ALLOY SYSTEM

By: Engr. Glenda A. De Mesa

 Metal
❖A metal has been defined as an element that
possesses strain properties which are referred to as
the metallic properties.

❖Elements may be combined in various ways to

produce a substance that also possesses metallic
properties. These substances cannot in themselves be
called metals, since they are not single elements. A
combination of elements which possesses metallic
properties is referred to as alloy. At least one of the
elements forming the alloy is a metal.
 States of Matter

A phase may be defined as a homogeneous

physically distinct portion of a system. A system that
portion of objective space within specified
boundaries which is being considered.

Compounds may be formed in which the atoms of

the components are in a definite ratio forming a
single phase. The phases that may exist in a solid
alloy can be classified as follows;
 States of Matter
1. Elements
a. Pure metals
b. Metalloids
2. Chemical compounds
a. Combinations of pure metals
b. Combinations of metals and metalloids
c. Combinations of metals and nonmetals
3. Solid solutions
a. Combinations of pure metals
b. Combinations of metal and metalloids
c. Combinations of metals and nonmetals
 Compounds
❖Elements may combine in definite
proportions to form substances that have
characteristics which are typical of chemical
compounds.
❖The compounds are characterized by
extreme hardness and brittleness and many
of usual metallic properties. The
arrangement of atoms in a compound is
sometimes very complex.
 Solid Solutions

When a solid solution is formed, the crystal

structure of the combination is that of the solvent
component, and the atoms of the solute are
incorporated in that structure. The solute atoms
may replace some of the solvent atoms in the
lattice structure. This is called a substitutional solid
solution. When the solute atoms occupy positions
intermediate to that of the normal atom positions
in the lattice of the solvent, the combination is
called an interstitial solid solution. Increasing the
proportion of atoms alters the spacing of the
atoms in the space-lattice. Both types of solid
solutions are observed in alloy systems.
Factors Influencing Solubility in the Solid State

1. The relative atomic diameters of solvent

and solute atoms.
2. The relative electronegative valency of
solvent and solute atoms.
3. The relative valence of solvent and
solute atoms.
 Structural Constituents
When solidification occurs in alloys of the type in
which the components are not completely soluble in
the solid state, the phases may be arrange in a
unique manner to form the structure. The unique units
or aggregations of the phases are referred to as
structural constituents.
In other words, a structural constituent is a unique
arrangement of phase forming the structure of the
alloy.
 Solidification

❖In the process of solidification, a metal

always forms crystals characteristics of that
particular metal, which is composed of an
array of atoms geometrically arranged in
three dimensions.
❖The number of closest neighbors to an atom
in a crystal is called the coordination number.
 Solidification
The growth of a crystal possessing a
cubic lattice is normal to the cube
planes in three mutually
perpendicular directions. This
preferential method of growth leads
to a skeletal type of development
which is called dendritic. This
dendritic pattern is not usually
observable in a pure metal. In
however, at least where there is not
complete solubility, dendritic
structure may be observed.
Phase Equilibrium Diagrams

An equilibrium diagram may be defined as

a plot of the composition of phases as a
function of temperature in any alloy system
under equilibrium conditions.

Equilibrium diagrams may be classified

according to the relation of the components
in the liquid and solid states as follows:
 Cooling Curves
One method of determining the temperatures
at which phase changes occur in a system
involves the measurement of the temperature as
a function of time during the very slow cooling
of different alloys in the system. Such data
make it possible to plot a cooling curve for each
of the alloys.
The liquidus curve is a plot of the composition
of liquid that will be in equilibrium with solid at
any given temperature. Similarly, the solidus
curve indicates the composition of solid that will
be in equilibrium with liquid at any given
temperature.
Phase Rule

❖The condition of equilibrium for a system is

determined by a relation between the number of
coexisting phases, the number components, and the
number of variables. This relation is called the
phase rule.
❖Under equilibrium conditions there is an equation
of state for each component in each phase which
may be written in the form:
Peritectic Reaction

❖A peritectic reaction is a reaction that occurs

between a liquid and solid phase on cooling
which results in the formation of a single
homogenous phase.

❖A peritectic reaction always occurs at constant

temperature.
 Eutectoid Transformations

❖A eutectoid is an intimate mechanical mixture of

two or more phases having definite temperature
of transformation in the solid state and a definite
composition.

