369

Compression of granular materials

Gholamreza Mesri and Barames Vardhanabhuti

Abstract: Compression data on over 100 sands were examined to clarify the role of particle rearrangement through inter-
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particle slip and rotation and particle damage on primary compression, including the yield stress, secondary compression,
and coefficient of lateral pressure at rest. During the increase in effective vertical stress, mechanisms such as tighter pack-
ing that promote particle locking and interparticle slip and particle damage that promote particle unlocking together deter-
mine the relationship between void ratio and effective vertical stress. Three levels of particle damage together with
interparticle slip and rotation determine three types of compression behavior and a yield stress at the abrupt onset of par-
ticle fracturing and splitting. The ratio of secondary compression index to compression index is independent of whether
compression results from overcoming interparticle friction through interparticle slip, from overcoming particle strength
through particle damage, or both; and therefore it is a constant independent of the effective stress range. The coefficient of
lateral pressure at rest of an initially dense sand starts with a value defined by the Jaky equation and the maximum friction
angle and remains constant up to the abrupt onset of particle fracturing and splitting, at which point it begins to increase
with an increase in effective vertical stress.
Key words: sand, compression, yield stress, secondary compression, coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
Résumé : Des données de compression de plus de 100 sables ont été examinés afin d’éclaircir le rôle du réarrangement
des particules par glissement et rotation inter-particulaire et du dommage sur les particules lors de la compression primaire,
incluant la limite d’écoulement, la compression secondaire, et le coefficient de pression latérale au repos. Pendant l’aug-
mentation de la contrainte verticale effective, les mécanismes tels que le serrage qui entraı̂ne le blocage des particules, et
le glissement inter-particules et le dommage qui entraı̂nent le déblocage des particules, déterminent ensemble la relation
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entre l’indice des vides et la contrainte verticale effective. Trois niveaux de dommage aux particules, en plus du glisse-
ment et de la rotation inter-particules, déterminent trois types de comportement en compression ainsi que la limite d’écou-
lement au moment où il y a fracture et séparation des particules. Le ratio entre l’indice de compression secondaire et
l’indice de compression est indépendant de l’origine de la compression, que ce soit le surpassement de la friction entre les
particules par glissement inter-particulaire ou le surpassement de la résistance des particules par du dommage, ou les deux,
alors ce ratio est une constante indépendante de l’intervalle des contraintes effectives. Le coefficient de pression latérale
au repos d’un sable initialement dense est premièrement définit par l’équation de Jaky avec l’angle de friction maximal, et
demeure constant jusqu’au moment où les particules commencent soudainement à fracturer et à se séparer; à partir de ce
point le coefficient de pression latérale commence à augmenter avec l’augmentation de la contrainte verticale effective.
Mots-clés : sable, compression, limite d’écoulement, compression secondaire, coefficient de la pression des terres au re-
pos.
[Traduit par la Rédaction]

Introduction particle slip and rotation. In some soils, particle rearrange-

In all soils, one-dimensional compression and isotropic
compression are achieved through particle rearrangement
into a tighter packing. In some soils, particle rearrangement
is accompanied by particle deformation, such as bending
and particle compression, as in fibrous peats. In all soils,
particle rearrangement into a more compact configuration is
achieved by overcoming interparticle friction through inter-
Received 13 March 2008. Accepted 5 December 2008.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cgj.nrc.ca on
3 April 2009.
G. Mesri.1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews
Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
B. Vardhanabhuti. Department of Civil Engineering, Kasetsart
University, 50 Phahonyotin St., Ladyao Jatujak, Bangkok 10900,
Thailand.
1Corresponding author (e-mail: gmesri@uiuc.edu).
ment is also facilitated by overcoming particle strength
through particle damage as in granular soils. Particle dam-
age may be quantified as level I damage (abrasion or grind-
ing of particle surface asperities), level II damage (breaking
or crushing of particle surface protrusions and sharp particle
corners and edges), and level III damage (fracturing, split-
ting, or shattering of particles) (Roberts and de Souza 1958;
Hendron 1963; Marsal 1967; Hardin 1985; Rahim 1989;
Coop 1990; Pestana and Whittle 1995; Nakata et al. 2001a,
2001b; Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003).
Compression, i.e., more intimate packing of particles, pro-
motes locking, including engaging surface roughness, among
soil particles and increases the stiffness of a granular aggre-
gate (Vesic and Clough 1968; Lambe and Whitman 1969).
However, interparticle slip and especially particle damage
are unlocking mechanisms that decrease the stiffness of a
granular mass. During compression of granular materials,
both unlocking and locking mechanisms operate simultane-
ously. The net effect determines the shape of the void ratio

