic
incrementation with settings of 0.01, 0.001, and 0.1 initial, mini-
mum, and maximum increment sizes respectively were selected and
applied to the final RLB model. Details about the sensitivity analy-
ses that were carried out while developing this model can be found
in Tan (2014). The ABAQUS large-displacement effects option was
enabled in the analysis because the web yielding at low rotations
provides sufficient imperfections in the model to cause buckling at
larger rotations without explicitly introducing imperfections at the
start of the analysis (Prinz and Richards 2009).
The left end-plate of the RLB was fully restrained against all
translations and rotations while transverse displacements were ap-
plied to the right end plate to simulate link rotation. The right end
plate was restrained against all rotations but was permitted to trans-
late horizontally along the undeformed link’s longitudinal axis and
all the nodes of the right end plate were constrained to have the
same horizontal translation.
To validate the finite-element model parameters, the results of
the numerical analysis carried out on the RLB were compared to
the experimental results reported by Mansour (2010) for specimen
EPM-11B, which was subjected to the full AISC 341-10 (AISC
2010) loading protocol. As a result of the full-scale frame setup
used to test EPM-11B, an axial load equal to half the actuator force
was applied through the link. A modified loading protocol, which
consisted of one full cycle of each link rotation angle of the AISC
341-10 loading protocol starting with 0.0075 rad, was implemented
in the analysis of the RLB to reduce the computation time.
The axial loading was also simplified such that the applied axial
load linearly increased to that of the maximum recorded in the
EPM-11B experimental data for the corresponding magnitude of
link rotation. The results of the finite-element analysis are com-
pared to the experimental results in Fig. 1 and show agreement that
is deemed satisfactory to validate the use of the RLB model as a
basis for comparison for the cast steel concepts that were devel-
oped. Differences between the curves can be attributed to simpli-
fication of the axial load and boundary conditions applied to
the RLB. The axial restraints provided by the braces in the full
frame setup in the EPM-11B tests could explain the higher shear
© ASCE 04016079-2
J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079
1500
1000
Link Shear Force (kN)
500
0
−500
−1000
−1500
−0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1
Total Link Rotation (rad)
EPM−11B Experimental Data (Mansour 2010)
RLB Finite Element Model Results
Fig. 1. Comparison of experimental and analytical hystereses
overstrength at large deformations that are observed in the exper-
imental results (e.g., Della Corte et al. 2013).
Evaluation Criteria
To be directly comparable, the replaceable cast steel link concepts
were designed to have a similar yield strength and length as the
RLB: 579 kN of nominal shear resistance and 800 mm respectively.
The concepts were intended to exhibit stiffness values that
were similar to that of the RLB, which was determined to be
175,640 kN=rad (shear force per radian of total link rotation),
because the lateral stiffness of an EBF is dependent, to a certain
extent, on the stiffness of the individual links. In addition, an over-
strength equal to or less than that of the RLB was desired to min-
imize the capacity design forces for the adjacent beams, columns,
and braces. In this study, the overstrength was considered as the
ratio of the maximum link shear obtained when applying a total
link rotation of 0.16 rad to the nominal strength of the link and
was determined to be 1.54 for the RLB.
Gray (2012) conducted low-cycle fatigue tests and found that
the ASTM A352 LCB cast steel has slightly lower, but comparable,
ductility to rolled A36 grade steel. To reduce computation time, the
low-cycle fatigue life of the concepts that are studied in this paper
were assessed by comparing the maximum equivalent plastic strain
values following a monotonic excursion to a total link rotation of
0.16 rad to the peak strains obtained in the RLB model. Fracture in
the models was assumed to have occurred if strains exceeded the
ultimate strain of 0.22 which was measured by Mansour (2010)
through monotonic coupon tests. The RLB finite-element model
exhibited a maximum equivalent plastic strain of 0.233 which oc-
curred at a corner formed by a stiffener and the link web (Fig. 2),
which is consistent with the web fracture observed in the specimen
by Mansour (2010) during physical testing. The occurrence of local
buckling and lateral-torsional buckling in the proposed link con-
cepts was identified by visual inspection of the deformed shape
of the models and sudden declines of strength in their link-shear
rotation curves.
The proposed cast steel link concepts were required to have a
practical design for general castability since not all configurations
or shapes are castable or will result in high quality castings (Gray
2012). In addition, the selected concept was expected to possess a
J. Struct. Eng.
 Maximum equivalent plastic strain = 0.233
1200
Equivalent
Plastic Strain 1000

Link Shear Force (kN)

(Avg: 75%)
0.235 800
0.220
0.202
0.183 600
0.165
0.147
0.128 400
0.110
0.092
0.073 200
0.055
0.037 0
0.018 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
0.000 Total Link Rotation (rad)

Fig. 2. RLB deformed shape and equivalent plastic strain contour at a RLB CWC−1 YRC SFYC−W
RLB−Fillets CWC−2 SFYC−1 SFYC−T
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total link rotation of 0.16 rad

Fig. 4. Comparison of link shear-rotation curves for the link concepts

practical connection for rapid installation and repair. The link di-
mensions also had to be within reasonable limits and could not ex-
ceed those of the adjacent beams they would be connected to. An
end-plate connection with the same dimensions used by the RLB
was assumed for the initial development of the concepts. Finally,
the replaceable cast link concepts were expected to have the ability
to be designed for other strengths and lengths to form a complete
set of cast links that can be used in the design of entire EBF struc-
tures. A predefined set of links of various lengths and capacities
would allow for prequalification and mass production, which
would reduce their cost and enhance their reliability by preventing
fabrication errors that could otherwise occur when rolled or built-
up sections are used (Kavinde et al. 2014).
Replaceable Cast Steel Link Concepts
Initially, four general concepts were explored and analyzed:
(1) smooth transitions, (2) corrugated web, (3) yielding ring, and
(4) simultaneous flexural yielding (Fig. 3). A finite-element model
was created for each cast steel link concept using the same param-
eters used to model the RLB and were loaded to a total link rotation
of 0.16 rad. Fig. 4 compares the resulting link shear-rotation curves
to that of the RLB while Table 1 compares the performance criteria
values. The following section summarizes the main findings from
the analytical assessment of each proposed concept.
Smooth Transitions Concept (RLB-Fillets)
The RLB-fillets concept incorporated 30-mm fillets into the geom-
etry of the RLB to eliminate the stress concentrations caused by
abrupt geometric discontinuities at the corners formed by inter-
mediate stiffeners, k-line, and end plates. However, the addition
of fillets resulted in higher elastic stiffness, overstrength, and strain
values (Table 1). The higher maximum equivalent plastic strain
value of 0.268 indicates that web fracture would have likely