❖Systems may also exhibit a transformation which

is similar to a peritectic reaction, but the reaction
occurs within the solid state. These are called
peritectoid reactions.
Transformation Diagrams

It is often convenient to represent the

transformations that occur during the cooling of
an alloy by means of a phase transformation
diagram, which is a plot of temperature as a
function of the per cent of phases present. This
diagram provides a picture of the changes that
occur and a means by which the formation of
phases and structural constituents can be
visualized.
 Properties of Alloy

Properties of an alloy depend on two factors:

1. The properties of the phase of phases of which it is

composed
2. The manner in which the several are associated to
form the aggregate

A general idea of how the properties will vary within

a given system can be secured from the phase diagram.
Alloys
Two definitions
Combination of two or
more elements
Combination of two or
more metallic elements

Metallurgical
Commercial
Alloys

Two Commercial
Classifications
Ferrous – Iron as base
metal
Nonferrous – No iron in
composition
 ALLOYS

Babbitt metal is composed of 90% tin,

7% antimony, 3% copper. It is used in
bearings because of its low measure
of friction with steel
Bell metal is composed of 77% of
copper and 23% tin and is used in
casting of bells
Coin metal is composed of 75%
copper and 25% nickel
 ALLOYS

Duralumin is made up of 95% aluminum, 4%

copper, less than 1% manganese and 0.5%
magnesium. It is used in aircraft, boats, railroad
cars and machinery because of its high strength
and resistance to corrosion
Nichrome is made up of nickel, chromium and
often iron. It is typically used in resistance wire
and some dental restorations.
Phosphor bronze is bronze with small amount of
phosphorus. The phosphorus is added as
deoxidizing agent during melting.
 ALLOYS
Monel is a group of nickel alloys, primarily
composed of nickel up to 67% and copper, with
small amounts of iron, manganese, carbon and
silicon. It is stronger than pure nickel and are
resistant to corrosion by many agents, including
rapidly flowing seawater. They can be fabricated
readily by hot and cold working, machining and
welding.
Solder is made up of 50% lead and 50% tin and
is used to join two metals.
 ALLOYS
Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by weight
of silver and 7.5% by weight of other metals, usually copper.
Pewter is a malleable metal alloy, traditionally 85-99% tin,
with the remainder consisting of copper, antimony, bismuth
and sometimes, less commonly today, lead.

Nitinol is an alloy of nickel and titanium, and is known as a

shape memory alloy. If nitinol is bent out of shape, it returns to
its original shape when it is either heated or an electric current
is passed through it. This property makes it useful for making
spectacle frames - they return to their original shape if they
are put in hot water after bending them.
 States of
Matter

Solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and Bose-Einstein

condensates (BEC) are different states that have
different physical properties.
Each of these states is also known as a phase.
Elements and compounds can move from one phase
to another when specific physical
conditions change.
 Phase Change

For example, when the temperature of a system

goes up, the matter in the system becomes more
excited and active. If enough energy is placed in
a system, a phase change may occur as the
matter moves to a more active state.
 Solids

▪ Particles of solids are tightly packed, vibrating

about a fixed position.
▪ Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume.
▪ Crystalline solids – molecules are arranged in a
geometric pattern (ex. Table salt)
▪ Amorphous solids – molecules do not have a set
pattern of arrangement (ex. Gels)
 Solid Mixtures
Solids can be made of many things. They can have pure elements
or a variety of compounds inside. When you have a solid with more
than one type of compound, it is called a mixture. Most rocks are
mixtures of many different compounds. Concrete is a good example
of a man-made solid mixture.
Granite is a mixture. It is made of little pieces of quartz, mica, and
other particles.
Because all of the little pieces are spread through the rock in an
uneven way, scientists call it a heterogeneous mixture.
Heterogeneous mixtures have different concentrations of
compounds in different areas of the mixture.
For example, there might be a lot of quartz and very little
feldspar in one part of the granite, but only a few inches away
those amounts might flip.
 Liquids

▪ Particles of liquids are tightly packed, but are far enough

apart to slide over one another.
▪ Liquids have an indefinite shape and a definite volume.

Particle Movement Examples

Gases

Particles of a gas move

randomly and must be
contained from all surfaces.

EXAMPLES
 Plasma

▪ A plasma is an ionized gas.

▪ A plasma is a very good conductor of
electricity and is affected by magnetic fields.
▪ Plasma, like gases have an indefinite shape
and an indefinite volume.
▪ In a plasma the electrons have been stripped
away from the central nucleus. Therefore, a
plasma consists of a sea of ions and
electrons and is a very good conductor of
electricity and is affected by magnetic fields.
Electrons are separated from their respective
nucleus when enough heat is applied. In a
controlled thermonuclear fusion research,
plasmas are heated to over 100 million
degrees.
 Bose-Einstein Basics
The Bose-Einstein state of matter was the only one created while
your parents were alive. In 1995, two scientists, Cornell and
Weiman, finally created the condensate.
When you hear the word condensate, think
about condensation and the way gas molecules come together
and condense and to a liquid. The molecules get denser or
packed closer together.
Two other scientists, Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein, had
predicted it in the 1920s, but they didn't have the equipment and
facilities to make it happen at that time. Now we do.
If plasmas are super hot and super excited atoms, the atoms in a
Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) are total opposites. They are
super unexcited and super cold atoms.
Austenite
• Austentite is a metallic, non magnetic solid
solution of carbon and iron that exists in
steel above the critical temperature of
1333F. Its face-centered structure allows
it to hold a high proportion of carbon in
solution. As it cools, this structure either
breaks down into a mixture of ferrite and
cementite (usually in the structural forms
pearlite or bainite) or undergoes a slight
lattice distortion known as martensitic
transformation.
 Ferrite and Cementite