Can. Geotech. J. 46: 369–392 (2009) doi:10.1139/T08-123 Published by NRC Research Press
 370
Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrographs of the surface of three particles of Ottawa sand (a–c) and three particles of Lake Michigan sand (d–f).
a, 1401; b, 21552; c, 5000; d, 560; e, 1647; f, 835.
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or volumetric strain versus effective stress relationship and,
in the case of one-dimensional compression, the behavior of
the tangent-constrained modulus (M ¼ Ds v0 =D3v ) versus ef-
fective vertical stress (s v0 ) relationship, where 3v is the verti-
cal strain. When the locking effect of more intimate packing
dominates over the unlocking effect of interparticle slippage
and particle damage, a net locking behavior develops and M
increases with an increase in s v0 (Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003).
A net unlocking behavior results when the unlocking effects
of particle damage and interparticle slip exceed the effect of
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
improved locking through denser particle packing and M de-
creases with an increase in s v0 . An equal balance behavior is
also possible when unlocking and locking effects are equal
and M remains constant with s v0 .
One-dimensional and isotropic compression of all soils
can be interpreted in terms of primary compression that oc-
curs during the increase in effective stress and secondary
compression that follows at constant effective stress. One-
dimensional compression is observed in a laterally con-
strained condition in response to an increase in s v0 , and
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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti
Fig. 1. (continued). Scanning electron micrographs of the surface of three particles of Niigata sand (g–i) and three particles of Toyoura sand
(j–l). g, 2364; h, 1674; i, 3700; j, 40000; k, 7500; l, 1200.
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isotropic compression is observed under an equal all-around
pressure (p’) in response to an increase in p’. The mecha-
nisms that facilitate compression during an increase in effec-
tive stress continue with time during secondary compression.
An inherent manifestation of internal friction is the frac-
tion of the vertical force that is transmitted to the vertical
planes under the laterally constrained deformation condition.
The angle of friction that is mobilized in one-dimensional
compression, and therefore the behavior of the coefficient
of lateral pressure at rest Ko ¼ s h0 =s v0 , where s h0 is the effec-
371
tive horizontal stress, is determined by the nature of par-
ticles, nature and history of particle packing, and particle
damage.
In this paper, we utilized data from 182 oedometer tests
on 98 sands and 17 isotropic loading tests on six sands re-
ported in the literature (Vardhanabhuti 2005) to examine
and clarify the role of particle rearrangement through inter-
particle slip and rotation and particle damage on primary
compression including the yield stress, secondary compres-
sion, and coefficient of lateral pressure at rest. This paper
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 372 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

Fig. 2. Type A compression behavior of a loose Ottawa sand (data from Roberts and de Souza 1958). CU, uniformity coefficient; Dr, rela-
tive density; D50, mean grain size; Mmax, tangent constrained modulus at the first inflection point; Mmin, tangent constrained modulus at the
second inflection point; ðs v0 ÞMmax , effective vertical stress at the yield point defined at the first inflection point; ðs v0 ÞMmin , effective vertical
stress at the yield point defined at the second inflection point; ðs v0 ÞMC , effective vertical stress at the yield point defined at the point of
maximum curvature.
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Fig. 3. Type A compression behavior of a dense Ottawa sand (data from Roberts and de Souza 1958). eo, initial void ratio.

does not consider compression resulting from vibration of
granular materials (Mesri and Vardhanabhuti 2007).
Primary compression
Laboratory information on the compressibility of granular
soils comes from oedometer tests in which a soil specimen
is subjected to laterally constrained vertical loading and
from triaxial tests in which a soil specimen is subjected to
equal all-around pressure. Most laboratory tests on granular
soils have been conducted on dry (and less frequently on sa-
turated), reconstituted specimens using incremental or con-

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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti 373

Fig. 4. Type A compression behavior of Toyoura sand (data from Nakata et al. 2001a).
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Fig. 5. Type A compression behavior of Ottawa sand (data from Pestana and Whittle 1995).
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tinuous loading. Because of the dry condition or high per-
meability of saturated granular soils, primary consolidation
of a laboratory specimen essentially is completed as soon as
the load is applied, and the end-of-primary (EOP) void ratio
or volumetric strain for incremental loading is defined at
several seconds or minutes past the application of the load
increment. The EOP void ratio or volumetric strain some-
times corresponds to a relatively fast constant rate of load-
ing (e.g., 0.01 MPa/s in oedometer tests conducted by
Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003) or constant rate of compression
(e.g., 0.01 mm/min in oedometer tests by Nakata et al.
2001b). The compression data are interpreted either in terms
of EOP void ratio versus effective vertical stress or EOP
void ratio versus the logarithm of effective vertical stress
(log s v0 ). Most of the existing data on primary compression
of granular soils can be summarized in terms of type A, B,
or C void ratio versus effective stress relationships.
Type A void ratio e versus s v0 behavior (such as that
shown in Fig. 2) displays three distinct stages of compres-
sion (Chuhan et al. 2003). During the first stage, small par-

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 374 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

