applied
sciences
Article
Design and Experiment of Discharge Control Methods for
Three-Stage Coil Gun Experiments
Seonmyeong Kim 1 , Changhwan Jang 2
Citation: Kim, S.; Jang, C.; Kim, J.
Design and Experiment of Discharge
Control Methods for Three-Stage Coil
Gun Experiments. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13,
1779. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app13031779
Academic Editor: Dimitris Mourtzis
Received: 15 December 2022
Revised: 15 January 2023
Accepted: 26 January 2023
Published: 30 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031779
and Jinho Kim 1, *
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan-si 38541, Republic of Korea
2 Division of Smart Construction and Environmental Engineering, Daejin University,
Pocheon-si 11159, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: jinho@ynu.ac.kr
Abstract: The aim of this study was to design operation methods for three-stage coil gun experiments
and to fabricate and compare prototypes of control systems using these methods. Two methods are
proposed: (1) recognizing the position of a projectile using a photointerrupter and (2) operating a
control circuit to supply power to a silicon-controlled rectifier when the projectile reaches an intended
position by registering the delay time between coil gun operations. The distance between the projectile
and the solenoid coil during a coil gun operation is a key design factor. For the multi-stage coil
gun manufactured in this study, the discharge time must be determined according to the position of
the projectile, which moves at high velocity. Therefore, the selected method should have minimal
operation error and allow the circuit to be easily used according to the coil gun stage and configuration.
This study compares the prototypes of coil gun discharge circuits that were fabricated based on the
proposed methods by applying them to three-stage coil guns and measuring their velocities. The
findings of this study could be used to suggest design methods for experimental models for coil guns
with fewer stages according to the final velocity and coil gun stage to be manufactured.
Keywords: capacitor; discharge circuit; electromagnetic launcher (EML); multi-stage coil gun;
photointerrupter
1. Introduction
An electromagnetic launcher (EML) accelerates a projectile using electrical energy.
EMLs are broadly classified as rail guns and coil guns according to the method used to
convert electromagnetic force into kinetic energy [1]. In rail guns, Lorentz force is applied to
a projectile located between two rails through which current flows, and coil guns accelerate
projectiles using the electromagnetic force generated by a current applied to a cylindrical
solenoid coil [2].
EMLs do not use chemical energy such as that from gunpowder, so they have no
restrictions on firing conditions as long as there is a charging environment with a power
supply. For this reason, EML systems have received extensive attention in research for
defense and space-launch vehicles [3,4]. In particular, recent research has focused on
applying an EML to an aircraft catapult as an accelerator that allows fighter jets to take off
from aircraft carriers, as well as the actual deployment of an EML on an aircraft carrier.
An electromagnetic injection device has also been developed to replace compressed vapor
injection devices, which are currently used on U.S. aircraft carriers [5,6].
A coil gun primarily comprises a solenoid coil to generate electromagnetic forces
and a direct current (DC) power supply to apply power to the solenoid coil. Coil guns
typically include a capacitor as a power supply to instantaneously apply high voltage and
high current. Devices such as SCRs, IGBTs, and FETs are used to maintain the stability
of the high voltage and high current flowing in the charging circuit for the capacitor and
in the coil gun circuit [7]. Single-stage coil guns have limited capability for accelerating
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779 2 of 13

a projectile due to the magnetic saturation point of the solenoid coil. Addressing this
limitation in acceleration performance requires a multi-stage coil gun design. A coil gun
circuit with suitable configuration for acceleration according to the launcher velocity can
greatly accelerate a projectile in theory.
To realize an efficient acceleration in the coil gun, the components of the coil gun must
be analyzed in terms of their relationships to the launcher velocity. Recent efforts have
been made to optimize the coil gun components, which include the solenoid coil, the shape
of the projectile, and power supply such as a capacitor, which act together to determine the
launch velocity [8,9].
One of the design elements of the coil gun system is the distance between the projectile
and the solenoid coil during discharge. In the coil gun device utilizing capacitors, the
current applied to the solenoid coil is not constant, and the magnitude of the applied
electromagnetic force constantly changes according to the position of the projectile [10]. The
current that moves through the electric subsystem is underdamped due to the capacitance,
inductance, and self-resistance of coil winding, so discharge must be controlled according
to the position of the moving projectile.
For a multi-stage coil gun, the configuration of the discharge control system to dis-
charge the coil gun is problematic when the projectile reaches an intended position because
discharge must be controlled according to the position of the moving projectile. Kim used
coil guns with two different types of control circuits: one based on physical contact between
a projectile and a discharge circuit, and another with a photodeflector [11]. The latter is
based on the detection of infrared rays reflected by the projectile, but it recorded large
errors during secondary acceleration. The physical contact method also has disadvantages:
the position of the projectile needs to be readjusted every time the switch is turned on, and
an impact from turning the switch may cause damage.
These problems were addressed by configuring a coil gun system with a discharge
control circuit based on a delay [12]. Although this system has smaller operating errors
than those using physical contact and photodeflector methods, the delay time needs to be
adjusted through trial and error to find the discharge timing. Moreover, the higher the
launcher velocity is, the more difficult it is to adjust the delay time because the adjustment
range must be set more finely as the velocity increases. Furthermore, during launch, the
position of the solenoid coil is misaligned due to recoil, which causes error. Therefore, the
present study presents a control method for coil gun discharge with a photointerrupter
sensor. Coil gun systems with a photointerrupter sensor were designed, their prototypes
were fabricated to measure the launcher velocity, and their errors were compared with
those of the other coil gun systems using the delay approach.

2. Coil Gun Circuit Design

To design the coil gun circuit, the shape of the projectile must first be determined. As
the weight of the projectile decreases, the magnitude of the mechanical force essential to
accelerate the projectile also decreases. The force acting on the projectile decreases with
the decrease in its volume, but the magnitude of the electromagnetic force to accelerate the
projectile increases. Conversely, as the weight of the projectile increases, the electromagnetic
force received by the projectile increases, and the magnitude of the electromagnetic force
required for acceleration also increases. Therefore, a coil gun circuit must be designed
to fit the shape and acceleration of the projectile based on the capacitance, coil winding,
the diameter of the copper wire used to fabricate the solenoid coil, and the mass of the
projectile. The projectile was made of 1010 steel and weighed 11.35 g. Figure 1 shows the
projectile used for the simulation and experiment.
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Figure 1. Projectile for experiment.

