Chapter 1

Fundamental Quantities

1. Introduction

 Electrical energy is the great driving force and supporting pillar for modern industry and civilization.
 Our everyday life would be unthinkable without electricity or the use of electronic products.
 We are usually interested in transferring energy or communicating signals from one point to
another.

To do this, we often require an interconnection of electrical components or any complex electrical and
electronic device or control system is founded from the basic theory of electric circuit.

so what is an electrical circuit ?

electric circuit is:

 an interconnection of electrical components or

 a closed loop of pathway with current or electric charges flowing through it.
a simple electric circuit contains three components which are

1. Power supply: battery or generator that gives energy to charged particles.

2. The load: is a device that use current and it consumes or absorbs electrical energy from the source.
3. The wires (conductors): connects the components in a circuit together and carry electric charges
through the circuit.

Fig1.1: Simple electric circuit.

circuits can be classified according
 type of current they carry(direct current DC or alternating current AC)
 current remains the same in series or divides to flow through several branches ( parallel).

2. Basic circuit concepts

The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge
2.1 electric charges
 is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists , its unit coulombs(C)
 Inside an atom, there is negative charge on electrons (orbit), positive charge on protons, no charge on
neutrons.
 the charge of an electron is equal to that of proton

and 1C of charge there

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  When a conducting wire (which consists of several atoms) is connected to a battery (source)
the charges are compelled (obliged) to move, the motion of charges creates electric current.
2.2 Voltage
To move electrons in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer. This work is
performed by an external electromotive force typically is presented by a battery.
Voltage (electromotive force or potential) is the energy required to move a unit charge through a circuit
element, and is measured in Volts.

where
V: voltage in volts (V)
W: energy in Joules (J)
Q= charge in coulombs (C)

Every source voltage is established by simply creating by separation of positive and negative charges.

emf is an electric pressure or force that is supplied by a voltage source chich causes electric current to flow in
a circuit.

Fig1.2 (a) electric current in circuit(b) polarity of voltage

The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.
The can be interpreted in two ways:
(1) point a is at a potential of volts higher than point b, or
(2) the potential at point a with respect to point b is .

Voltage is always measured across a circuit element as in fig 2.3

Fig 1.3 Voltage across Resistor (R)

Example 1.1
Find the voltage between two points if 60J of energy are required to move a charge of 20C between the two
points.
Solution

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Example 1.2
Determine the energy expended moving a charge of between two points if the voltage is 6V
Sol

2.3 electric current

Current is the flow of electric charges through an electric circuit. Or the amount of Q charges that passing a
cross section area in t seconds and its unit ampere(A)

where
I: current in amperes (A)
Q charges in coulombs (C)
t: time in seconds(s)
If the amount of charge crossing the area changes with time, the current is defined as
( )
( ) ∫ ( )

charge transferred between time t1 and t2

Example 2.3
The current flowing into a circuit element is given by
( ) ( )
for Find the charge flowing into the device for . Also, find the total charge entered into
the device at t= 0.05 s.
Solution

( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )

( ) [ ( )]
[ ( )]
At , we have
( ) [ ( )]

The direction of current is defined as the direction of positive charges. Since the charge carriers inside
the conductors are electrons, the direction of electrons is opposite to the direction of the current.

Fig 1.4 the direction of current

A constant current (also known as a direct current DC is denoted by symbol I whereas a time-
varying current (also known as alternating current or AC) is represented by the symbol or ( )
example is the current you use in your house to run household appliances.

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 Fig 1.5 (a) direct current (DC), (b) alternating current (AC).

Current is always measured through a circuit element as shown in

Fig 1.6 Current through Resistor (R)

As mentioned earlier, the direction of current flow is conventionally taken as the direction of positive charge
movement. Based on this convention, a current of 5 A may be represented positively or negatively as shown
in fig 2.7

Fig 1.7 Conventional current flow: (a) positive current flow, (b) negative current flow.

In other words, a negative current of −5 A flowing in one direction is the same as a current of +5 A flowing
in the opposite direction.