Fig. 6. Type A compression behavior of mono-quartz sand (data from Chuhan et al. 2003).
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Fig. 7. Type A compression behavior of a quartz sand (data from Nakata et al. 2001b).
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ticle movements further engage particle surface roughness
and enhance interparticle locking. There is minor to small
level I and level II particle damage (e.g., Vaid et al. 1985;
Yudhbir and Rahim 1987; Rahim 1989); however, improved
locking dominates over unlocking effects, and M increases
with an increase in s v0 . The second compression stage begins
with level III particle damage, i.e., fracturing of the heavily
loaded particles and collapse of the load-bearing aggregate
framework (Cundall and Strack 1979; McDowell 2002;
McDowell and Harireche 2002). Particle fracturing unlocks
the aggregate framework, allowing larger interparticle move-
ments, and M begins to decrease with an increase in s v0 . The
first inflection point in the e versus s v0 relationship marks
the beginning of the second stage at an effective vertical
stress ðs v0 ÞMmax , and a second inflection point at ðs v0 ÞMmin
marks the end at which major particle fracturing and split-
ting are substantially complete (Nakata et al. 2001a,
2001b). Figure 1 shows examples of sand particle surface
roughness that is further engaged during small interparticle
movements of the first stage of compression and is disen-

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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti 375

Fig. 8. Type B compression behavior of Ganga sand (data from Rahim 1989).
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Fig. 9. Type B compression behavior of Wabash River sand (data from Hendron 1963).

gaged during large interparticle movements of the second
stage of compression. During the third compression stage,
the stiffness gain from improved particle packing exceeds
the unlocking effect of level I, level II, and some level III
particle damage (to both original particles and new angular
fragments) and interparticle slip, and M continuously in-
creases with an increase in s v0 . During this stage, particle
damage may decrease with an increase in the uniformity co-
efficient as a result of particle fragmentation and particle
concentration and a decrease in the void ratio, and the asso-
ciated relative movement among grains is small (DeBeer
1963, 1965; Hagerty et al. 1993; Lade et al. 1996; Bopp
and Lade 1997; Nakata et al. 2001a, 2001b; Chuhan et al.
2002, 2003). Examples of type A e versus s v0 behavior are
shown in Figs. 2–7. Type A compression behavior is most
commonly, but not exclusively, observed for clean well-
rounded, strong (high degree of hardness) coarse particles
(Nakata et al. 2001b; Chuhan et al. 2002).

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 376 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

Fig. 10. Type B compression behavior of Mol sand (data from DeBeer 1963).
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Fig. 11. Type B compression behavior of Feldspar sand (data from Pestana and Whittle 1995).
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Type B e versus s v0 behavior (such as that shown in
Fig. 8) represents a transition between type A and type C
compression behavior. It is similar to type A compression
behavior, as it displays three stages of compression; and to
type C compression behavior, as M never decreases with an
increase in s v0 throughout the compression. During the first
compression stage, starting at low stresses, there is level I
and level II particle damage, but improved locking domi-
nates and M gradually increases with an increase in s v0 . Dur-
ing the second stage, improved packing just balances the
unlocking produced by level III particle damage, and M re-
mains constant with s v0 . During the third stage, improved
packing dominates over the effects of particle damage and
interparticle slip, and M gradually increases with an increase
in s v0 (Nakata et al. 2001a, 2001b; Chuhan et al. 2003). Ex-
amples of type B e versus s v0 behavior, which is less com-

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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti 377

Fig. 12. Type C compression behavior of Quiou sand (data from Pestana and Whittle 1995).
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Fig. 13. Type C compression behavior of carbonate sand (data from Chuhan et al. 2003). D60, grain size at which 60% of the sample is
finer.

mon than type A and type C behavior, are shown in Figs. 8–
11 where vertical line segments mark the effective vertical
stress range where M remains constant.
In type C, e versus s v0 behavior of granular soils (such as
that shown in Fig. 12) significant level I and level II particle
damage begins early at low effective stresses and continues
with or without gradual level III particle damage at higher
effective stresses (Coop 1990; Coop and Lee 1993; Chuhan
et al. 2003). The locking effect of improved gradation and
packing dominates over unlocking effects of gradual particle
damage and interparticle slippage, and M continuously in-
creases with an increase in s v0 (e.g., Pestana and Whittle
1995). Examples of type C e versus s v0 behavior are shown
in Figs. 12–17. Type C compression behavior is especially
observed for angular weak (low degree of hardness) par-
ticles such as carbonate sands, in the presence of platy par-

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 378 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

Fig. 14. Type C compression behavior of silty sand (data from Huang et al. 1999). FC, fines content passing number 200 US standard sieve.
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Fig. 15. Type C compression behavior of mono-quartz sand (data from Chuhan et al. 2003).

ticles of mica or clay minerals, or for very fine granular ma-
terials for which particle damage is a minor factor (Hardin
1985; Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003).
Yield stress
Yield stress traditionally has been considered to mark the
abrupt onset of increased deformability or increased com-
pressibility as in the present case. For soils where particle
damage is not a factor, the yield stress in oedometer loading,
called preconsolidation pressure (s p0 or s pI 0
for isotropic
loading; Terzaghi et al. 1996), defines the boundary between
the recompression range where compressibility is small and
the compression range where compressibility is much larger.
Recompression results from particle deformation and minor
interparticle slip; and therefore the preconsolidation pressure
marks the onset of major interparticle slip, which is quite

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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti 379

Fig. 16. Type C compression behavior of Ganga sand (data from Rahim 1989).
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Fig. 17. Type C compression behavior of silica-2 sand (data from Nakata et al. 2001b).