Figure1.
Figure 1. Projectile
Projectile for
for experiment.
experiment.
Following the selection of the projectile, the coil gun circuit was designed. The coil
Following
Following
gun circuit the
theselection
primarily selection
comprises ofofthe
atheprojectile,
projectile,
solenoid thethe
coil coilcoil
and gun circuit
gun
a DC was
circuit
power designed.
was
supply, The coil
designed.
for which The gun
coil
a ca-
circuit primarily
gun circuit
pacitor is used comprises
primarily a solenoid
comprises aapply
to instantaneously coil
solenoid and a DC power
coil current.
a large and a DC supply,
Topower for which a capacitor
supply, fora which
use a capacitor, circuit afor
ca-
is used
pacitor to
is instantaneously
used to apply
instantaneously a large
apply current.
a large To use
current.a
charging it and a DC power supply are needed. Moreover, during discharge from the capacitor,
To use a a circuit
capacitor, for
a charging
circuit for
capacitor, a current as high as over 400 A flows through the solenoid coil. Therefore, de-a
it and
charginga DC it power
and a supply
DC powerare needed.
supply Moreover,
are needed. during
Moreover,discharge
during from the
dischargecapacitor,
from the
current
capacitor, as high
a SCRs as over
current 400 Aasflows through the solenoid coil.solenoid
Therefore, devices suchde-
as
vices such as areasrequired
high over 400 Athe
to control flowshighthrough
voltagetheand current coil. Therefore,
generated during
SCRs are
vices such required to control the high voltage and current generated during operation of
operation ofas SCRs
the coil are
gunrequired to control
circuit. Figure the high
2 shows voltagediagram
the circuit and current
of a generated
single-stage during
coil
the coil
operation gun circuit.
of the Figure 2 shows
coil gun circuit
circuit.and the
Figure circuit diagram
2 showscircuit of a
the circuit single-stage coil gun, including
gun, including a charging a discharge withdiagram
an SCR. of a single-stage coil
agun,
charging circuit
including and a discharge
a charging circuit and circuit with an SCR.
a discharge circuit with an SCR.

Circuitdiagram
Figure2.2.Circuit
Figure diagramofofaasingle-stage
single-stagecoil
coilgun.
gun.
Figure 2. Circuit diagram of a single-stage coil gun.
Inthe
In thecoil
coilgunguncircuit,
circuit,thethe position
position of the
of the projectile
projectile andand the the distance
distance between
between the
the so-
solenoid coils are key design factors, in addition to the electrical components of the coil
lenoidIn theare
coils coilkeygun circuit,
design the position
factors, of thetoprojectile
in addition the electricaland components
the distance of between
the coilthe gun, so-
gun,
lenoid such
coilsasare
capacitor
key capacitance,
design factors, incharging
addition voltage,
to the and coilcomponents
electrical winding. This of theis coil
because
gun,
such as capacitor capacitance, charging voltage, and coil winding. This is because force is
force
such is applied
asin capacitor in capacitance,
the direction charging
opposite to the direction
voltage, and coilinthe
which theThis
winding. projectile is launched
applied the direction opposite to the direction in which projectile isislaunched
because force
whenis
when
applied the projectile’s
in thecenter
directioncenter of
oppositegravity
to the moves over
direction the center
in which of the solenoid coil due to the
the projectile’s of gravity moves over the center of thethe projectile
solenoid coilisdue
launched
to the char-when
characteristics
the projectile’s of the coil gun circuit with the solenoid coil. Moreover, the electric current
acteristics of the center
coil gun of circuit
gravitywith movestheover the center
solenoid of the solenoid
coil. Moreover, coil due
the electric to the pro-
current char-
profile through
acteristics of thethe electromagnetic
coil gun circuit withcoilthe
is not constant,
solenoid coil.and the greatness
Moreover, the of the current
electric force acting
pro-
file through the electromagnetic coil is not constant, and the greatness of the force acting
on
filethe projectile
through the in accordance with
electromagnetic coil itsnot
is position
constant, constantly
and the changes
greatness when
of the the
forcecoilacting
gun
on the projectile in accordance with its position constantly changes when the coil gun cir-
circuit
the includes
on includes
projectile ain
capacitor.
accordance with its position constantly changes when the coil gun cir-
cuit a capacitor.
Therefore,
cuitTherefore,
includes the shape and weight of the projectile must be considered when the ca-
athe
capacitor.
shape and weight of the projectile must be considered when the ca-
pacitance and the shape of the solenoid coil are designed for efficient acceleration of the
pacitanceTherefore, the shape andsolenoid
weight of theareprojectile must be considered when the ca-
projectile.and Thethe shape of the
electromagnetic coil
force generated designed for efficient
in the solenoid coil is acceleration
proportionaloftothe the
pacitance
projectile. and
The the shape of the solenoid coil are designed for efficient acceleration of the
magnitude ofelectromagnetic
the current flowing force through
generated theincoil,
the solenoid
whose shape coil isresembles
proportional thattoofthe an
projectile. of
magnitude Thethe electromagnetic
current force generated in the solenoid coil is proportional antoun-the
underdamped system. It flowing
is importantthrough the coil,
to design thewhose
systemshape so that resembles that of
the majority of the elec-
magnitude of the current
derdamped flowing through thethecoil, whose so shape resembles
majoritythat of an un-
tromagneticsystem. It is important
force generated to design
by the coil gun circuit system
is exerted that
on thethe projectile inofthe
the elec-
launch
derdampedforce
tromagnetic system. It is important
generated by the togun
coil design theissystem
circuit exerted soonthat
the the majority
projectile in of the
the elec-
launch
direction while comparing the RLC function waveform to the velocity of the projectile.
tromagnetic
direction whileforce generated
comparing thebyRLC
the coil gun circuit
function is exertedthe onvelocity
the projectile inprojectile.
the launch
The electromagnetic force experienced by thewaveform
projectile to changes with theof the
position of the
direction
The while
electromagnetic comparing
force the RLC function
experienced byforce waveform
the projectile to
changes the velocity
with with of the
the position projectile.
of the
projectile, whereas the electromagnetic changes in magnitude time. Because
The electromagnetic force experienced by the projectile changes with the position of the
 Figure 3 presents the projectile velocity and electromagnetic force on the projectile
simulated with respect to the distance between the projectile and solenoid coil. The coil
gun model used in the simulations is as described for the one-stage coil gun in Table 1.
The results were simulated for the distances from 1 mm to 7 mm in 2 mm increments. As
shown in Figure 3A, the smaller the distance, the greater the decrease in velocity. Alt-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779 4 of 13
hough a smaller distance generates a larger electromagnetic force, it also causes an in-
crease in the electromagnetic force acting in the opposite direction that the projectile trav-
els when passing the center of the solenoid coil. According to the simulation results, the
of the difficulty
maximum when
velocity directly
of 33.7 m/s was calculating
observedthe launch
at the velocity,
distance of 5 it
mm is recommended to use a
where the magnitude
computer program. In this
of the velocity decrease is small. study, the capacitance and shape of the solenoid coil for the
one-, two-, and three-stage coil suns were determined through the design experiments [12].
Figure
Table 1. 3 presents
Solenoid coil turns,the projectileand
capacitance, velocity andinelectromagnetic
increases force
the launcher velocity in on the projectile
simulation.
simulated with respect to the distance between the projectile and solenoid coil. The coil
gun model Diameter
used in the simulations is as describedInitial Final coil gun
for the one-stage Velocity
in Table 1.
Number Capacitance
Stage of Copper
The results were simulated for the distances Velocity Velocity
from 1 mm to 7 mm in 2 mm increments. AsIncrease
of Turns (μF)
shown in Wire (mm)
Figure 3A, the smaller the distance, the greater (m/s) the decrease(m/s)in velocity.(m/s)
Although
1
a smaller 1.3
distance 26 × 9 a larger
generates 3000
electromagnetic 0 force, it also33.7causes an increase
33.7 in
the2electromagnetic
1.3 force
26 ×acting
7 in the
2400opposite direction
33.7 that the51.8 projectile travels
18.1 when
passing
3 the center
1.3 of the26 solenoid
×6 coil.
2400According to the simulation
51.8 results, the maximum
63.2 11.4
velocity of 33.7 m/s was observed at the distance of 5 mm where the magnitude of the
velocity decrease is small.