Equivalent
Plastic Strain
(Avg: 75%)
0.340
0.220 (a) (b)
0.202
0.183
0.165
0.147
0.128
0.110
0.092
0.073
0.055
0.037
0.018
0.000

(c) (d)

Fig. 3. Deformed shapes of the replaceable cast link concepts and equivalent plastic strain contours at a total link rotation of 0.16 rad: (a) RLB-fillets;
(b) CWC-1; (c) YRC; (d) SFYC

© ASCE 04016079-3 J. Struct. Eng.

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 Table 1. Comparison of Performance Values for the Link Concepts and end-plate surfaces. Limited plastic strains were expected to
Elastic Maximum form in the hinges as each ring was supposed to contribute to
Yield stiffness equivalent the overall link rotation. However, the analysis results showed
Concept strength (kN) (kN=rad) Overstrength plastic straina that the high link end moments caused plastic hinges to form,
RLB 579 175,640 1.54 0.233
mainly in the first and last rings, with minimal yielding of the center
RLB-fillets 579 207,690 1.78 0.268 four rings [Fig. 3(c)]. The force required to create this undesired
CWC-1 579 140,928 1.37 0.340 yielding mechanism was about half the expected strength.
CWC-2 579 121,564 1.64 0.228 Because of the behavior and results of the model (Table 1), the
YRC 280 18,564 1.87 0.233 YRC was not further developed. The concept would require signifi-
SFYC-1 579 97,156 1.95 0.116 cant design improvements to be utilized in an EBF such as stiff-
SFYC-W 579 108,336 1.60 0.113 ening the rings at the ends of the link. A single, very large ring
SFYC-T 579 109,137 1.59 0.126 could be used to span the required link length. However, the dimen-
a
Measured at 0.16 rad of total link rotation. sions needed to achieve this would likely be so large that it would
affect the floor-to-ceiling height of typical steel frame buildings.
The axial strength of the YRC was also a concern, as an applied
axial load would likely fracture the crest of each yielding ring.
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occurred at a lower link rotation than for the RLB and a comparison
of Figs. 2 and 3(a) shows that these higher strain values were ob-
served over larger regions of the link. The fillets reduced the web
panel areas and resulted in a larger deformation demand on each
element within the web panels, thus increasing the plastic strains.
The RLB-fillets concept was not further pursued because of the
poor performance that was observed.
Although the focus of this study was on links for frames of the
eccentric chevron brace configuration that do not introduce an axial
load through the link for typical symmetric building layouts, a min-
imum level of axial resistance would be required to allow for
more practical implementations in a wider range of braced frame
configurations.

Simultaneous Flexural Yielding Link Concept

Corrugated Web Concept
Corrugated webs were implemented in the corrugated web concept
(CWC) for self-stabilization, to mitigate web buckling in lieu of
stiffeners, and to consequently eliminate the stress concentrations
caused by welded stiffeners. Two models with different corrugation
dimensions, CWC-1 and CWC-2, were analyzed. Local web buck-
ling can be observed in the deformed shape of CWC-1 [Fig. 3(b)]
and in the negative stiffness of its shear-rotation curve at approx-
imately 0.1 rad (Fig. 4). The results for CWC-2 show that with
smaller web panel dimensions, local web buckling can be success-
fully avoided within a total link rotation of 0.16 rad.
Researchers have developed equations to predict the shear
strength of webs with trapezoidal corrugation for bridge girders
which must resist high shear loads like EBF links (Elgaaly et al.
1996; Sause and Braxtan 2011). With appropriate dimensioning
of the corrugation, buckling can be delayed as observed in
CWC-2. However, the CWC was not further developed because
of issues related to its castability. Through interaction with steel
The constant cross-sectional properties of a shear link match the
constant shear force applied over its length. The shear capacity
of the link is attained simultaneously over its length such that each
incremental segment is only required to deform a small amount to
produce the total link rotation. The proposed concept for the re-
placeable cast steel link employs varying cross-sectional properties
to achieve simultaneous flexural yielding over its length. The added
damping and stiffness device, triangular added damping added
stiffness device (Christopoulos and Filiatrault 2006), and the yield-
ing brace system (Gray et al. 2014) are examples of experimentally
validated structural fuses that apply this concept of spreading flexu-
ral yielding to maximize both energy dissipation and low-cycle
fatigue life.
Originally, the simultaneous flexural yielding link concept
(SFYC) was imagined with multiple plates with rectangular cross
sections and a triangular plan such that it would bend in constant
double curvature [Fig. 5(a)], where the width, bðxÞ, of the plates is
governed by
foundries it was a determined that a minimum wall thickness of  
approximately 20 mm was desired to ensure the quality of the cast-  2b x e e
ing for an application where the steel casting is intended to develop bðxÞ ¼ o ; for − ≤ x ≤ ð1Þ
e 2 2
a ductile response. With a web thickness equal to this minimum
castable thickness, the target shear strength, V p , of 579 kN would where bo = width of the plates at the link ends; e = link length; and
only be possible if a very small link depth was used. This small link x = distance from the link center. The nominal yield strength, V n , of
depth would require very thick and wide flanges to maintain the the link can be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the plate at
flexural resistance required to ensure that the link remains a the ends of the link
shear-yielding link. Although the CWC was relatively successful
at mitigating web instability, it would not have resulted in an effi- nbo d2 Fy
Vn ¼ ð2Þ
cient cross section. 3e
where n = number of yielding elements in the link; d = thickness of
Yielding Ring Concept each plate; and Fy = yield strength of the material. The elastic stiff-
ness of the link in terms of relative link end displacement, kr , can be
Alternative modes of yielding were investigated because of the
determined by
castability issues related to achieving shear yielding. The yielding
ring concept (YRC) applied the concept of moving flexural hinges 2nbo d3 E
of the U-shaped steel strip (Priestley et al. 1999). The YRC model kr ¼ ð3Þ
3e2
implemented six rings to achieve the desired link length. The finite-
element model utilized surface-to-surface contact properties, in- where E = Young’s modulus. Therefore, the thickness of each
cluding frictionless tangential behavior and hard normal contact yielding plate and the length of the link have a significant
behavior for the interaction between the semicircular segments effect on both strength and elastic stiffness. Although it would