abrupt for the ‘‘bonded’’ clays such as those from eastern
Canada (Terzaghi et al. 1996).
The yield stress for granular materials has been assumed
to signal the abrupt onset of particle fracturing and splitting
and associated particle rearrangement (e.g., Coop and Lee
1993; McDowell and Bolton 1998; Nakata et al. 2001a).
Therefore, ðs v0 ÞMmax defined at the first inflection point of
the EOP e versus s v0 relationship best conforms to the phe-
nomenological definition of the yield stress, as it corre-
sponds to the abrupt onset of level III particle damage. The
values of ðs v0 ÞMmax for 61 oedometer tests on 57 sands in
Fig. 18 show that the yield stress may range from less than
0.3 MPa for an angular biogenic carbonate sand to near
30 MPa for a well-rounded quartz sand. (The ‘‘other’’ sands
category corresponds to the mixtures of quartz, carbonate,
and other minerals.) Figure 18 also shows that the net un-

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 380
Fig. 18. Data on ðs v0 ÞMmax and ðs v0 ÞMmin for 42 sands.
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Fig. 19. Comparison of ðs v0 ÞMC and ðs v0 ÞMmax .
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locking effect of major fracturing and splitting for different
sands is substantially complete at about 2–5 times the effec-
tive vertical stress at which level III particle damage begins.
The yield stress for compression of granular soils has
been previously determined at the point of maximum curva-
ture in the e versus log s v0 relationship, ðs v0 ÞMC (Hagerty et
al. 1993; McDowell et al. 1996; Nakata et al. 2001a,
2001b; McDowell 2002; Chuhan et al. 2003). Figures 19
and 20 compare ðs v0 ÞMC with ðs v0 ÞMmax and ðs v0 ÞMmin , respec-
tively. The values of ðs v0 ÞMC =ðs v0 ÞMmax and ðs v0 ÞMC =ðs v0 ÞMmin
are in the range of 0.7–2.5 and 0.3–0.8, respectively. Most
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
Fig. 20. Comparison of ðs v0 ÞMC and ðs v0 ÞMmin .
of the data in Figs. 18–20 correspond to type A e versus s v0
behavior. For type B behavior, the values for ðs v0 ÞMmax and
ðs v0 ÞMmin were taken as the beginning and end, respectively,
of the s v0 range where M remains constant. However, as
there is no abrupt onset of compressibility change (no inflec-
tion point) for type C e versus s v0 compression behavior, a
‘‘yield stress’’ determined at ðs v0 ÞMC is only an artifice of a
semilogarithmic plot (e.g., Figs. 12, 16).
The values of tangent compression index
Cc ¼ De=Dlog s v0 as a function of effective vertical stress
are summarized in Fig. 21 for three groups of sands, namely
quartz sands, quartz sands with 10%–20% fines content, and
carbonate sands. In the effective vertical stress range of
0.001–1000 MPa, the values of Cc are in the range of
0.002–1.0. However, the values of the compression index of
sands at an effective vertical stress range beyond ðs v0 ÞMC are
in the range of 0.1–1.0. In addition to sand particle mineral-
ogy and aggregate relative density, the value of Cc at the
low effective stress range is determined by sand particle
shape and surface characteristics.
The degree of abruptness of the onset of level III particle
damage may be characterized in terms of the magnitude of
Mmax/Mmin (e.g., Figs. 2, 3). The highest values are observed
for well-rounded coarse uniform strong particles. The transi-
tion from the first stage to the second stage is most sudden
in uniformly graded sands when yielding is a manifestation
of the fracturing of the largest particles that form the aggre-
gate framework. The transition is not as sudden in well-
graded sands because of the higher particle concentration
and because fracturing begins with smaller particles that
does not cause as dramatic an unlocking of the aggregate
structure (McDowell and Bolton 1998; Nakata et al. 2001b).
The onset of level III particle damage takes place at
higher effective stresses in isotropic compression than in
one-dimensional compression, as illustrated by a comparison
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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti
Fig. 21. Data on Cc for three groups of sands.
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of Toyoura sand data in Figs. 4 and 22 (Kwag et al. 1999;
Nakata et al. 2001a). This is because shear stresses in one-
dimensional compression contribute to particle damage
(DeBeer 1963; Bishop 1966; Lee and Farhoomand 1967;
Coop and Lee 1993; Pestana and Whittle 1995). Compres-
sion data in Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 22 show that, in general, level
III particle damage occurs at higher ðs v0 ÞMmax or ðp0 ÞMmax as
initial relative density increases, where ðp0 ÞMmax is the all-
around pressure at the yield point defined at the point of
maximum curvature of e vesus p’. This behavior is a result
of a larger number of interparticle contacts, and therefore
lower contact stresses at a higher relative density (Roberts
and de Souza 1958; DeBeer 1963; Hendron 1963; Coop and
Lee 1993; Hagerty et al. 1993; Lade et al. 1996; Nakata et
al. 2001a). For the same reason, at a given initial relative
381
density and particle characteristics, a well-graded sand is ex-
pected to display a higher ðs v0 ÞMmax than a uniformly graded
sand (Hall and Gordon 1964; Lade and Yamamuro 1996;
Nakata et al. 2001b). An increase in particle angularity pro-
motes level I and level II particle damage during the first
stage of compression, leads to higher normal and shear
stresses at interparticle contacts, and results in lower values
of Mmax/Mmin and ðs v0 ÞMmax (Kjaernsli and Sande 1963; Hag-
erty et al. 1993; Lade and Yamamuro 1996; McDowell and
Bolton 1998).
Secondary compression
Secondary compression is a continuation of the processes
that begin during an increase in effective stress. All mecha-
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 382 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