(A) (B)
Figure
Figure3.3.(A)
(A)Velocity
Velocityofofthe
theprojectile,
projectile,(B)
(B)force
forceacting
actingon
onthe
theprojectile.
projectile.

Finally, the muzzle velocity is higher when the decreases in velocity are smaller. In
Table 1. Solenoid coil turns, capacitance, and increases in the launcher velocity in simulation.
other words, the trigger position affects the shape of the electromagnetic force received
by the projectile,Diameter
and accordingly, the shape of the projectileInitialacceleration
Finalvaries. Velocity
Number Capacitance
Stage the projectile
Thus, of Copperposition is a key design factor thatVelocity
affects Velocity
the Increase
overall performance
of Turns (µF)
of a coil gun. InWire (mm) in a multi-stage coil gun system,
particular, (m/s)the discharge
(m/s) system must
(m/s) be
designed1 to be capable
1.3 of controlling
26 × 9 the electric
3000 circuit according
0 to33.7
the position33.7
of the
moving2 projectile because
1.3 26 ×the
when 7 high-speed
2400 moving33.7 51.8
projectile reaches 18.1
the intended
3 the next stage
position, coil×gun
1.3 of the 26 6 must2400 51.8 Before the
be in operation. 63.2
fabrication11.4
of coil
gun prototypes, a coil gun system was designed using simulation. The system design in-
Finally, the muzzle velocity is higher when the decreases in velocity are smaller. In
other words, the trigger position affects the shape of the electromagnetic force received by
the projectile, and accordingly, the shape of the projectile acceleration varies.
Thus, the projectile position is a key design factor that affects the overall performance
of a coil gun. In particular, in a multi-stage coil gun system, the discharge system must be
designed to be capable of controlling the electric circuit according to the position of the
moving projectile because when the high-speed moving projectile reaches the intended
position, the next stage of the coil gun must be in operation. Before the fabrication of coil gun
prototypes, a coil gun system was designed using simulation. The system design involved
finite element analysis using the electromagnetic analysis program ANSYS Maxwell. A
multi-stage coil gun system with three stages and a final velocity of 63 m/s was used.
Table 1 shows the coil winding and capacitance of the simulated coil gun.
The charging voltage of the capacitor was set at 400 V. The three-stage coil gun
design showed a decrease in the winding amount and capacitance when the number of
 used. Table 1 shows the coil winding and capacitance of the simulated coil gun.
The charging voltage of the capacitor was set at 400 V. The three-stage coil gun
showed a decrease in the winding amount and capacitance when the number of
increased because the initial launcher velocity of the projectile increases with the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779 stages. For efficient acceleration according to the increased initial velocity, 5 of 13the cycl

RLC function should be shortened so that the discharge time of the capacitor dec
Accordingly, the coil gun was designed with fewer turns of the electromagnetic c
stages increased because the initial launcher velocity of the projectile increases with the
lower
higher capacitance of theacceleration
stages. For efficient solenoid coil to reduce
according to the the resistance
increased initial of electric
velocity, thecircuit
ductance.
cycle of the RLC function should be shortened so that the discharge time of the capacitor
decreases. Accordingly, the coil gun was designed with fewer turns of the electromagnetic
coil
3. and lowerElectric
Charging capacitance of the of
Circuit solenoid coil to reduce the resistance of electric circuit
Gun System
and inductance.
The electric circuit to charge the capacitor requires a booster converter step-up
3. Charging
to apply high Electric Circuit
voltage of Gun System
according to the capacitor’s capacitance. Moreover, for the
stageThe electric each
system, circuitstage
to charge
hasthe
ascapacitor requires a booster
many capacitors as theconverter
number step-up
of thecircuit
stage, and
to apply high voltage according to the capacitor’s capacitance. Moreover,
pacitors in each stage must operate independently once charged. In this study, a cafor the multi-stage
system, each stage has as many capacitors as the number of the stage, and the capacitors
with a stage
in each charging voltageindependently
must operate of 400 V was used
once with In
charged. a this
circuit fora capacitor
study, chargingwith theacapacit
three-stage coilofgun
charging voltage 400 Vsystem.
was usedWewithfabricated a charging
a circuit for charging device using
the capacitors a relay and a
in a three-stage
converter designed
coil gun system. to simultaneously
We fabricated a charging devicechargeusingall capacitors
a relay through
and a booster the capacito
converter
designed to simultaneously charge all capacitors through the capacitors
nected prior to charging. The aim of this design was to reduce the difference connected prior in cha
to charging. The aim of this design was to reduce the difference in charge and to make
to make charging control easier. The relay in the charging device was designed to
charging control easier. The relay in the charging device was designed to physically bind
cally bind the
the capacitors capacitors
in each in each
stage together whenstage together
charging. Figure 4when charging.
illustrates Figure
the charging device4 illustra
charging
used in thedevice used in the experiment.
experiment.