© ASCE 04016079-4 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079

 V

(a) Isometric View

e
Yielding Yielding
region xs region
(a)
b(x)

bo
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b min
Plan View
(b)
M i (x) Provided flexural
Applied bending
resistance
moment My

e xs
2 2
x
xs e (b)
2 2
Fig. 6. Trimetric views of the (a) SFYC-W; (b) SFYC-T
My
(c)

Fig. 5. SFYC link: (a) initial geometry; (b) modified width; (c) pro-
vided flexural resistance of the cross section as full plastification of the section gradually
occurs results in the high overstrength that was observed in
SFYC-1 (Table 1 and Fig. 4). Overstrength is characterized by
the shape factor, which must therefore be minimized to achieve
be advantageous to have multiple yielding elements for redun- the desired overstrength performance. The typical North American
dancy, a single yielding element was considered in the initial wide-flange section achieves a shape factor that is very close to
SFYC-1 model, in order to achieve the same strength and compa- unity, while that of a rectangular, solid section used for SFYC-1
rable stiffness as the RLB. is 1.5 (Bruneau et al. 2011).
Since the link must carry a constant shear force over its length, Fig. 6 shows two additional link concepts with different cross
the width cannot be zero at the midspan as given by Eq. (1) and sections, a wide-flange section (SFYC-W) and a rectangular, tubu-
shown in the dashed lines in Fig. 5(b). A minimum allowable lar section (SFYC-T), that were developed to achieve simultaneous
width, bmin , must be provided such that the maximum anticipated flexural yielding along the length of the link. To obtain the geom-
shear force can be resisted etry of these new concepts, Eq. (1) was revised to
ωbo d
bmin ¼ ð4Þ 2jxj½bo d3 − ðbo − 2wÞðd − 2tÞ3  þ 2ewðd − 2tÞ3
1.65e bðxÞ ¼ ;
eðd3 − d þ 2tÞ
where ω = expected overstrength factor. The lengths of the yielding e e
regions are reduced by modifying the width of the link to bmin over for − ≤ x ≤ ð5Þ
2 2
the length xs [Fig. 5(b)], which results in an increased flexural re-
sistance in this region [Fig. 5(c)].
which was obtained by modifying the elastic section modulus, S, in
The SFYC-1 model applied a bmin dimension obtained by con-
its derivation. Similarly, Eqs. (2) and (3) become
servatively assuming that ω ¼ 2.5. Fillets were added to smoothly
transition between the end plate and yielding element, as well as to
transition between the constant and tapered width regions to pre- nFy
Vn ¼ ½b d3 − ðbo − 2wÞðd − 2tÞ3  ð6Þ
vent stress concentrations. Without optimizing the dimensions of 3ed o
SFYC-1, a maximum equivalent plastic strain of 0.116 was ob-
tained, a large improvement from the RLB (Table 1). The yielding
was successfully spread to the regions of varying width [Fig. 3(d)].  −1
Fy V e
kr ¼ eV n ð3e2 − x2s Þ þ n ð7Þ
Applying the SFYC to Other Cross Sections 6dE 2dwG
If plasticity is considered at the cross-sectional level, assuming that
plane sections remain plane in pure bending, the additional flexural respectively where w = web thickness; t = flange thickness; G =
strength available beyond the initial yielding of the extreme fibers shear modulus; and xs is given by

