Handout #3

EE362A
Fall 2015

EE362A Semiconductor Devices

Lecture 2 - Review on Energy Bands

Hyunjoo Jenny Lee

Assistant Professor
School of Electrical Engineering
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)

*Figures that are not annotated with reference are from the education package distributed by the distributor of Neamen textbook.

Today’s Lecture

§  Objective:
–  Review Ch. 1 ~ Ch. 3

§  At the end of the lecture, you should be able to explain:

–  energy levels of electron in semiconductor
–  energy band diagram
–  motion of electrons and holes
–  why silicon is a dominant player!

§  Readings:
–  Chapter 1 – Section 1.1, 1.5 - 1.6
–  Chapter 2 – Section 2.3 - 2.4
–  Chapter 3 – Section 3.1 - 3.5

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A Fall 2015 2

 Motivation

§  What happens when we apply a voltage on a semiconductor devices?

V
I?
§  How do electrons reside in a semiconductor material? What kind of energy levels can
they have?

e-
?
?

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 3

Semiconductor as a Crystal of Atoms (1)

§  From chemistry class, a single atom ….

Next-highest level
(excited electrons)

Outer-most electrons
(Valence electrons)
Nucleus
(+charge=Zq)

–  Electrons reside in orbits/orbitals

–  These orbitals are numbered
•  1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
•  Increasing energy

–  Each orbitals can have up to 2 electrons

•  “s” levels: 1 orbitals - two electrons

•  “p” levels: 3 orbitals - six electrons

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 4

 Semiconductor as a Crystal of Atoms (2)

§  Combination of atoms …

–  They want the valence shell of electrons to be “filled” to the maximum level by …
•  Sharing → covalence (covalent bonding)
–  e.g. H2O: H has 2 electrons in 1s; O has 8 in outer shell by “sharing” electrons

•  Stealing/losing → ionic (ionic bonding)

–  e.g. NaCl: Na loses (Na+) and Cl steals (Cl-) to achieve ‘filled’ outer shell

Source – Principles of General Chemistry | Link - http://2012books.lardbucket.org/

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 5

Semiconductor as a Crystal of Atoms (3)

§  Ionization of atoms and light

–  When electron somehow gains energy, the electron is excited to a higher energy level but at
a discrete fashion → “ionized”
–  Levels are “quantized” with only specific allowed states
–  When the electron falls down to a lower energy state, it emits photons (light) of specific
energies.
light

§  Hydrogen atom: −mo e 4

En = (n = 1, 2,....)
(4πε 0 )2 2! 2 n 2

§  These are explained through quantum mechanics!

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 6

 Classical Theory vs. Quantum Mechanics

Classical Theory Quantum Mechanics

Electron in a vacuum Electron in a semiconductor crystal
(infinite potential well)

p = mv for all v p = !k (k ∝ n, n = integer)

E = mv 2 2 = p 2 m E = p 2 m = ! 2 k 2 2m*
m is free mass of electron m* is effective mass of electron in solid

v k
H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 7

Basic Quantum Mechanics (1)

§  It all began with observation of photoelectric effect (quanta by Planck) and
postulation on ‘wave-particle’ duality (by de Broglie)
–  de Broglie wavelength of a particle h
λ= (p is momentum)
p

–  Heisenberg “Uncertainty Principle” Δp ⋅ Δx ≥ !

–  Schrodinger’s wave equation ! −! 2 $

(time-independent wave function) #" ∇ +V (x)&ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
2m %

§  Apply Schrodinger’s wave equation with different boundary conditions

–  Electron in free space (V(x) = 0) → traveling wave
2
(!nπ )
–  Infinite potential well (bounded e-) → E = En = → discrete
2ma 2

–  Step potential function → finite chance to penetrate → “tunneling”

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A Fall 2015 8

 Basic Quantum Mechanics (2)

§  Apply Schrodinger’s wave equation to a single atom.

–  Potential function
•  Coulomb attraction between proton and electron
−e 2
V (r) =
4πε 0 r
•  Spherical coordinates (3D)

–  Again, quantized energy as a result of the particle being

bound in a finite region of space
−mo e 4
En = (n: principal quantum number)
(4πε 0 )2 2! 2 n 2

–  Bohr radius
•  Radial probability density function
•  Probability of finding the electron at a particular distance
from the nucleus
•  Concept of “electron cloud” surrounding nucleus rather than
a discrete particle orbiting around the nucleus

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 9

Basic Quantum Mechanics (3)

§  Apply Schrodinger’s wave equation to a crystal finally!