Fig. 22. Type A compression behavior of Toyoura sand in isotropic compression (data from Kwag et al. 1999). ðp0 ÞMC , equal all-around
pressure at the yield point defined at the point of maximum curvature of e versus log p’; ðp0 ÞMmax , equal all-around pressure at the yield point
defined at the first inflection point of e versus p’; ðp0 ÞMmin , equal all-around pressure at the second inflection point of e versus p’ defining the
end of the second stage of compression.
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Fig. 23. Data on Ca versus Cc for 17 granular materials (from Mesri Fig. 24. Data on the ratio Ca/Cc for Antelope Valley sand in one-
et al. 1990). dimensional and isotropic compression (data from Lade and Liu
1998).

Souza 1958; Lee and Farhoomand 1967; Mesri and Godlew-

nisms of compression (including particle rearrangement
through interparticle slip and rotation and through particle
damage) and particle deformation (including bending and
compression) that operate during primary compression con-
tinue into the secondary compression. In other words, all
phenomena playing a role in compression are time-
dependent (e.g., Terzaghi and Peck 1948; Roberts and de
ski 1977; Mejia et al. 1988; Lade et al. 1997; Mesri 2001).
The term creep should not be used to refer to secondary
compression observed under drained, laterally constrained,
one-dimensional loading or drained, equal all-around load-
ing. The term creep should be reserved for time-dependent
deformation that may develop under both drained and un-
drained conditions when a soil is subjected to external shear
stresses (e.g., Mesri et al. 1981; Murayama 1983; Murayama
et al. 1984). A major distinction is that time-dependent de-
formation due to creep may lead to global failure, whereas
secondary compression does not.

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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti 383

Fig. 25. Compression behavior of silica sand used to study secondary compression (data from Yet 1998).
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Fig. 26. The Ca/(1+eo) and Cc/(1+eo) data for silica sand (data from Table 1. Computed and measured s 0pI for test IC-8-1 of Lade and
Leung et al. 1996 and Yet 1998). Liu (1998).

Preconsolidation pressure in
0
isotropic compression, ppI (kPa)
Pressure Equal all-around
No. pressure, p’ (kPa) Measured Computed
1 50 70 61
2 100 121 120
3 197 246 250
4 393 500 500
5 785 — 1004

De/Dlog t is the slope of the e versus log t relationship

The Ca/Cc law of compressibility (where Ca is the secon-
dary compression index and Cc is the compression index) in-
dicates that Ca/Cc is a constant at all instances during
secondary compression. At any instant (e, s v0 , t, where t is
the time) during secondary compression, Cc ¼ De=Dlog s v0
is the slope of the e versus log s v0 relationship, and Ca =
(Mesri and Godlewski 1977; Mesri 1987, 2001; Mesri and
Castro 1987; Mesri et al. 1994, 1997). Mesri et al. (1990)
previously summarized data on Ca versus Cc for granular
soils, as shown in Fig. 23. These data, which suggest a Ca/
Cc range of 0.01–0.03 for granular soils, were obtained in
the s v0 range of 0.05–3 MPa. In fact, most of the data were
observed in the s v0 range of less than 1 MPa on sands with
strong particles. In this stress range, particle rearrangement
during both primary and secondary compression mainly oc-
curs by interparticle slip and rotation. In addition to the
references cited in Fig. 23, secondary compression of granu-
lar soils, including rock fill, has been reported by Roberts
and de Souza (1958), Holestol et al. (1965), Sowers et al.

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 384
Fig. 27. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young loose Wabash River sand with Dr = 5% (data from Hendron 1963). K , slope of s h0
versus s v0 ¼ Ds h0 =Ds v0 ; Kop, coefficient of earth pressure at rest in normally consolidated young loose sands.
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(1965), Lee and Farhoomand (1967), Leung et al. (1996),
Lade and Liu (1998), Yet (1998), and Takei et al. (2001).
Terzaghi and Peck (1948, p. 59) observed that compres-
sion of a sand is not instantaneous but continues over a con-
siderable period of time: ‘‘if the process of loading is
interrupted, the void ratio decreases at constant load. . .’’
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) illustrated the time-dependent be-
havior by secondary compression of a loose silica sand at an
effective vertical stress 60% of the pressure at which ‘‘. . .
the grains begin to crush. . .’’ Incidentally, the Terzaghi and
Peck (1948) data suggest Ca/Cc = 0.028 for their silica sand.
Takei et al. (2001) reported secondary compression at s v0
equal to 1.11, 2.34, 4.82, 9.95, and 20 MPa for a granular
soil consisting of 2.00–4.75 mm angular quartz particles.
The values of Cc/(1+eo) from an EOP e versus log s v0 rela-
tionship defined at 10 s, where eo is the initial void ratio,
and reported values of Ca/(1+eo) lead to Ca/Cc = 0.012 ±
0.002 for this granular material.
Figure 24 shows the compressibility data interpreted from
laboratory measurements reported by Lade and Liu (1998)
for a subangular 0.075–0.250 mm micaceous Antelope Val-
ley sand, with eo = 0.96, void ratio in the loosest state emax =
1.24, and void ratio in the densest state emin = 0.98. Both
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