2.4 Electrical power

Electrical power is the speed of electrical energy conversion or consumption in an electric circuit, and it is a
measure of how fast electrons or charges are moving in a circuit.
or electric power is time rate of expending or absorbing energy.
we have

and

substituting work W into the power equation

where
P: power(W)
W:energy(J)
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 t: time(s)
Q:charge(C)
I:current(A)
V:voltage(V)

By convention
– Circuit elements that absorb power have a positive value of p.(ex:inductor ,resistor)
– Circuit elements that produce power have a negative value of p.(ex:battery, generator)

3. Classification of circuit components

3.1 Passive elements

elements that absorb power or can generate energy such as resistor ,inductor and capacitor.
passive sign convention
the power absorbed by any circuit element with terminal a and b

If the current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage, the element is absorbing
(consuming) power ( )
If the current enters through the negative polarity of the voltage, – the element is generating
(delivering) power ( )

the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the algebraic
sum of po wer in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:
∑

Fig 1.8 Polarities for Power using passive sign convention

(a) Absorbing Power (b) Supplying Power
Example 2.3
Given the two diagrams shown in Fig. 2.9, determine whether the element is absorbing or supplying power
and how much.

Fig 1.9
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 Solution
In Fig. 2.8a the power is P=(2 V)(–4 A)=–8 W. Therefore, the element is supplying power. In Fig. 2.9b,
the power is P=(2 V)(–2 A)=–4 W. Therefore, the element is supplying power.
in fig2.9c p=8W the element is absorbing power.
Example
Compute the power that is absorbed or supplied by the element s in the network in figure below

Solution

3.2 Active elements

elements those deliver power or generate power such as voltage and current sources in the circuit connected
to them .
There are two kinds of sources
a) independent sources
b) dependent sources
a. Independent sources is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is independent
of other circuit elements and/or how the source is used in the circuit.
 Ideal independent voltage source is an active element that gives a const voltage across its terminal
regardless(irrespective) of the current drawn through its terminal.

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 Fig2.10 (a) used for constant or time varying voltage.(b) const voltage (DC)

 Ideal independent current source is an active element that gives a const current or a specified
current completely independent of the voltage across the source.

Fig2.11Symbol of independent source

b.Dependent (controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is controlled by another
voltage or current. Depengent sources are usually presented by diamond shaped symbols.

Fig 1.12 (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source.

There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:

o A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

o A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
o A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
o A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
o Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

The voltage on the VCVS is proportional to the controlling voltage, which is the voltage in another part of the
circuit. For example, the controlling voltage can be the voltage across a circuit element in another part of the
circuit. Let be the controlled voltage and be the controlling voltage. Then, we have

where is the unitless (V/V) proportionality constant. Figure 1.19 shows the circuit symbol for VCVS.

Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

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The current on the VCCS is proportional to the controlling voltage. Let be the controlled current and be
the controlling voltage. Then, we have

where is the conductance in siemens (S). Figure 1.20 shows the circuit symbol for VCCS.

Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

The voltage on the CCVS is proportional to the controlling current, the current in another part of the circuit.
For example, the controlling current can be the current through a circuit element in another part of the circuit.
Let be the controlled voltage and be the controlling current. Then, we have

where is the resistance in ohms (V). Figure 1.21 shows the circuit symbol for CCVS.

Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

The current on the CCCS is proportional to the controlling current. Let be the controlled
current and be the controlling current. Then, we have

where is the unitless (A/A) proportionality constant. Figure 1.22 shows the circuit symbol for CCCS.

Depending sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational amplifiers and integrated
circuit.
Example of a current controlled voltage source is shown on figure below
where the v oltage of the voltage source depends on the current through element C. voltage source is
(and not ) because it is a v oltage source.