Ferrite is a body-centered cubic form of iron, in

which a very small amount (a maximum of 0.02%
at 1333°F) of carbon is dissolve.
Cementite is iron carbide with the formula Fe3C
and an orthorhombic crystal structure. It is a hard.
Brittle material, essentially a ceramic in its pure
form. It forms directly from the melt in the case of
white cast iron. In carbon steel, it either forms from
austenite during cooling or from martensite during
tempering.
Martensite & Pearlite

Martensite is a body-centered tetragonal form

of iron in which some carbon is dissolved. It forms
during quenching, when the face centered cubic
lattice of austenite is distorted into the body-
centered tetragonal structure without the loss of
its contained carbon atoms into cementite and
ferrite.
Pearlite is a lamellar structure consisting of
alternating bands of ferrite and cementite. It
exists in equilibrium in carbon steels at normal
temperatures. This microconstituent is produced
as a result of transformation above 550C.
The Influence of Other
Alloying Elements

Alloying strengthens metals by hindering the

motion of dislocations. Thus, the strength of
Fe–C alloys increase with C content and also
with the addition of other elements.
Function of Alloy Elements
in Steel

To increase hardenability

To increase resistance to softening on
tempering
To increase resistance to corrosion
To improve high temperature properties
To increase resistance to abrasion
To strengthen ferrite
 Ferrous Metals

As the most abundant of all commercial metals,

alloys of iron and steel continue to cover a broad
range of structural applications. Iron ore is readily
available, constituting about 5% of the earth's
crust, and is easy to convert to a useful form. Iron is
obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen,
sulfur, and other impurities. The ore is melted in a
furnace in direct contact with the fuel using
limestone as a flux. The limestone combines with
impurities and forms a slag, which is easily
removed.
 Cast Iron
Cast iron is defined as an iron alloy with more than 2% carbon as
the main alloying element. In addition to carbon, cast irons must
also contain from 1 to 3% silicon which combined with the carbon
give them excellent castability.
Cast iron has a much lower melting temperature than steel and is
more fluid and less reactive with molding materials. However,
they do not have enough ductility to be rolled or forged.
Steels and cast irons are both primarily iron with carbon (C) as
the main alloying element. Steels contain less than 2% and usually
less than 1% C, while all cast irons contain more than 2% C.
About 2% is the maximum C content at which iron can solidify as
a single phase alloy with all of the C in solution in austenite. Thus,
the cast irons by definition solidify as heterogeneous alloys and
always have more than one constituent in their microstructure.
Carbon Steel

Carbon steel is a malleable, iron-based metal

containing less than 2% carbon (usually less than
1%), small amounts of manganese, and other trace
elements.
Steels can either be cast to shape or wrought into
various mill forms from which finished parts are
formed, machined, forged, stamped, or otherwise
shaped. Carbon steels are specified by chemical
composition, mechanical properties, method of
deoxidation, or thermal treatment.
 Alloy Steel

Steels that contain specified amounts of alloying elements -- other than

carbon and the commonly accepted amounts of manganese, copper, silicon,
sulfur, and phosphorus -- are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added
to change mechanical or physical properties.

A steel is considered to be an alloy when the maximum of the range given for
the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of these limits:
1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si, or 0.60% Cu; or when a definite range or minimum
amount of any of the following elements is specified or required within the
limits recognized for constructional alloy steels: aluminum, chromium (to
3.99%), cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten,
vanadium, zirconium or other element added to obtain an alloying
effect. Technically, then, tool and stainless steels are alloy steels.
 Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is the generic name for a number of different steels used
primarily for their resistance to corrosion. The one key element they all
share is a certain minimum percentage (by mass) of chromium: 10.5%.
Although other elements, particularly nickel and molybdenum, are
added to improve corrosion resistance, chromium is always the deciding
factor. The vast majority of steel produced in the world is carbon and
alloy steel, with the more expensive stainless steels representing a small,
but valuable niche market.
Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:
- martensitic stainless steels
- ferritic stainless steels
- austenitic stainless steels,
- duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
- precipitation-hardening stainless steels
Martensitic