isotropic and one-dimensional compression tests were car-
ried out on saturated, reconstituted specimens in a triaxial
cell in the pressure range of 0.05–1.5 MPa. The laterally
constrained condition for one-dimensional compression was
realized through ‘‘proportional loading’’ (i.e., axial strain =
volumetric strain). Consistent with secondary compression
behavior observed for soft clay and silt deposits (e.g., Mesri
1987), Ca/Cc has the same value for both isotropic and one-
dimensional compression despite the fact that EOP e versus
the logarithm of effective stress relations for isotropic and
one-dimensional compression are different. Lade and Liu
(1998) reported that 20% of the particles passed the number
200 US standard sieve after a compression test, whereas
none of the sand passed this sieve before testing.
A comprehensive series of one-dimensional compression
tests with secondary compression measurements have been
reported by Leung et al. (1996) and Yet (1998) on a uni-
form, subangular, fine (D50 = 0.2 mm) silica sand with
CU = 2.4, emax = 0.9820, and emin = 0.5904. Reconstituted
specimens were prepared in a relative density range of
37%–77% and tested in a s v0 range of 0.05–37 MPa. A ser-
ies of EOP compression curves are shown in Fig. 25. All
three initial relative densities display type A compression
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 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti
Fig. 28. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Wabash River sand with Dr = 71% (data from Hendron 1963).
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY on 12/13/22
For personal use only.
behavior with ðs v0 ÞMmax values of 13.5, 18.0, and 20.0 MPa
for Dr of 37%, 52%, and 77%, respectively. The end of the
second stage of compression for the specimen with Dr =
37% was reached at ðs v0 ÞMmin = 26.5 MPa; however, ðs v0 ÞMmin
was beyond the s v0 range used for the Dr = 52% and 77%
specimens. In the one-dimensional compression tests on this
silica sand, particle rearrangement at very low stress levels
was facilitated by interparticle slip and rotation; however,
level I and level II particle damage started at relatively low
stress levels (*1 MPa), as suggested in Fig. 25b by the
gradual transition from the first to the second compression
stage (e.g., Mmax/Mmin = 1.22 for Dr = 37%). Therefore, the
compression that started at low stress levels with interpar-
ticle slip and rotation was facilitated through level I, level
II, and subsequently level III particle damage in the s v0
range that was utilized in these tests.
The Cc/(1+eo) values at each value of s v0 were evaluated
from the EOP e versus log s v0 curves and together with cor-
responding values of Ca/(1+eo) from Fig. 16 of Leung et al.
(1996) are shown in Fig. 26. It is apparent that for any one
sand of grain mineralogy, grain size, grain shape, and grada-
tion, Ca/Cc is a constant, independent of initial relative den-
sity and the effective stress level. The latter factor suggests
385
that Ca/Cc for a given sand is a constant, independent of
whether compression is facilitated mainly through interpar-
ticle slip or predominantly through particle damage (in-
cluding levels I, II, and III).
Lade and Liu (1998, p. 912) concluded that (i) the amount
of secondary compression ‘‘increases with confining pres-
sure, particularly after crushing becomes important at high
stresses’’; and (ii) loose sands and sands consisting of weak
particles generally exhibit more time-dependent deformation
than dense sands or sands with strong particles. These con-
clusions are correct to the extent that, for any one sand, Ca/
Cc is a constant and Ca is directly related to Cc, which does
take the highest values when particle damage becomes im-
portant and for loose sands with weak particles. However,
for both initially loose and initially dense conditions in
some sands, Cc takes the same value at a certain range of
pressure, and both particle damage and Cc begin to decrease
at very high pressures, as is shown by the data in Fig. 21.
The Ca/Cc law of compressibility predicts not only the
magnitude of Ca but also the behavior of Ca with time in
terms of the shape of the EOP e versus log s v0 relationship.
The magnitude of Ca is expected to increase, remain con-
stant or decrease with time, respectively, in the range of s v0
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 386
Fig. 29. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Pennsylvania sand with Dr = 63% (data from Hendron 1963).
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY on 12/13/22
For personal use only.
at which Cc increases, remains constant, or decreases with
an increase in s v0 . The shape of most EOP e versus log s v0
relationships for granular soils includes increasing Cc, con-
stant Cc, and at very high pressures (e.g., Yamamuro et al.
1996) decreasing Cc with an increase in s v0 .
The increases in Ca/(1+eo) with an increase in time are
plotted in Fig. 26, based on secondary settlement observa-
tions for about 100 h by Yet (1998) on silica sand speci-
mens with an initial Dr = 75% at effective vertical stresses
of 15.4 and 37.4 MPa at which Cc/(1+eo) increases with an
increase in s v0 (Fig. 25). The increase in Ca/(1+eo) with an
increase in time at 15.4 MPa is shown by points a and b
and that at 37.4 MPa it is shown by points c, d, and e. The
values of Cc/(1+eo) at points a and c were determined from
the EOP e versus log s v0 curve at 15.4 and 37.4 MPa, re-
spectively. The Cc/(1+eo) values corresponding to points b,
d, and e, which show the observed increase in Ca/(1+eo)
with an increase in time, were computed using Ca/Cc =
0.018 for the silica sand.
Secondary compression is an important aging mechanism
for granular soils (Mesri et al. 1990). The preconsolidation
pressures resulting from secondary compression can be com-
puted using the following equation (Mesri 1987; Mesri and
Castro 1987):
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
 1C
Ca =Cc
s p0 t r =Cc
½1 ¼
s v0 tp
where s p0 is the preconsolidation pressure resulting from
secondary compression, s v0 is the effective vertical stress at
which secondary compression takes place, Cr is the recom-
pression index, t is the age of the sand, and tp is the duration
of primary compression. As an example, Table 1 compares
values of preconsolidation pressure observed by Lade and
Liu (1998) after secondary compression under equal all-
around pressure with values computed according to eq. [1],
0
with Ca/Cc = 0.026 and Cr/Cc = 0.1. The s pI values pre-
dicted using eq. [1] agree well with the measured values.
Coefficient of lateral pressure at rest
The coefficient of lateral pressure at rest, Ko ¼ s h0 =s v0 , of a
normally consolidated, young, loose sand starts at
0
½2 Kop ¼ 1  sin fcv
0
where fcv is the constant-volume friction angle. Kop is the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest in normally consolidated
young loose sands and remains constant with s v0 (Jaky 1944,
1948; Mesri and Hayat 1993; Vardhanabhuti and Mesri
Published by NRC Research Press
 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti
Fig. 30. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Pennsylvania sand with Dr = 74% (data from Hendron 1963).
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY on 12/13/22
For personal use only.
2007). This is illustrated by the oedometer test result in
Fig. 27 for Wabash River sand with Dr = 5%. During
 type B
e versus s v0 compression behavior, the slope K ¼ Ds h0 =Ds v0
remains constant and equal to Kop = 0.44. On the other hand,
the coefficient of lateral pressure of an initially dense sand
starts at (Mesri and Hayat 1993)
 than 23 MPa for this sand specimen.
½3 K ¼ 1  sin f0