4. Resistance
 different material allow charges to move within them with different levels of ease.
 this physical property, or ability to resist (impede, obstruct) the flow of charges(current) is
known as resistance and the symbol R with its unit(ohm Ω)
 resistance is a circuit element that dissipates electrical energy (usually heat).
 a conductor designed to have a specific resistance is called resistor.
resistance of a wire depends on some factors like

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  length( )
 cross-sectional area(A)
 resistivity of material( )

fig1.13 (a) Typical Resistor, (b) Circuit Symbol for Resistor

the resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length ( ) and inversily proportional to its cross sectional
area(A)
resistance of a conductor.

where
:length(m)
:resistivity in Ω.m
A:cross section area in m2
Material Resistivity (Ω.m)
Copper
Gold
Aluminuim
Silver
Iron
Brass
Nichrom
Tin
lead
Table of resistivity values of some material.

Example: Determine the resistance of of copper cable having a diameter of if the resistivity of
copper is Ω

Solution

Cross-sectional area od cable, ( )

( )( )
Resistance, ( )

( )
= ( )

The inverse of the resistance is called the conductance and inverse of resistivity is called specific conductance
or conductivity
the symbol of the conductance G and conductivity is

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so conductivity the unit of conductance G is (Siemens=S=Ω -1)

Temperature effects
In general, as the temperature of a material increases, most conductors increase in resistance, insulators
decrease in resistance, whilst the resistances of some special alloys remain almost constant. As temperature
increases, more electrons will escape their orbits, causing additional collisions within the conductor. For
most conducting materials, the increase in the number of collisions translates into a relatively linear increase
in resistance.
the relation between T1 and T2 at temperature T2 is
( ( ))
and are given in kelvin
is called the temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature (taken often to be 20 C) ; α per degree
Celsius. The following table gives values of α (in ) for some materials
Material Α at
Copper 0.0043/◦C
Aluminium 0.0038/◦C
Carbon −0.000 48/◦C
Silver 0.0038
Constantan 0.000008
tungsten 0.0045

Example: A carbon resistor has a resistance of at 20◦C. Determine its resistance at 80◦C.Assume that the
temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at 20◦C is −0.0005/◦C.
Solution
( ( )) ( ( ) ) 970Ω
4.1 Resistors types:
Resistances are of many different types, materials, shapes and sizes but all of them belong to one of the 2
categories which are
 Fixed resistor has a fixed resistance value and cannot be changed (remains cons) the two common
types of fixed resistors are (wire-wound) and composition (carbon film type and it is used when large
resistance is needed).a common type of resistor that you will work with in your labs is composition
(carbon film type) it has 4 color coded bands (3 for value and one for tolerance).
 a variable resistor has a resistance value can be easily changed or adjusted manually or automatically.
a common variable resistor is known as a potentiometer or pot for short.

fig 1.14(a) a variable resistor in general, (b) a potentiometer.

4.2 Ohm's law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference or voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to resistance between them.

Resistor Power Absorb

we have

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 From Ohm’s law,
Substituting for power equation gives:
( )
i.e.
Also, from Ohm’s law,
Substituting for I in equation of power gives:

i.e.
There are thus three possible formulae which may be used for calculating power.

Example
A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric motor, the resistance of the winding being
Determine (a) the potential difference across the winding, and (b) the power dissipated by the coil.
Solution
(a) Potential difference across winding,
(b) Power dissipated by coil,
(Alternatively, P = V × I =500×5=2500 W or 2.5 kW)

4.4 Series and parallel resistor

 Two elements are in series if the current that flows through one must also flow through the
other.
 If we wish to replace the two series resistors with a single equivalent resistor whose voltage-
current relationship is the same, the equivalent resistor has a value given by

N:series resistors
Since the equation can also be written in terms of conductance levels as follows:

 When the terminals of two or more circuit elements are connected to the same two
nodes, the circuit elements are said to be in parallel.

for N parallel resistors

Since the equation can also be written in terms of conductance levels as follows:
(( )
The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum of their individual conductances.

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Example. Find in the circuit, given in Figure

Solution. Mark additional nodes on the diagram, C, D, F, G, as shown. Redraw the figure below as in
, and simplify the circuit, to evaluate , which comes out to be 22.5 ohms.