Figure 4.4.The
Figure Thecharging device
charging of a three-stage
device coil gun. coil gun.
of a three-stage
The operational sequence of the charging device is as follows: connecting the capaci-
tors ofThe
the operational
one-, two-, andsequence
three-stageof the
coil charging
guns device
by operating the is as applying
relay, follows:400 connecting
V DC the
itors
poweroftothe one-, two-,
the booster andtothree-stage
converter coil gunsand
charge the capacitors, byturning
operatingoff thethe relay,
relay power applying
to complete the charging procedure once the capacitors are fully charged.
DC power to the booster converter to charge the capacitors, and turning off th The grade of
the relay should be selected after considering the capacitor charging voltage to prevent
power to complete the charging procedure once the capacitors are fully charge
damage to the relay device. The booster converter should output a higher voltage than the
grade of the relay
target charging should
voltage. be selected
The circuit in Figureafter
4 canconsidering
also be used tothe capacitor
configure charging vo
a charging
prevent
device fordamage
a coil guntocapacitor.
the relay device.
Figure Theabooster
5 shows converter
prototype should
of the charging output
circuit used ainhigher
our experiment.
than the target charging voltage. The circuit in Figure 4 can also be used to conf
charging device for a coil gun capacitor. Figure 5 shows a prototype of the charging
used in our experiment.
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Figure 5. The prototype of the charging circuit for the coil gun capacitor.
Figure5.
Figure 5. The
The prototype
prototype of
of the
thecharging
chargingcircuit
circuitfor
forthe
thecoil
coilgun
guncapacitor.
capacitor.
4. Discharge Circuit of a Multi-Stage Coil Gun System
4.
4. Discharge
Discharge Circuit of
of aa Multi-Stage
CircuitMethod Multi-Stage Coil
Coil Gun
Gun System
System
4.1. Discharge Control Using a Photointerrupter
4.1. Discharge Control Method Using a Photointerrupter
4.1. The
Discharge Controlproposed
first method Method Using a Photointerrupter
in this study is the direct detection of a projectile using a
The first method proposed in this study is the direct detection of a projectile using
The first method proposed in
circuit with an infrared light-emitting diodethis study is theand
(LED) direct detection of a projectile
a phototransistor. As it entailsusing
the a
a circuit with an infrared light-emitting diode (LED) and a phototransistor. As it entails
circuit with an infrared light-emitting diode (LED) and a phototransistor. As
direct detection of a projectile, it is more apt to use a photointerrupter circuit by configur- it entails the
the direct detection of a projectile, it is more apt to use a photointerrupter circuit by
direct
ing the detection
projectile of
toapass
projectile, it isan
between more apt toLED
infrared use aand
photointerrupter circuit
a phototransistor thanby to
configur-
use a
configuring the projectile to pass between an infrared LED and a phototransistor than to
ing the projectile
photodeflector to pass
circuit to between
detect an infrared
reflected light. LED6and
Figure a phototransistor
illustrates how to fit a than
launchto tube
use a
use a photodeflector circuit to detect reflected light. Figure 6 illustrates how to fit a launch
photodeflector
for projectile circuit using
detection to detect reflected light.with
phototransistors Figure 6 illustrates
infrared LEDs. how to fit a launch tube
tube for projectile detection using phototransistors with infrared LEDs.
for projectile detection using phototransistors with infrared LEDs.

Configurationofofaalaunch
Figure6.6.Configuration
Figure launchtube,
tube,infrared
infraredLEDs,
LEDs,and
andaaphototransistor.
phototransistor.
Figure 6. Configuration of a launch tube, infrared LEDs, and a phototransistor.
ItItisisrecommended
recommendedthat thatthethe launch
launch tubetube be fabricated
be fabricated withwith an opaque
an opaque material
material to pre- to
prevent
vent the the dispersion
It isdispersion
recommended of
of light light
that output
the launch
output from infrared
tube be fabricated
from infrared LEDs
LEDs andwith and to reduce
an opaque
to reduce the operating
material error.
the operating to pre-
error.
vent A
the photointerrupter
dispersion of lightcircuit
outputshould
from output
infrared the SCR
LEDs
A photointerrupter circuit should output the SCR operation signal when a projectileoperation
and to signal
reduce thewhen a
operatingprojectile
error.
is
is detected—that is, when the light emitted from the infrared
detected—that is, when the light emitted from the infrared LEDs does not pass throughis
A photointerrupter circuit should output the SCR operation LEDs
signaldoes
whennot pass
a through
projectile
the
the phototransistor.
detected—that
phototransistor. Photointerrupter
is, when the light emitted
Photointerrupter circuits
from
circuits must
must operate
theoperate
infrared ininLEDs
aaway
waydoesthatgoes
that goes
not against
pass through
against the
the
properties of a
the phototransistor.
properties phototransistor, which
Photointerrupter
of a phototransistor, converts
circuits must
which converts light into
light operate power.
into power. Therefore,
in a Therefore,
way that goes a circuit
against
a circuit to be
the
to be
used as
properties
used a photointerrupter
of a phototransistor,
as a photointerrupter needs
needswhichto be used
converts
to be used to fit this
to fitlight logic.
this into
logic.power. Therefore, a circuit to be
used Photointerrupter
as a photointerrupter circuits canto
needs bebeused
used easily
to fit with
this an open-source controller such as
logic.
Photointerrupter circuits can be used easily with an open-source controller such as
an Arduino. However,
Photointerrupter when
circuits using
canan an Arduino
beArduino
used easily to configure
with an open-sourcea discharge control such
controller circuit,
an Arduino. However, when using to configure a discharge control circuit, itsas
its
an control
Arduino. signal output mayusingbe lower than thetoSCR’s operating current. Therefore, an
control signal However,
output may when
be lower than an Arduino
the SCR’s configure
operating acurrent.
discharge control
Therefore, circuit,
an addi-its
additional
control circuit
signal for amplifying the control signal may be required. In this study, a
tional circuit foroutput may be
amplifying thelower than
control the SCR’s
signal may be operating
required. current.
In thisTherefore, an addi-
study, a photoin-
photointerrupter circuit that can independently operate with only an external power supply
tional circuit
terrupter circuitfor amplifying
that the controloperate
can independently signal with
may only
be required.
an external In this study,
power supplya photoin-
along
along with the capability of SCR operation was used. Figure 7 shows the SCR discharge
terrupter circuit that can independently operate with only an
with the capability of SCR operation was used. Figure 7 shows the SCR discharge control external power supply along
control circuit with a photointerrupter.
with the capability of
circuit with a photointerrupter. SCR operation was used. Figure 7 shows the SCR discharge control
circuit with a photointerrupter.
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 1
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779 7 of 13