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(a)
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(b)
Fig. 7. Trimetric views of SFYC rectangular, tubular links with (a) con-
stant depth and variable width; (b) varying depth and constant width or
equally varying depth and width
2ewd3
xs ¼ ð8Þ
bo d − ðbo − 2wÞðd − 2tÞ3
3
The webs of the yielding elements must be thick enough to pre-
vent the webs from yielding or buckling in shear before the element
yields in flexure. To avoid a hybrid shear-flexure yielding response,
the webs must also resist the maximum anticipated shear force of
the link, or the shear corresponding to the maximum overstrength
moment in the flexural plastic hinges
ωV n
w≥ ð9Þ
1.1dFy
Therefore, bmin ¼ 2w.
SFYC-W and SFYC-T (Table 1 and Fig. 4) performed almost
identically to one another in every aspect. SFYC-W and SFYC-T
exhibited a slightly higher stiffness than SFYC-1 because of the
increased yielding element depth, which was made possible
because less material was present near the neutral axis of the cross
section compared to the rectangular solid section of the SFYC-1.
By utilizing a cross section with a lower shape factor, the
overstrength of links applying the SFYC is very similar to that
of the RLB or conventional links. In contrast, there was no signifi-
cant effect of the type of cross section on the maximum plastic
strains.
Links with built-up box sections have been used in situations
where the possibility of lateral-torsional buckling is of concern
but lateral bracing is difficult or not feasible to provide like in
bridge piers (Bruneau et al. 2011). Since the performance of
SFYC-W and SFYC-T was essentially identical, the rectangular,
tubular cross section was selected for further development given
© ASCE 04016079-6
J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079
the additional benefit of its inherent torsional resistance and stabil-
ity. Although the midspan region defined by the length xs consists
of a slender, rectangular, solid section, lateral-torsional buckling of
this segment is not a concern because the applied bending moment
within this region is low.
Variations of the Tubular SFYC
Any combination of dimensions can be varied to achieve the effect
of simultaneous flexural yielding over the link length. Two alter-
natives on the variation of the sectional dimensions were examined:
(1) maintaining a constant width while varying the depth, and
(2) varying both the depth and the width equally such that the cross
section is always a square, tubular cross section. For these varia-
tions, the minimum depth required to resist the shear was found
to adversely increase the length of the region xs . The length of
the region xs can be reduced by gradually changing the cross
section from tubular to solid at the midspan of the link (Fig. 7),
which can be readily achieved with the geometric freedom pro-
vided by castings. However, the variation in web depth provides
excess shear resistance at the link ends and within the length xs
(Fig. 8). The constant depth and varying width was deemed pref-
erable because it provides a constant shear resistance more effi-
ciently over the length of the link to match the applied shear force
diagram.
Connection Concepts
A web-bolted connection was initially investigated for the proposed
replaceable cast steel link because Mansour (2010) found that for
this configuration, the bolts are more accessible than in a bolted
end-plate connection, making the installation and replacement of
links more practical. Such a connection requires the cast steel link
geometry to be cut in half longitudinally with each half of the
link placed on either side of the adjacent beams (Fig. 9). However,
finite-element analyses showed that each half of the link acted
independently as channel sections and exhibited lateral-torsional
buckling despite bolting the link halves together within the elastic
region xs . Multiple solutions were studied (Tan 2014) to improve
stability of the link halves, but it was concluded that they were im-
practical to achieve the desired performance and most attempted
solutions introduced stress concentrations, which increased plastic
strains.
A bolt end-plate connection requires significantly less material
than the web-bolted connection shown in Fig. 9. To cast the hollow
features in the proposed SFYC-T geometry, core molds would
have to be removed through openings in the end plates (Fig. 10).
The increased link flexibility attributable to the reduced volume of
material in the end plates was examined through the analysis of
multiple finite-element models with various opening sizes. The
connection is essentially rigid if a chamfer is added between the
flanges and the opening (Fig. 10). Alternatively, the opening can
be closed by welding a steel plate around the perimeter of the open-
ing as suggested by Tan (2014).
A link with a bolted end-plate connection can be dropped easily
into position on the construction site. Shims can be used to fill gaps
between the end plates of the link and adjacent beams to account for
casting and connection tolerances. The dimensions of the end plates
can be cast to accommodate a large range of adjacent beam depths
and can be trimmed accordingly. The bolted end-plate connection
was deemed as the most appropriate connection for the replaceable
cast steel link concept and was retained for the more detailed study
that is presented in the following section.
J. Struct. Eng.
 e e

Yielding Yielding Yielding Yielding

region xs region region xs region

Cast Link Cast Link

Front View Front View

Vi (x) Vi (x)
Provided shear resistance
Vy
Applied shear Vy
Vy Vy
x x
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e 0 e e xs 0 xs e
2 2 2 2 2 2
(a) (b)

Fig. 8. Shear resistance of SFYC rectangular, tubular links with (a) constant depth and variable width; (b) varying depth and constant width or equally
varying depth and width

Connection SFYC Link Connection

tabs geometry tabs A

Trimetric View
(a) Opening

Link halves placed on either Inner chamfer to lip

side of adjacent beam webs dh

Section A-A
Shim plate
Fig. 10. SFYC-T with bolted end-plate connection
(b)

Fig. 9. SFYC-T with a web-bolted connection: (a) elevation view in an

eccentric chevron braced frame; (b) trimetric view of assembly
Sensitivity Analysis of the Rectangular, Hollow
SFYC
Effect of Axial Load
A concern for the cast link is the small cross-sectional area over the
region xs . The minimum gross cross-sectional area of the SFYC-T
model is only 7,020 mm2 in comparison to 9,100 mm2 for the
RLB. In the full-scale EBF test setup, Mansour (2010) measured
a maximum axial link load that was 26% of the link’s axial yield
capacity. The effect of an axial load on the cast link was studied by
imposing a constant axial force with a magnitude of 955.5 kN to
both the SFYC-T and RLB finite-element models, a conservative
30 and 39% of each link’s axial yield capacity respectively.
A modified cyclic loading protocol was applied to reduce the com-
putational time. The loading protocol consisted of one full cycle of
0.01 rad, followed by one full cycle of 0.04 rad, and then a half
cycle to 0.09 rad. Three analyses were conducted for each model:
no axial load (0), a constant axial tensile load (T), and a constant
axial compressive load (C). The results of these analyses confirmed
that an applied axial load has a greater effect on the equivalent plas-
tic strains (Table 2) and link shears at large deformations (Fig. 11)
of the RLB than the SFYC-T. Even though the applied axial loads
have a compounding effect on the flexure-induced compression and
tension in the yielding flanges of the SFYC-T, the plastic strains
in the SFYC-T were lower than the RLB without any axial loads