–  1D Kronig-Penney model to simply, but still needs to be solved
analytically

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 10

 Basic Quantum Mechanics (4)

–  Further simply, b = 0 and V0 → ∞

Reduced E-k diagram

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 11

Energy Bands (1)

–  Further simply, b = 0 and V0 → ∞

E
Conduction band +1:
empty

Conduction band 0:
empty

Eg: forbidden gap

Valence band 0:
full

Valence band -1:

full

–  Energy Band:
•  A graphical way to visual energy states in crystal
•  Eg: energy difference between minimum of conduction band and maximum of
valence band
H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 12
 Energy Bands (2)

§  Motion of electrons and holes

E
Conduction band +1:
empty

2 Conduction band 0:
Ee =
(!k ) empty
2me*
Eg
2

Ehole =
(!k ) Valence band 0:
* full
2mhole

Valence band -1:

full

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 13

Energy Bands (3)

§  Focus on band edges!

E E E

Jelectron

k k k
Jhole

T = 0K T = 300K E
The semiconductor Electrons are thermally
behaves as a excited from the valence band Under bias
insulator to the conduction band

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 14

 Energy Bands (4)

§  Motion of carriers

Thermal
energy

E
T = 0K T = 300K * Electrons are water droplets
The semiconductor Electrons are thermally rolling down the hill.
behaves as a excited from the valence band * Holes are bubbles of air in
insulator to the conduction band water

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 15

Energy Bands (5)

§  Formation of Energy Bands

–  Pauli exclusion principle states that the joining of atoms to form a system does not alter the
total number of quantum states regardless of size
–  No two electrons can have the same quantum number, the discrete energy must split into a
band of energies

–  In a regular periodic arrangement of hydrogen-type atoms, energy level splits into a ‘band’ of
discrete energy levels Atoms getting closer
Allowed “bands”
Forbidden “gaps”

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 16

 Energy Bands (5)

§  Splitting of 3s and 3p states of silicon

Empty

1 s, 2 p

1 s, 2 p

Full

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 17

Energy Bands (6)

§  Energy band approach to explain insulator, semiconductor and metal

semi- metal
conductor
Insulator Semiconductor Metal
Normally large band gap Relatively smaller band gap 1) Many electrons available
(~3.5 ~ 6 eV at room (~1 eV at room temperature) (even at T=0)
temperature) 2) Conduction and valence band
overlap – many electrons and
holes available for conduction

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A Fall 2015 18

 Electron and hole concentration (1)

§  Intrinsic concentration due to thermal excitation

–  The smallest bandgap (Ge) has the largest ni
–  All have exponential 1/T dependence
–  Slopes are not exactly the same

# −E &
ni (T ) ∝ exp % g (
$ kT '

T = 300K
Electrons are thermally
excited from the valence band
to the conduction band

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 19

Why Silicon? (1)

§  Silicon
–  is NOT the only elemental/compound semiconductor material
–  does NOT have the best mobility either
–  is NOT efficient in light emission because of indirect bandgap
•  Transfer momentum change to the crystal lattice
•  But photons cannot carry crystal momentum

photon  

§  Why has silicon been dominating for past 3 decades?

–  Can you list 5 reasons?

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 20

 Why Silicon? (2)

1.  Cheap!
–  Abundant in the earth crest in the form of quartizite (8th most abundance on earth)
2.  Silicon dioxide!
–  Stable and free sometimes (native oxide)
–  Easy to grow high-quality oxide
–  High dielectric strength for power devices
3.  … toisbe
The energy gap of silicon discussed
moderate in lecture
(intrinsic concentration of ~1010 cm3)
–  Less leakage currents
–  Suitable for efficient photovoltaic devices
Most importantly
4.  Easy doping
–  Can be doped over a wide range (max. solubility is ~ 1021 cm3) It’s CHEAP!
–  Can be doped p and n type

5.  Mechanically strong enough for easy handling

6.  Optically active in all visible, UV, and IR range (e.g. solar cells)

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A | Fall 2015 21

Summary

§  Energy levels are quantized in crystal of atoms (i.e. bounded

potential well)
–  Chemistry approach
–  Quantum mechanics approach
–  Graphical approach

§  Energy bands

–  Forbidden ‘gaps’ and allowed ‘bands’
–  Useful to visualize electron and hole motion
•  Thermal excitation to deduce intrinsic concentration

H. J. Lee | EE | KAIST EE362A Fall 2015 22

Any Questions?