4.5 Short and Open Circuits

When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire (Fig. 1.38), they are said to be
short-circuited. Since ‘short’ has practically zero resistance, it gives rise to two important facts :
i. no voltage can exist across it because
ii. current through it (called short-circuit current) is very large (theoretically, infinity)

Fig.1.15

Two points are said to be open-circuited when there is no direct connection between them .
Obviously, an ‘open’ represents a break in the continuity of the circuit. Due to this break

i. resistance between the two points is infinite.

ii. there is no flow of current between the two points.

1. ‘Shorts’ in a Series Circuit

Since a dead (or solid) short has almost zero resistance, it causes the problem of excessive current which, in
turn, causes power dissipation to increase many times and circuit components to burn out.

In (a) is shown a normal series circuit where

In (b), 3-Ω resistor has been shorted out by a resistance less copper wire so that RCD= 0.
Now, total circuit resistance Hence, and
(c) shows the situation where both 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors have been shorted out of the circuit. In this case,
and
Because of this excessive current (6 times the normal value), connecting wires and other circuit
components can become hot enough to ignite and burn out.

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 Fig 1.15

2. ‘Opens’ in a Series Circuit

In a normal series circuit like the one shown in (a), there exists a current flow and the voltage drops across
different resistors are proportional to their resistances. If the circuit becomes ‘open’ anywhere, following two
effects are produced :
(i) since ‘open’ offers infinite resistance, circuit current becomes zero. Consequently, there is
no voltage drop across R1 and R2
(ii) whole of the applied voltage (i.e. 100 V in this case) is felt across the ‘open’ i.e. across terminals A
and B .

Fig.1.16
3. ‘Shorts’ in Parallel Circuits
Suppose a ‘short’ is placed across R 3 .It becomes directly connected across the battery and draws almost
infinite current because not only its own resistance but that of the connecting wires AC and BD is negligible.
Due to this excessive current, the wires may get hot enough to burn out unless the circuit is protected by a
fuse.

Fig.1.17

Following points about the circuit of Fig. 1.17 (a) are worth noting. not only is R 3 short-circuited but both R1
and R2 are also shorted out i.e. short across one branch means short across all branches.
2. there is no current in shorted resistors. If there were three bulbs, they will not glow.
3. the shorted components are not damaged, For example, if we had three bulbs in (a), they would glow again
when circuit is restored to normal conditions by removing the short-circuited.
It may, however, be noted from (b) that a short-circuit across R3 may short out R2 but not R1 since it is
protected by R4.

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4.5 Color code for fixed resistors
Most resistors are very small and it is hard to print the values on them. standard resistor color code can be
used to interpret the values of different resistors.Usually the small resistors have different color bands on
them, For the four-band scheme, the bands are always read from the end that has a band closest to it,

 The first two bands represent the first and second digits, respectively.
 The third band determines the power-of-ten multiplier for the first two digits (actually the number of
zeros that follow the second digit for resistors greater than 10 Ω).
 The fourth band is the manufacturer’s tolerance, which is an indication of the precision by which the
resistor was made.
Example. Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor having a color coding of: brown - red -orange-gold
Solution
 The first two bands, i.e. brown-red, give 12 from Table above.
 The third band, silver, indicates a multiplier of from Table above, which means that the value of
the resistor is
 The fourth band, i.e. gold, indicates a tolerance of ±5% from Table above. Hence a color coding of
orange-orange-silver-brown represents a resistor of value 12kΩ with a tolerance of ±5%
To find the range into which the manufacturer has guaranteed the resistor will fall, first convert the 5% to a
decimal number by moving the decimal point two places to the left:

Then multiply the resistor value by this decimal number:

Finally, add the resulting number to the resistor value to determine the maximum value, and subtract the
number to find the minimum value.
That is,
Maximum = 12,000 Ω + 600 Ω = 12.6 kΩ
Minimum = 12,000 Ω - 600 Ω = 11.4 kΩ
Range = 11.4 kΩ to 12.6 kΩ or

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