© ASCE 04016079-7 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079

 Table 2. Effect of Axial Load and Initial Imperfections on the Maximum those in Fig. 11 of the perfect SFYC-T model. However, the initial
Equivalent Plastic Strain of the RLB and. SFYC-T Models Measured at imperfections resulted in some stress concentrations and increased
0.09 rad plastic strains (Table 2). Set L resulted in generally higher strains
SFYC-T than set M, indicating that more stringent casting tolerances must
RLB No
be considered for the tapered yielding regions of the link while the
Axial load (no imperfection) imperfection Set L Set M elastic midspan region can be cast with more lenient tolerances.
With significant imperfections, the SFYC-T models had lower plas-
0 0.3120 0.1589 0.2755 0.1619 tic strains than a perfect RLB model, and no local buckling or any
Tension 0.3001 0.1728 0.2004 0.1746
other forms of instability were observed. Therefore, the peak strains
Compression 0.3249 0.1656 0.3104 0.2378
shown in Table 2 indicate that even with any unintended axial loads
or geometric casting defects, the proposed cast link is expected to
have a longer low-cycle fatigue life and a larger maximum ductility
capacity than replaceable links made of rolled or built-up sections.
1,000

Replaceable Cast Steel Link Optimization

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Link Shear Force (kN)

500

Effect of Depth and Width of Yielding Elements

0 There are an infinite number of combinations of the dimensions d
−500
−1,000
−0.06 −0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04
Total Link Rotation (rad)
RLB_0 SFYC−T_T
SFYC−T_0 RLB_T
Fig. 11. Effect of link axial load on the hysteresis of the RLB and
SFYC-T models
applied. Mansour (2010) found that axial tension increases link
shear strength by preventing local web buckling in links composed
of wide-flange sections, while a compressive load reduces the link
shear strength by increasing local web buckling. This is observed in
the RLB at large deformations (Fig. 11). The SFYC-T does not
experience any local web buckling; therefore, the link shear
strength is less affected by applied axial loads at large deformations
(Fig. 11).
Effect of Geometric Imperfections
To study the effect of initial imperfections on the cast link, the lin-
ear superposition of buckling eigenmodes was introduced to the
SFYC-T model before applying the modified cyclic loading proto-
col. Two sets of eigenmodes were found when imposing different
perturbations on the model: the first set, designated by L, mostly
includes deformed shapes of flanges or webs that are out of plane;
the second set, designated by M, consists of deformed shapes in
which the link is misaligned from the link’s longitudinal centerline.
The two sets of eigenmodes were analyzed separately using a linear
combination of the first five buckling modes weighted by 10, 7.5,
2.5, 1, and 0.5 respectively. These weightings resulted in initial im-
perfections large enough to be easily observed by visual inspection
and are more severe than what would be acceptable for real appli-
cation to a structure.
The reduced cyclic loading protocol was applied to the initially
imperfect models with and without constant axial loads. The hys-
tereses obtained from these analyses were essentially identical to
and bo that can produce the same link strength, assuming that all
the other parameters are kept constant. The functional combina-
tions of d and bo can be selected by defining practical limits
and understanding the effect of these dimensions on various link
properties. As d increases, bo must decrease to maintain the same
strength, resulting in a more slender cross section at the ends of the
0.06 0.08 0.1 link. The aspect ratio d=bo should be minimized in order to
maximize the resistance to lateral-torsional buckling and is recom-
mended to be no greater than unity. However, a very small value of
SFYC−T_C
d=bo results in a very wide link, which may be impractical in trans-
RLB_C
ferring forces between the link and the adjacent beams. The elastic
stiffnesses of the SFYC models were approximately 60% of the
RLB model (Table 1), but they could have been designed to have
the same stiffness as the RLB by increasing d [Eq. (7)].
A series of pushover analyses of a single-story, single-bay EBF
was conducted where the link stiffness was varied while the frame
dimensions and other member properties were held constant. Re-
sults showed that if the link stiffness is decreased by 40%, then the
frame stiffness only decreases to 77% of its original value. There-
fore a significant reduction in link stiffness does not necessarily
have a great effect on the frame stiffness.
The percentage of the cast link length that can deform plasti-
cally, η, can be defined as
 
xs
η ¼ 100 1 − ð10Þ
e
To increase the ductility and low-cycle fatigue life of the cast
link, η should be maximized by minimizing xs , which can be most
efficiently achieved by minimizing d [Eq. (8)].
The volume of the steel should also be minimized for an effi-
cient and more economical cast link design. The volume of steel in
the cast link, V cast , can be approximated by
nðe − xs Þ
V cast ¼ ½dðbo þ 2wÞ − ðd − 2tÞðbo − 2wÞ þ 2nwxs d
2
ð11Þ
and can be minimized as a function of d.
Effect of Depth and Width of Yielding Elements
Multiple advantages arise when minimizing the flange and web
thickness of the cast link: a reduction in mass (Fig. 12); a reduction
in overstrength because of the shape factor; and an increase in

© ASCE 04016079-8 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079

 w = t = 20 mm Insufficient web resistance Potential lateral-torsional
110

Elastic Stiffness of Cast Link (x 103 kN/rad)

w = t = 25 mm buckling (d/b o > 1.0)

ductility and low-cycle fatigue life

175 Increasing ductility and

connection strength;decreasing
100 w = t = 30 mm low-cycle fatigue life;

Increasing volume and req’d

Cast Link Mass (kg)