Martensitic stainless steels, typified by types

410/420/440, containing about 12Cr and 0.1C
wt% as the basic composition. They are not as
corrosion resistant as the other classes, but are
extremely strong and tough as well as highly
machineable, and can be hardened by heat
treatment. They contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and
significant amounts of carbon. Some grades include
additional alloying elements in small quantities.
 Ferritic

Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr

which stabilizes the ferritic phase. Ferritic stainless
steels are highly corrosion resistant, but far less
durable than austenitic grades and cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. They contain between
10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if
any. Typical applications may include appliances,
automotive and architectural trim (i.e., decorative
purposes), as the cheapest stainless steels are found
in this family (type 409).
Austenitic
Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 304 typically
contain 18Cr and 8Ni wt% (aka 18/8 stainless)..
Austenitic stainless steels comprise over 70% of total
stainless steel production.
They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum
of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or
manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting
point of the alloy.
Other standard grades have different preferred
applications; for example, type 316 which contains up
to 3 wt% Mo, offers an improved general and pitting
corrosion resistance, making it the material of choice
for marine applications and coastal environments.
 Duplex
Duplex stainless steels are two-phase alloys based on the Fe-
Cr-Ni system. The specific advantages offered by duplex
stainless steels over conventional 300 series stainless steels
are strength (approximately twice that of austenitic stainless
steels), improved toughness and ductility (compared to ferritic
grades), and a superior chloride SCC resistance and pitting
resistance.

 The high yield strength offers designers the use of thin-wall

material (which can lead to major reductions in weight) with
adequate pressure-containing and load-bearing capacity.
Duplex stainless steels have found widespread use in a range
of industries, particularly the oil and gas, petrochemical, and
pulp and paper industries.
 Tool Steels

Tool Steels' defining properties include resistance to wear,

stability during heat treatment, strength at high temperatures,
and toughness. To develop these properties, tool steels are
always heat treated. Because the parts may distort during heat
treatment, precision parts should be semifinished, heat treated,
then finished. Tool steels are classified into several broad groups,
some of which are further divided into subgroups according to
alloy composition, hardenability, or mechanical similarities.
Type W - Water-hardening, or carbon, tool steels rely on
carbon content for their useful properties.
Type S - Shock-resisting tool steels are strong and tough, but
not as wear resistant as many other tool steels.
 Tool Steels

Types O, A, and D Cold-work tool steels include oil and

air-hardened types are often more costly but can be
quenched less drastically than water-hardening types.
Type O steels are oil hardening; Type A and D steels
are air hardening (the least severe quench), and are
best suited for applications such as machine ways,
brick mold liners, and fuel-injector nozzles. The air-
hardening types are specified for thin parts or parts
with severe changes in cross section -- parts that are
prone to crack or distort during hardening. Hardened
parts from these steels have a high surface hardness;
however, these steels should not be specified for
service at elevated temperatures.
 Tool Steels
Type H - Hot-work steels serve well at elevated
temperatures.
Types T (tungsten alloy) and M (molybdenum alloy) -
High-speed tool steels make good cutting tools because
they resist softening and maintain a sharp cutting edge
at high service temperatures.
Type L - A special-purpose, low-cost, low-alloy, tool
steel often specified for machine parts when wear
resistance combined with toughness is important.
Type F - Carbon-tungsten alloys (Type F) are shallow
hardening and wear resistant, but are not suited for
high temperatures or for shock service.
Type P - A mold steel are designed specifically for
plastic-molding and zinc die-casting dies.
 HSLA Steel - High-Strength Low-
Alloy
High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) steels have a higher
strength-to-weight ratio than conventional low-
carbon steels for only a modest price premium.
Because HSLA alloys are stronger, they can be used
in thinner sections, making them particularly
attractive for transportation-equipment components
where weight reduction is important. HSLA steels are
usually low-carbon steels with up to 1.5%
manganese, strengthened by small additions of
elements, such as columbium, copper, vanadium or
titanium and sometimes by special rolling and
cooling techniques.
Designations for Steel

▪ Carbon ▪ Tungsten
▪ Nickel ▪ Nickel-chromium-
▪ Nickel-Chrome molybdenum
▪ Molybdenum ▪ Silicomanganese
▪ Chromium
▪ Chromium-
vanadium
Designations for Steel
Nickel
It increases the strength and toughness of the
steel and extremely good resistance to corrosion
Chromium
Used to combine hardness obtained by
quenching with high strength and high elastic limit
It also imparts corrosion-resisting properties to
steel
Manganese
Possesses a combination of extreme hardness
and ductility
Designations for Steel
Molybdenum
Good strength properties, especially resistance to
repeated stresses
Vanadium
It assists in the degasification of steel in the molten state,
preventing the occlusion of gases in castings
Tungsten
High magnetic reluctance
Silicon
High elastic limit
Chrome-Nickel
Increased tensile strength, elastic limit, endurance limit,
toughness and ductility
Thank You!