Figure 7. Schematic of the photointerrupter discharge control circuit.

7. Schematic
Figure 7.
Figure Schematicofofthe photointerrupter
the discharge
photointerrupter control
discharge circuit.circuit.
control
The discharge control circuit receives 12 V DC power, operates devices such as LED
The discharge control circuit receives 12 V DC power, operates devices such as LEDs
andThetransistors,
discharge and supplies
control the receives
circuit current to 12operate the SCR.
V DC power, The circuit
operates requires
devices such as anLEDs
NPN
and transistors, and supplies the current to operate the SCR. The circuit requires an NPN
transistor,
and
transistor,
and aand
transistors, 2N2222
and a 2N2222 suppliestransistor
thewas
transistor
was
current used
used to
instudy.
thisthe
operate
in this
study.
TheSCR. The
Theresistance
resistancecircuit value should b
value requires
should bean NPN
determined
transistor,
determinedand according
a 2N2222
according to the LEDs,
to thetransistor phototransistor,
was used in and
LEDs, phototransistor, thisDC and
study.
powerDC
The power supply
resistance
supply voltagevaluevoltage
used should
in used
be
in the
determined
the circuit.
circuit. SI5312-H
according
SI5312-H was
theused
wastoused theasinfrared
LEDs,
as the infrared
phototransistor,
LED usedLEDand
inused
theDC in power
the experiment,
experiment, supply and ST-581
voltage
and ST-5811 used
inwas
was the used
used as as
circuit. the phototransistor.
theSI5312-H
phototransistor.
was used Based Based
as on
thethe on thediagram,
circuit
infrared circuit
LED used adiagram,
prototype aofprototype ofST-5811
the discharge
in the experiment, and the dis
control
charge
was circuit
used as was
control fabricated
thecircuit was for use inBased
fabricated
phototransistor. thefor
experiment.
usethe
on in the Figure 8 shows Figure
experiment.
circuit diagram, the prototype
8 shows
a prototype used
ofthe
theproto
dis-
in this
type study.
used in this study.
charge control circuit was fabricated for use in the experiment. Figure 8 shows the proto-
type used in this study.

Figure8.8.Prototype
Figure Prototype of the
of the discharge
discharge control
control circuit.
circuit.
Figure 8. Prototype of the discharge control circuit.
The
Theinfrared
infraredLEDs and phototransistor
LEDs and phototransistorshould be attached
should betoattached
the launchto tube
theaslaunch
shown tube a
in Figurein6 and
shown fabricated
Figure 6LEDs to allow thetoadjustment
and fabricated allow the of the positionofofthe
adjustment the sensors. This is sensors
The infrared and phototransistor should be attached position of the
to the launch tube as
because even the optimal value of the trigger position obtained through simulations can
This
shown is because
in Figure even
6 and the optimal
fabricated value
to allow of the
the trigger position obtained through simula
be different from that in the experiment. Unlike in adjustment
a simulation,ofduringthe position of the sensors.
the experiment,
tions
This
the iscan beisdifferent
because
projectile even
not the
located from that
optimal
in the invalue
center the experiment.
of launch
of the the trigger Unlike
tube, position
and in aobtained
friction simulation, during
through
exists between the ex
the simula-
periment,
tions can and
projectile the projectile
be different
the launch from is not
tube.that located in the
in the experiment.
Moreover, center
even when coil of the
Unlike
winding launch tube,
in ainsimulation, and
the simulation friction
during
and the exist
ex-
between
periment,
the the
theprojectile
experiment projectile
is same, the and thelocated
isinductance
not launch tube.
andin the Moreover,
center
resistance even
of the
values are whentube,
launch
different. coil winding
and friction
Therefore, in the
in the sim
exists
ulation and
experiment,
between the experiment
thelaunch testsand
projectile should theisbe same, the inductance
conducted
launch tube. based
Moreover, and
on theeven resistance
trigger position
when values
calculated
coil winding are
inindifferent
the sim-
the simulation
Therefore,
ulation and in while
the adjusting the
theexperiment
experiment, positionthe
is launch
same, of the
tests projectile
should
inductance be during
conducted
and operation
resistance based of on
the the
values coil gun.
trigger
are posi
different.
Figure
tion 9 shows
calculated theindischarge
the control
simulation circuit
while in the experiment
adjusting the with
position a
Therefore, in the experiment, launch tests should be conducted based on the trigger posi- launch
of the tube installed.
projectile during op
eration
tion of the coil
calculated gun.
in the Figure 9 shows
simulation while the discharge
adjusting the control
positioncircuit
of theinprojectile
the experiment
during with
op-
a launch
eration of tube installed.
the coil gun. Figure 9 shows the discharge control circuit in the experiment with
a launch tube installed.
Appl. Sci.Sci.
Appl. 2023,
2023,13,
13,x1779
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13 8 of 1

Figure9.9.Installed
Figure Installed launch
launch tube
tube withwith infrared
infrared LEDsLEDs and phototransistor.
and phototransistor.