decreasing overstrength
150 e = 0.5 m
90 = 66%
e = 0.75 m
80 125 = 75% e = 1.0 m
e = 1.25 m
70 e = 1.5 m
100
e = 2.0 m
e = 1.75 m
60
75
Potential flange
50 local buckling
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 Recommended
50
Link Depth (mm) 0.25 0. 5 0.75 1.0 design space
d/b o
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Fig. 12. Effect of flange and web thickness on the mass of an 800-mm-
long cast link with a shear strength of 579 kN using Eq. (11) and
assuming a steel density of 7,850 kg=m3 ; Fy ¼ 350 MPa;
E ¼ 200,000 MPa; G ¼ 77,000 MPa; and n ¼ 1
ductility and low-cycle fatigue life, as Eq. (8) shows that xs can be
reduced by minimizing w, which will maximize η. However, the
minimization of the web and flange thicknesses is limited by prac-
tical castability limitations, shear resistance according to Eq. (6),
and the need to prevent local buckling; section Class 1 limits pre-
scribed by CSA S16-09 are recommended. Further investigation
would be required to relax the limits on the dimensions of the tri-
angular-shaped flanges of cast links.
Effect of Link Length
Increasing d, xs , and lateral-torsional
buckling potential; decreasing b o
Fig. 13. Recommended design space for cast links with a shear
strength of 579 kN assuming Fy ¼ 350 MPa; E ¼ 200,000 MPa;
G ¼ 77,000 MPa; n ¼ 1; w ¼ t ¼ 20 mm; and ω ¼ 1.8
constant frame dimensions. Therefore, longer links are recom-
mended to increase the ductility and low-cycle fatigue life of
the cast links. Using longer links can also provide the architectural
benefit of larger openings in the EBF. However, for the same link
strength, a longer link will proportionally increase its end moments
as well as the capacity design forces for the link connections and
the other members of the EBF. In addition, an increase in link
length increases the mass of the casting (Table 3).

The effect of the link length, e, on the cast link properties and per-
formance was investigated by developing several finite-element Cast Link Design Space
models of the cast link with varying lengths (Table 3). A stiffer Fig. 13 was constructed by using Eqs. (5)–(10) and by applying the
cast link can be achieved if a shorter length is used. In contrast, design limits discussed above. It demonstrates that even after applying
the overstrength values were not sensitive to link length as they these recommended limits, there are numerous combinations of di-
were consistently within the range of 1.13 to 1.33. However, in- mensions within the recommended design space for a particular
creasing η or decreasing d can reduce the overstrength (Table 3). strength of the cast links. Every point within the design space repre-
The plastic strains decrease as e is increased. Even lower plastic sents a cast link with a unique combination of d and bo , despite having
strains can be expected for longer links since link rotation demand identical aspect ratios d=bo . Fig. 13 summarizes the effect of the cast
decreases as e increases for a given frame drift and assuming link dimensions on the resulting properties and performance values.
The effect of d on the mass of the cast link is not included in
Table 3. Effect of e and η on Cast Link Properties and Performance Fig. 13. The range of dimensions that achieves the minimum vol-
ume or mass overlaps with those associated with η ¼ 66 to 75%
Maximum (Table 3). Given the numerous possibilities, a cast link with the
equivalent dimensions associated with a point near the center of the design
plastic Mass
space is recommended as it balances all of the cast link properties
Model e (mm) d (mm) bo (mm) η Overstrengtha strainb (kg)
and performance values while minimizing the mass of the casting
e500η75 500 125 215 75 1.13 0.163 30 as much as possible.
e500η66 500 144 168 66 1.19 0.174 29 Further investigation into the prescribed limits is recommended
e500η50 500 176 114 50 1.28 0.220 31
in order to expand the design space. Although it is possible to de-
e1000η75 1,000 176 263 75 1.22 0.097 82 sign a cast link outside of the recommended design space, there will
e1000η66 1,000 203 206 66 1.26 0.117 81 be disadvantages in practicality and performance which must be
e1000η50 1,000 249 138 50 1.32 0.154 86 considered. A replaceable cast steel link can be designed to achieve
e1500η75 1,500 216 301 75 1.24 0.080 148 the required performance by developing a design space similar to
e1500η66 1,500 249 236 66 1.28 0.098 148 the one shown in Fig. 13. A detailed description of this design pro-
e1500η50 1,500 305 156 50 1.33 0.136 157 cedure can be found in (Tan 2014).
Note: Assuming V n ¼ 579 kN; Fy ¼ 350 MPa; E ¼ 200,000 MPa;
G ¼ 77,000 MPa; n ¼ 1; w ¼ t ¼ 20 mm. Cast Link Overstrength
a
Measured at 0.09 rad total link rotation with respect to plastic shear
strength given by Eq. (12). Thus far, the overstrength of the cast link has been calculated with
b
Measured at 0.16 rad total link rotation. respect to the nominal strength of the cast link given by Eq. (6),

© ASCE 04016079-9 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079

 Group of elements to
9.0 m model replaceable link
structural analysis program, OpenSees. The five-story building
M M P was designed for normal occupancy in Victoria, British Columbia,
Canada, assuming no near-fault effects with a Class C soil profile
e type using the 2010 National Building Code of Canada (NBCC)
M M P
e (NRCC 2010) and the design provisions for steel structures given
4 @ 3.7 m

M M
M M
M M
4.2 m
Group of Elements to Model in CSA S16-09. Each story of the building has a floor area of
P
Replaceable Shear Link 2,900 m2 . The lateral force–resisting system consists of four EBFs
(Rolled or Built-Up Section) in the east-west direction and MRFs in the north-south direction
P and has no irregularities. The response of one of these four EBF
frames was considered in this study (Fig. 14), assuming that the
P e total weight for each frame is 14,433 kN. Further details about
the designs of the EBF structures are given in (Tan 2014). The base

Group of Elements to Model

Replaceable Cast Steel Link structure, EBF-R, had a fundamental period of 0.90 s. It was ini-
tially designed by Mansour (2010), with 1,100-mm-long replace-
able shear links composed of rolled wide-flange sections and bolted
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Fixed nodal connection Elastic beam-column element end-plate connections.