where f0 is the maximum friction angle. The value of K ,
which is less than Kop, remains constant until the onset of
level III particle damage, at which point it begins to in-
crease. Level III particle damage disengages particle inter-
locks, leading to an increase in s h0 =s v0 . This type of behavior
is observed in Fig. 28 for a Wabash River sand with Dr =
71% and in Figs. 29 and 30 for Pennsylvania sand with 
Dr = 63% and 74%, respectively. In all of these cases, K is
initially less than Kop, however, K begins to increase at
ðs v0 ÞMmax . There is some evidence to suggest that, 
even for a
normally consolidated young loose sand with K ¼ Kop dur-
ing the first stage of compression, which displays dramatic
type A e versus s v0 behavior with high Mmax/Mmin (i.e.,
abruptly destructured

by level III particle damage), starting
at ðs v0 ÞMmax , K may temporarily increase, returning to
387

K ¼ Kop by the end of the second stage of compression.
For the Minnesota sand (a well-rounded quartz sand) with
Dr = 89% in Fig. 31, K starts at a value significantly less
than Kop = 0.41 and remains constant in the entire range of
s v0 up to 23 MPa of the oedometer test, during which no in-
flection point is observed. In other words ðs v0 ÞMmax is greater
In summary, these data suggest that, for initially loose,
young, and normally consolidated granular materials, Ko
starts at Kop and remains constant with s v0 . On the other