Sensors
Sensorsshould
shouldbe be
installed to face
installed eacheach
to face otherother
and send
andout
sendSCR control
out signals when
SCR control signals when
the projectile moves through and blocks the light. Because the sensors must directly detect
the projectile moves through and blocks the light. Because the sensors must directly detec
the projectile, the launch tube needs to be installed as shown in Figure 9. As the launcher
the projectile, the launch tube needs to be installed as shown in Figure 9. As the launche
velocity increases, the discharge position of the projectile moves farther away. Therefore,
velocity
coils increases,
should the discharge
be sufficiently spaced toposition
secure theofdistance
the projectile
betweenmoves farther away. Therefore
sensors.
coils should be sufficiently spaced to secure the distance between sensors.
4.2. Discharge Control Method Using Delay
4.2. The
Discharge
secondControl
discharge Method
controlUsing Delay
method proposed is a method used in a conventional
coil gun
The second discharge control method of
system: registering a certain amount time delay
proposed is auntil the projectile
method used in reaches
a conventiona
the intended position between the coil gun operations. The delay time is determined by
coil gun system: registering a certain amount of time delay until the projectile reaches the
calculating the time required for the projectile accelerated in the first stage to reach its
intended position between the coil gun operations. The delay time is determined by cal
discharge position in the next stage of the coil gun considering the trigger position. Once
culating
the the reaches
projectile time required for the
the position projectile
where it needsaccelerated in thefor
to be accelerated first
thestage to reach
next stage, it its dis
sends out an SCR operation signal to activate the coil gun circuit. This method requires aOnce the
charge position in the next stage of the coil gun considering the trigger position.
projectile
digital reaches
output devicethe position
to send where
out the it needs
current to bethe
to operate accelerated
SCR basedfor the next
on time stage, it send
settings.
In this
out an SCRstudy, an external
operation signalswitch input activates
to activate the coilthegunsingle-stage
circuit. Thiscoil method
gun withrequires
no delay,a digita
the second-stage
output device to coil gun out
send afterthe
a delay of 2955
current µs, and the
to operate thethird-stage
SCR based coil
ongun after
time 1860 µs.
settings.
Discharge
In this study, an external switch input activates the single-stage coil guntool.
control signals are sent out using an Arduino, an open-source development with no de
The Arduino code used in the experiment is attached as an appendix.
lay, the second-stage coil gun after a delay of 2955 μs, and the third-stage coil gun afte
The delay values should be calculated according to the projectile position derived
1860 μs. Discharge control signals are sent out using an Arduino, an open-source devel
from the simulation considering the distance between the coils and the launcher velocity in
opment
each tool.stage.
previous The Arduino code used
The experiment in the experiment
was conducted based on is theattached
calculated asdelay
an appendix.
values,
whichTheweredelay values
adjusted should the
to generate be maximum
calculatedvelocities.
according to thethe
Because projectile position
output voltage of derived
from
the the simulation
Arduino considering
is insufficient to operatethethedistance
SCR used between
in this the coils
study, and thetolauncher
a method amplify velocity
the control
in each signal isstage.
previous required.
The Therefore,
experiment an was
amplification
conducted circuit
based wasonused
the using a metal
calculated delay val
oxide semiconductor
ues, which field-effect
were adjusted transistorthe
to generate (MOSFET)
maximum device and an external
velocities. Because power source. voltage
the output
When
of thethe Arduinoissends
Arduino out a control
insufficient signal,the
to operate the SCR
MOSFET useddevice
in thisthat receives
study, the signal
a method to amplify
connects the external power source and the SCR to activate the system. Figure 10 shows the
the control signal is required. Therefore, an amplification circuit was used using a meta
discharge control circuit with the Arduino and the MOSFET device, and Figure 11 presents
oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) device and an external powe
the configuration of the discharge control circuit and the SCR.
source. When the Arduino sends out a control signal, the MOSFET device that receive
the signal connects the external power source and the SCR to activate the system. Figur
10 shows the discharge control circuit with the Arduino and the MOSFET device, and
Figure 11 presents the configuration of the discharge control circuit and the SCR.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl.
Appl. Sci. 2023,
Sci. 2023,13,
13, xxFOR
13, FORPEER
FOR PEERREVIEW
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 999 of
of 13
of 13
Appl. Sci.2023,
2023, 13,x1779 9 of1313

Figure10.
Figure
Figure
Figure 10. Schematicof
10.Schematic
10. Schematic
Schematic ofthe
of
of thedischarge
the
the dischargecontrol
discharge
discharge controlcircuit
control
control circuitwith
circuit
circuit withArduino
with Arduinoand
Arduino andMOSFET.
and MOSFET.
MOSFET.

Figure
Figure
Figure 11.
11.
Figure11. SCR-MOSFET
SCR-MOSFET
11.SCR-MOSFET switch
switch
SCR-MOSFETswitch circuit
circuit
switchcircuit configuration.
configuration.
circuitconfiguration.
configuration.