Pinned nodal connection Nonlinear beam-column element A comparable structure, EBF-C, was designed by replacing the
M
Mass assigned to node Truss element shear links in EBF-R with cast links with the same strengths and
P
Node with gravity loads Rotational zero length element lengths. The beams, braces, and columns of EBF-C were identical
Shear zero length element
to those of EBF-R. The cast links in EBF-C had approximately 60
to 75% of the stiffness of the shear links in EBF-R (Table 4) but
Fig. 14. OpenSees model schematic of five-story EBF sample structure resulted in a fundamental period of 0.93 s, which was only 0.03 s
longer than that of the EBF-R. Since EBFs are inherently stiff and
exhibit story drifts that are typically much smaller than building
code limits, designing a slightly more flexible cast link is not nec-
which specifies the shear force at which the cast link is expected to
essarily detrimental to the seismic performance of EBFs. Further-
initially yield. However, overstrength should be taken with respect
more, a more flexible frame is expected to result in a higher
to V p , the plastic modulus of the rectangular, tubular section at the
fundamental period and attract a lower base shear, which would
ends of the cast link’s yielding elements
result in a more economical structure.
nFy A proposed series of predesigned and prequalified links was de-
Vp ¼ ½b d2 − ðbo − 2wÞðd − 2tÞ2  ð12Þ
2e o veloped in strengths ranging from 200 to 1,000 kN in increments of
200 kN and lengths ranging from 500 to 2,500 mm in increments of
Table 3 shows the overstrength of the cast link models with re- 250 mm. To achieve a comparable design to EBF-R and EBF-C,
spect to the plastic strength, given by Eq. (12), at a total link ro- 1,000-mm-long cast links were selected from this series to form a
tation of 0.09 rad, which is approximately equivalent to a plastic third structure, EBF-S, which had a fundamental period of 0.90 s
link rotation of 0.08 rad. In general, the overstrength is less than 1.3 and a total steel tonnage of approximately 90% of the steel tonnage
with the exception of models with η ¼ 50%. Links with η ¼ 50% of the EBF-R and EBF-C.
are outside of the design space shown in Fig. 13 and are not rec- The EBF-F structure was created by redesigning EBF-R with
ommended. Therefore, the same overstrength value of 1.3 that is significantly more flexible 1,000-mm-long cast steel links. The
used for conventional links (CSA S16-09) is recommended as a maximum allowable design period permitted by the building code
target value for the design of cast links. (NRCC 2010) was ignored and a longer period of 1.5 s was initially
assumed. Capacity design resulted in smaller beams, braces, and
Replaceable Cast Link Performance in a Sample columns with a steel tonnage of approximately 77% of the steel
EBF Structure tonnage of the EBF-R and EBF-C and 86% of the steel tonnage
of the EBF-S. EBF-F had a fundamental period of 1.22 s (36%
Four alternate EBF designs of a sample building with different sets greater than the EBF-R) and is an example of the more economical
of replaceable links were analyzed using the open source nonlinear designs that can be achieved when using more flexible links.

Table 4. Summary of Selected Ground Motion Records

NGAa Seismic event Recording station Directionb Mc Scaling factor PGAd (g)
139 Tabas, Iran (1978) Dayhook Normal 7.4 1.872 0.577
189 Imperial Valley (1979) SAHOP Casa Flores Parallel 6.5 2.050 0.637
517 North Palm Springs (1986) Desert Hot Springs Parallel 6.1 2.367 0.688
778 Loma Prieta (1989) Hollister Diff. Array Parallel 6.9 1.333 0.389
986 Northridge (1994) LA—Brentwood VA Hospital Normal 6.7 2.142 0.403
1,177 Kocaeli, Turkey (1999) Zeytinburnu Parallel 7.5 3.142 0.338
1,512 Chi-Chi, Taiwan (1999) TCU 078 Parallel 7.6 1.325 0.395
a
Identification number from the PEER ground motion database.
b
Direction with respect to the fault.
c
Magnitude.
d
Peak ground acceleration.