MOSFET
MOSFETswitches
MOSFET
MOSFET switcheswere
switches wereused
were
were usedin
used inthe
in
in thesecond
the
the secondand
second
second and
and
and the the
the
the third
third
third
third stages,
stages,
stages,
stages, and and
a 9aaaV999battery
and
and Vbattery
VV battery
was
battery
was
used used
wasused
was as
usedastheas the
asthe external
external
theexternalpower power
externalpower source
powersourcesource
for
sourcefor for
each
foreacheach
MOSFET
eachMOSFETMOSFET switch.
MOSFETswitch. switch.
A
switch.A A discharge
discharge
Adischarge circuit
dischargecircuit circuit
was was
used
circuitwaswas
used
at each
used
used ateach
at
at eachstage
stage
each stage
stage toprevent
to prevent
to
to prevent
damage
prevent damage
to theto
damage
damage toentire
to theentire
the
the entire
circuit
entire circuit
during
circuit
circuit during
during
during theexperiment.
the experiment.
the
the experiment.
experiment. In theInIn the
event
In the
the
event
event
event of
of damage, damage,
ofdamage,
of damage, the experiment
the experiment
theexperiment
the experiment could could
could
could be
be resumed resumed
beresumed
be resumed by by by replacing
replacing
byreplacing
replacing only only
thethe
only
only the
the damaged
damaged
damaged
damaged circuit.
circuit.
circuit.
circuit. In
In
In
In addition
addition
addition
addition tothe
to to
the
to the
the method
method
method
method used used
used
used inthis
in this
in
in this
study,
this study,
study,
study, aaadischarge
a dischargedischarge
dischargesystem system
can be
system
system can
can
can beconstructed
constructed
constructed
be
be constructedby ampli-by
by
by
amplifying
fying a signal
amplifying
amplifying aaasignal
signal
signal using
usingusing
using aaatransistor.
transistor.
a transistor. However,
transistor. However,
this may
However,
However, thisrequire
this
this mayrequire
may
may require
require theadditional
the additional
the
the additional configu-
configuration
additional configu-
configu- of
ration
a
rationof
ration of a
freewheeling freewheeling
diode
ofaafreewheeling
freewheelingdiode diode
circuit to circuit
prevent
diodecircuit
circuitto to prevent
back
toprevent back
electromotive
preventback electromotive
backelectromotive force
electromotiveforce from force from
being
forcefrom being
generated
frombeing beinggen-gen-
gen-in
erated
the coil
erated
erated ingun
in
in thecoil
the
the coilgun
coil gun
circuit,
gun circuit,
which
circuit,
circuit, canwhich
causecan
which
which can
can cause
circuit
cause
cause circuitdamage.
damage.
circuit
circuit damage.
damage.
A
AA freewheeling
Afreewheeling
freewheelingdiode
freewheeling diode
diode
diode circuit
circuit
circuit
circuit comprises
comprises
comprises
comprises aaadiode
diode
a diode
diode ininparallel
in parallel
in parallel
parallel withwith
with
with thesolenoid
the
the solenoid
the solenoid
solenoid coiland
coil
coil and
coil
and
and
inthe
in
in thein the
theopposite
oppositeopposite
oppositedirection direction
directionof
direction ofthe
of the of the
thecapacitor
capacitor capacitor
capacitorto toeliminate
to to eliminate
eliminatethe
eliminate theback
the the back
backelectromotive
back electromotive
electromotiveforce
electromotive forcegener-
force force
gener-
gener-
generated
ated
ated by
by the
the by the
inductor.
inductor.inductor.
Figure
Figure Figure
12
12 12
presents
presents presents
the
the coil
coil the coil
gun’s
gun’s gun’s
freewheeling
freewheeling
ated by the inductor. Figure 12 presents the coil gun’s freewheeling diode circuit. When freewheelingdiode
diode diode
circuit.
circuit. circuit.
When
When
When configuring
configuring
configuringaacoil
configuring a coil
coilguna
guncoil gun
circuit
guncircuit
circuitto circuit
to
tocutcut
cutoffto
off cut off
current
offcurrent
currentin current
in the
inthe in the
middle
themiddle
middleof middle
of of
operation
ofoperation operation
operationusing using
usingan using
an an
insu-
aninsu-
insu-
insulated
lated gate
latedgate
lated gate
bipolar
gatebipolar bipolar
bipolartransistor transistor
transistor (IGBT)
transistor(IGBT) (IGBT)
instead
(IGBT)instead
insteadofinstead
of
ofan an of an
SCR,
anSCR, SCR,
a a freewheeling
freewheeling
SCR,aafreewheeling
freewheelingdiode diode diode
circuit
diodecircuit circuit
must
circuitmust
must
must
be
be
be used
used
used betoused
to
to to prevent
prevent
prevent
prevent damage
damage
damage damage
tothe
to
to the to
thecoil the
coil
coil gun
gun
gun coil gun circuit.
circuit.
circuit.
circuit.

Figure 12.
Figure Coil gun
12. Coil gun circuit
circuit with
with freewheeling
freewheeling diode.
diode.
Figure
Figure 12.Coil
12. Coilgun
guncircuit
circuitwith
withfreewheeling
freewheelingdiode.
diode.
 Appl.
Appl. Sci.Sci. 13,13,
2023,
2023, 1779PEER REVIEW
x FOR 10 13
10 of of 13
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

5. 5. Fabrication
Fabrication andand Experiment
Experiment
5. Fabrication and Experiment
Coil
Coil guncircuits
gun circuitswere
werefabricated,
fabricated, and
and the
the coil
coil gun’s
gun’s launcher
launchervelocity
velocitywas
wasexperimen-
experi-
Coil gun circuits were fabricated, and the coil gun’s launcher velocity14was experi-
mentally measured. Figure 13 shows the experimental environment, and Figure 14 showsthe
tally measured. Figure 13 shows the experimental environment, and Figure shows
mentally measured. Figure 13 shows the experimental environment, and Figure 14 shows
thedischarging
dischargingdevice
deviceofofthe coil
the gun
coil gunsystem.
system.
the discharging device of the coil gun system.

Figure 13.13.
Figure Experimental environment
Experimental forfor
environment thethe
velocity measuring
velocity equipment.
measuring equipment.
Figure 13. Experimental environment for the velocity measuring equipment.

Figure 14. Discharging circuit of the coil gun system.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Discharging
Dischargingcircuit
circuitof
ofthe
thecoil
coilgun
gunsystem.
system.
The maximum velocity was not obtained from the two coil gun systems at the dis-
The
The maximum
maximum velocity
velocity was
was not
not obtained
obtained from
from the
the two
two coil
coil gun
gun systems
systems at the dis- dis-
charge position of the projectile derived from simulations, so adjustment of the discharge
charge
chargeposition
positionofofthe
theprojectile
projectilederived
derivedfrom
fromsimulations,
simulations,so soadjustment
adjustmentof ofthe
thedischarge
discharge
position was required in both systems. For the delay-type discharge control circuit, this
position
positionwaswasrequired
requiredin inboth
bothsystems.
systems. For
For the
the delay-type
delay-type discharge
discharge control
controlcircuit,
circuit,this
this
adjustment was made using the delay time. For the photointerrupter circuit, the positions
adjustment was made using the delay time. For the photointerrupter circuit,
adjustment was made using the delay time. For the photointerrupter circuit, the positions the positions
of the infrared LEDs and phototransistor sensors were adjusted to measure the launcher
of
ofthe
theinfrared
infraredLEDs
LEDsandandphototransistor
phototransistorsensors
sensors were
wereadjusted
adjusted to
tomeasure
measurethe thelauncher
launcher
velocity.
velocity.While adjusting the positions, we recorded the delay values and sensor positions
velocity.While
Whileadjusting
adjustingthethepositions,
positions,wewerecorded
recordedthe thedelay
delayvalues
valuesand
andsensor
sensorpositions
positions
at at
which the maximum velocities were obtained. For the two
two adjusted
adjustedcoil
coilgun
gunsystems,
systems,the
atwhich
whichthe themaximum
maximumvelocities were
velocities wereobtained.
obtained. ForFor
thethe two adjusted coil gun systems,
thelauncher
launcher velocities
velocities were
werewere the same
the same within
within the measurement
the measurement range. Table
range.range. 2
Table 2Table
shows shows the
the maxi-
the launcher velocities the same within the measurement 2 shows the
maximum
mum muzzle
muzzle velocity
velocity whenwhen using
using thethe two-stage
two-stage coil
coil only
only andand
whenwhen using
using the the three-
three-stage
maximum muzzle velocity when using the two-stage coil only and when using the three-
stage
coil coil
gun. gun.
stage coil gun.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779 11 of 13