© ASCE 04016079-10 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079

 Nonlinear Modeling of the EBF Structures
A schematic of the numerical models developed in OpenSees as-
sumed centerline dimensions. The element types used are shown in
Fig. 14. All of the members of the EBF were assumed to have full
moment connections, except at the column bases, which were
pinned.
A group of elements was used to model the replaceable links
and assumed lumped plasticity (Fig. 14). Each shear link in
EBF-R was modeled using a zero length spring element between
two elastic beam-column elements. To model the replaceable cast
steel links in EBF-C, EBF-S, and EBF-F, a zero-length spring
element acting in the rotational degree of freedom was utilized
on either end of the link group to simulate the flexural yielding.
A nonlinear beam-column element with a very large moment of
inertia was used between the two zero-length rotational elements
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to capture any shear deformations of the cast link without contrib-
uting additional flexural deformations to those of the zero-length
elements. The zero-length elements employed the nonlinear
material referred to as Steel02, which models bilinear plastic
response with a postyield stiffness; Bauschinger effects; and a
cyclic, isotropic strain hardening. The parameters used were set
as b ¼ 0.0045, R0 ¼ 19, cR1 ¼ 0.9, cR2 ¼ 0.15, a1 ¼
a3 ¼ 0.12, and a2 ¼ a4 ¼ 7, which were calibrated by Koboevic
et al. (2012) based on test data of shear yielding EBF links. This
was deemed a sufficient material model for all the links since the
objective of this numerical study was to compare the global behav-
ior of the four EBF structures.
Large displacement effects were accounted for in the models by
using P-delta formulations for the EBF and leaning columns. Grav-
ity loads considering 1.05 times the dead load and a quarter of the
live load were applied to the top nodes of each leaning column,
while story masses were lumped and applied to the top nodes of
each EBF column. A rigid diaphragm was modeled by requiring
the column nodes in each story to have equal displacements in
the horizontal degree of freedom. Further details about the nonlin-
ear modeling of the EBF structures are given in Tan (2014).
Seismic Response of EBF Structures
Each of the four EBF structures was subjected to seven selected
scaled ground motion records obtained from the PEER Ground
Motion Database (PEER 2010) and linearly scaled such that the
mean acceleration spectrum was greater than that of the design
spectrum within the period range of 0.5–1.8 s (Fig. 15 and
Table 4). Thirty seconds of damped free vibrations were included
in all of the analyses to determine the residual story drifts. The
OpenSees models considered Rayleigh damping of 5% in the first
and third modes to match the damping used to develop the spectral
accelerations.
The response of the EBF-C structure was found to be similar to
those of EBF-R despite being more flexible (Fig. 16). Although the
mean peak absolute plastic link rotations of EBF-R were found to
be less than the 0.08-rad limit for shear links, the capacity was
closely approached or exceeded for several individual records at
different stories. It is expected that with a larger sample of ground
motion records, the plastic rotation capacity of EBF links would be
exceeded in a larger number of cases. Since the maximum equiv-
alent plastic strains of the SFYC links are typically at least 50% less
than that of shear yielding links (Tan 2014), it may be assumed that
the plastic link rotation capacity of the cast links is at least double
that of shear yielding links composed of rolled or built-up sections
and is approximately 0.16 rad. In contrast to EBF-R, the replace-
able cast steel links implemented in EBF-C have a much higher
plastic rotation capacity, providing a greater margin of safety.
© ASCE 04016079-11
J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(10): 04016079
3.0 Target spectrum
Individual spectra
Spectral Acceleration (g)
2.5 Mean spectrum
2.0 Period range
of interest
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Period (s)
Fig. 15. Spectral accelerations of the seven selected ground motion
records
The link rotations of EBF-S vary over the height of the structure
as a result of specifying the same link size for two consecutive sto-
ries (Table 4): the demand-capacity ratio of the link was larger for
the lower of the two stories and therefore deformed more. A wider
range of options could be developed by reducing the cast link
strength increments. This would allow a designer to select cast links
for each story such that more consistent demand-capacity ratios are
obtained over the height of the structure. Larger link rotations were
observed for the EBF-F structure because of the increased flexibil-
ity, but the mean plastic link rotations were well below the esti-
mated limit (Fig. 16).
Significant link rotations are required to achieve interstory drifts
near the 2.5% limit (Fig. 16). The mean interstory drifts of both
EBF-R and EBF-C were in the range of 1%, less than half of
the 2.5% limit prescribed by NBCC 2010 (NRCC 2010). Even with
extremely flexible links such as those implemented in EBF-F, the
interstory drift ratio did not exceed this limit for a single ground
motion record. Therefore, it may be beneficial to take advantage
of the flexible nature of the cast links to achieve more economical
structural designs despite the increased nonstructural damage that
may result from an increase in the interstory drifts. This is reiterated
by the noticeably reduced story shears that were obtained for EBF-
F in Fig. 16.
Residual deformations were also monitored in this study. The
largest interstory residual drift ratios occurred in the first story
of each model and decreased at each consecutive story above to
nearly zero in the fifth story. They ranged from 0.49 to 0.57%
for the first story of EBF-R, EBF-C, and EBF-S. In contrast, the
first story of EBF-F had a mean interstory residual drift ratio of
0.86% and ranged from 0.26 to 0.49% for the upper storys. Work
by Stratan et al. (2014) confirmed that replaceability of links in
structures with moderate residual drifts is possible without major
intervention in recentering the frame because of the springback ac-
tion of members that remain in the elastic range. As such it was
deemed that for this range of residual deformations the structures
could be repaired and rehabilitated following an earthquake by
replacing the yielded links.
Since the fundamental period of the EBF-R, EBF-C, and EBF-S
structures do not differ significantly from one another, similar
absolute accelerations were found over the height of the building
(Fig. 16). The accelerations are reduced, as expected, in the EBF-F
structure, demonstrating an additional benefit, which may be
achieved by implementing more flexible cast links.
J. Struct. Eng.
 Shear link limit
5 Cast link limit 5
4 4
Storey
Storey
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0.1 0.2 0 1.0
Interstorey Drift Ratio (%)
Absolute Plastic Link Rotation (rad)
5 5
4 4
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Storey
Storey
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 1000 2000 0 0.2
Storey Shear (kN) Absolute Acceleration (g)
EBF-R EBF-S
EBF-C EBF-F
Fig. 16. Comparison of mean peak time–history responses
Conclusion
Four replaceable cast steel link concepts for EBF frames involving
various types of yielding mechanisms were presented in this paper
and investigated using finite-element analyses. From this prelimi-
nary investigation, it was concluded that the best performance was
achieved with the replaceable cast steel link that employed the con-
cept of simultaneous flexural yielding in regions of varying width
that have a rectangular, hollow cross section. A bolted end-plate
connection with chamfered openings was proposed for this cast
link concept. Its unique geometry prevents the failure modes that
are typically observed in links composed of rolled, built-up
sections, or constant section hollow tubes, allowing the cast link
to achieve at least double the rotation capacity and, consequently,
have a longer low-cycle fatigue life. Physical testing and experi-
mentation is necessary to confirm the performance values and de-
sign limits as well as to assess its low-cycle fatigue properties more
comprehensively. The effect of cast links on the global performance
of a multistory EBF was studied through nonlinear time-history
analyses and results indicate that it is possible to design EBF struc-
tures with cast links while abiding by the provisions of NBCC
(NRCC 2010) and CSA S16-09. The cast links can also be de-
signed for increased flexibility for more economical EBF struc-
tures. Similar EBF seismic responses can be obtained with the
cast links as conventional or replaceable shear links composed
of rolled or built-up sections, but with a greater margin of safety.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
© ASCE
Drift limit Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
b = link plate width;
d = link plate depth;
E = Young’s modulus;
e = link length;
Fy = yield strength;
G = shear modulus;
kr = elastic stiffness in terms of relative link end displacement;
2.0
n = number of yielding elements in the link;
S = elastic section modulus;
t = flange thickness;
V cast = volume of steel in the cast link;
V n = nominal yield strength;
w = web thickness;
x = distance from the link center;
xs = length of constant width region;
γ pc = plastic shear rotation capacity;
η = percentage of the link length that can deform plastically;
and
ω = overstrength.
0.4 0.6
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