Table 2. Results of the measurement of launcher velocity of the three-stage coil gun.

Initial Launcher Final Launcher Launcher Velocity

Stage
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s) Increment (m/s)
1 0 31.2 31.2
2 31.2 48.6 17.4
3 48.6 60.8 12.2

The differences between the simulation and experimental results of the two models
were identical. The differences were attributable to the experimental models having
projectiles off the center of the launch tube and the friction between the projectiles and the
launch tube. Moreover, the inductance of the solenoid coil calculated in the simulations was
different from that of the solenoid coil used in the experiment. Table 3 lists the velocities
of the launch experiment with the two coil gun systems. Following the final adjustment,
10 launch experiments were conducted, and the errors in the operations were compared.
Regarding velocity measurements, the experiment was performed with the setting in which
the maximum velocity was obtained with no changes in the delay time or the position of
the optical sensors.

Table 3. Final velocities of the three-stage coil guns with control by delay and optical sensor.

Control by Delay Control by Optical

Experimental Order
(m/s) Sensor (m/s)
1 60.5 60.2
2 56.7 60.6
3 60.5 60.8
4 56.2 59.5
5 59.1 60.8
6 60.8 60.7
7 60.4 60.3
8 57.3 59.8
9 60.7 60.8
10 59.6 60.7
Average 59.18 60.42

During measurement, more errors were observed in the delay-based discharge control
circuit than in the photointerrupter-based one. Moreover, the differences in the launcher’s
muzzle velocity were greater when using the delay-based method than when using the
sensor-based method. Errors in operability occur for reasons other than those described
above, such as recoil during launch. In the delay method, when an error occurred in the
second stage, it affected the acceleration in the third stage, and the overall speed of the
projectile decreased. If a coil gun has more than three stages, and error due to recoil occurs
because the muzzle velocity is high, the acceleration in the next stage is affected. With
stacking errors in each stage, the total error in launch velocity will be significant.
In contrast, the photointerrupter-based circuit showed little error in operability. Even
in the event of vibration due to recoil when the coil gun is fired, the error has little effect on
the launcher velocity because the launch tube and the fixed sensor move together. However,
space is required for the sensors, and higher launcher velocity requires more space for
the sensors.

6. Conclusions
We proposed two discharge methods for reduced multi-stage coil gun systems. Both
discharge methods required adjustment of the discharge position for the maximum launch
velocity at each stage.
The proposed charging device has the advantage of small differences in the charging
amount depending on the capacitor used. Based on the justifications provided in this paper,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1779 12 of 13

the charging device can be utilized as the capacitor charging device in a coil gun system
with three or more stages. Two methods have been proposed for the discharging circuit,
and an appropriate circuit can be selected for the coil gun system of interest based on the
characteristics of the two circuits.
The optimal discharge positions were obtained using finite element analysis without
friction between the projectile and the launch tube. Moreover, in the simulation, there
is wind drag, and the projectile is not located at the center of the launch tube, so the
mechanical force received from the electromagnetic coil in the experiment may be different
than that in the simulation. Furthermore, error arises from the difference in the resistance
and inductance values of the solenoid coil designed in the simulation and the prototype of
the solenoid coil with an actual coil. Consequently, adjusting the discharge position of the
projectile is necessary to obtain the maximum velocity in both discharge methods.
Velocity measurements showed that the frequency and magnitude of errors were
greater in the delay-based discharge control method than in the photointerrupter-based
method. The delay-based method does not require the fabrication of a launch tube, but
any errors such as those that occur due to recoil during launch affect the acceleration in
the next stage. This results in errors stacking up and an overall decrease in performance as
the number of stages increases. The photointerrupter-based method addresses the issue of
these errors, but it requires the fabrication of a launch tube to install the sensors as well as
space for them. Therefore, the coil gun is longer than one with the delay-based method
with the same number of stages.
To reduce the resultant errors in the delay-based control system, a controller that sends
out control signals that are more precise than those by an Arduino must be used. In a
photointerrupter system, the LED light guide must be processed so that the infrared rays
entering the photointerrupter are not dispersed, and a phototransistor with a narrower
viewing angle than that used in this study is recommended. Moreover, it is important to
secure the coil gun model in place to reduce the error due to recoil during firing and fasten
the photointerrupter sensor attached to the launch tube in a delay-based control method.
In conclusion, the photointerrupter-based control circuit with smaller operation errors
is likely to be more fitting for a reduced coil gun system. Moreover, the charging circuit
and discharge methods presented are fully capable of being used in a multi-stage coil gun
system with more than three stages. The discharge methods to fit the target final launcher
velocity and the number of stages may be used alone or in combination based on whether
a launch tube is fabricated and the overall size of the experimental model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.K.; Data curation, S.K.; Formal analysis, S.K.; Funding
acquisition, J.K.; Investigation, S.K.; Project administration, J.K.; Resources, J.K.; Software, S.K.;
Supervision, C.J. and J.K.; Validation, S.K.; Visualization, S.K.; Writing—original draft, S.K.; Writing—
review and editing, C.J. and J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by
the Korean government (MSIT) (no. 2022R1A2C1005357).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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