hand, for initially dense granular materials, Ko starts at a K ,
which is less than Kop, remains constant until ðs v0 ÞMmax , and
then begins to increase with an increase in s v0 toward Kop.
Laterally constrained compression tests in the triaxial cell
were conducted by Coop (1990) on Dogs Bay biogenic car-
bonate sand (D50 = 0.29 mm, CU = 2.07, relatively unbroken
angular shells) by keeping the measured volumetric strain
equal to the axial strain (Bishop 1958). An initially loose
specimen of Dogs Bay sand displayed a type A e versus s v0
compression behavior; however, both ðs v0 ÞMmax ¼ 0:04 MPa
and ðs v0 ÞMmin ¼ 0:25 MPa were small. For this carbonate
sand, level I, II, and III particle damage began at low effec-
tive stresses and gradually continued with s v0 . The laterally
Published by NRC Research Press
 388
Fig. 31. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Minnesota sand with Dr = 89% (data from Hendron 1963).
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For personal use only.
constrained compression stress paths reported by Coop
(1990) suggest that, beyond about s v0 = 0.3 MPa,
Ko ¼ s h0 =s v0 remained constant in the entire stress range of
the test up to 5 MPa. The measured value of Ko = 0.51,
however, was significantly higher than Kop = 0.36, according
0 particle damage, ranging from none to level III: (i) the be-
to eq. [2] with fcv = 408, which was independent of effec-
tive stress level. Coop (1990) observed an increase in Ko
during secondary compression, concluding that Ko values
obtained from triaxial tests are likely affected by the speed
of testing. Because the Bishop (1958) method previously
has been used successfully to measure Kop corresponding to
the end of primary compression, the high value of Ko deter-
mined by Coop (1990) for a sand consisting largely of skel-
etal bodies apparently included the increase in coefficient of
lateral pressure resulting from secondary compression. Mesri
and Hayat (1993) have suggested an equation to estimate the
increase in Ko during secondary compression. For a nor-
mally consolidated, initially loose granular material
 Ca =Cc
t uniform angular quartz sand and a uniform rounded Cambria
½4 Ko ¼ Kop
tp
Incidentally, for Mexico City clay, which contains a sig-
nificant proportion of siliceous skeletal fragments (Mesri et
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
0
al. 1975) and displays fcv = 438, a Kop = 0.31 was directly
measured (Diaz-Rodriguez et al. 1992) and is very close to
the value according to eq. [2] (Mesri and Hayat 1993). It ap-
pears from the following that the constant-volume friction
angle of granular materials is independent of the level of
0
havior of fcv of Dogs Bay carbonate sand, which was inde-
pendent of effective stress level; (ii) the observed behavior
of Kop of initially young loose sands, in which Kop remains
constant with s v0 (e.g., Fig. 27); and (iii) constant
0
a ¼ sin fcv , independent of initial relative density in the
Schmidt (1966) equation for the Ko of overconsolidated
sands unloaded from a stress level greater than ðs v0 ÞMmin
(Mesri and Hayat 1993) (for a further examination of this
issue, reference is made to Yamamuro and Lade (1996) and
Lade and Yamamuro (1996)).
Yamamuro et al. (1996) inferred the lateral pressures dur-
ing one-dimensional compression from measurements of ra-
dial strain of a thick-walled oedometer confining ring. For a
sand of intermediate hardness, they inferred values of Ko &
0.4, which remained constant in the s v0 range from 50 to
850 MPa. For a soft uniform gypsum sand, the inferred Ko
increased at a decreasing rate to values in the range of 0.7–
Published by NRC Research Press
 Mesri and Vardhanabhuti
0.9 at s v0 = 850 MPa. Yamamuro et al. (1996) attributed the
increase in Ko with an increase in time to plastic deforma-
tion of the soft gypsum sand particles. Yamamuro et al.
(1996) reported an increase in Ko during secondary compres-
sion for both the Cambria and gypsum sands. However, the
measurements, which extended over a period of only
30 min, suggest a rate of increase in Ko with an increase in
time, which is less than that predicted by eq. [4] with Ca/Cc
in the range of 0.01–0.03.
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Conclusions
The following conclusions are based on a review and in-
terpretation of data from 182 oedometer tests on 98 sands
and 17 isotropic loading tests on six sands.
(1) In granular soils, subjected to static loading, particle
rearrangement into a more compact configuration is
achieved by overcoming interparticle friction through
interparticle slip and rotation, by overcoming particle
strength through particle damage, or both.
(2) Particle damage may be level I damage (abrasion or
grinding of particle surface asperities), level II damage
(breaking or crushing of particle surface protrusions
and sharp particle corners and edges), and level III da-
mage (fracturing, splitting, or shattering).
(3) Particle rearrangement into more intimate packing pro-
For personal use only.
motes locking, whereas interparticle slip and espe-
cially particle damage are unlocking mechanisms that
decrease the stiffness of the granular mass.
(4) During compression, both unlocking and locking me-
chanisms operate simultaneously, and the net effect
determines the shape of the void ratio or vertical strain
versus effective vertical stress relationship and the be-
havior of the tangent constrained modulus with effec-
tive vertical stress, M ¼ Ds v0 =D3v .
(5) When locking through tighter particle packing domi-
nates over the unlocking effect of interparticle slip
and particle damage, the constrained modulus in-
creases with an increase in effective vertical stress,
whereas when unlocking produced by level III particle
damage and interparticle slip exceeds the locking ef-
fect of denser packing, the constrained modulus de-
creases with an increase in effective vertical stress.
(6) Three types of end-of-primary (EOP) void ratio versus
effective vertical stress relationship have been ob-
served. Type A compression behavior, which is most
common for clean well-rounded strong medium to
coarse sands, consists of three stages of compression.
A net locking first stage during which M increases
with an increase in s v0 is followed by a net unlocking
second stage as a result of an abrupt onset of level III
particle damage with M decreasing with an increase in
s v0 . This is followed by a locking third stage. Type B
compression behavior also consists of three stages of
compression. Net locking behavior during the first
and third stages, respectively, precedes and follows an
equal balance second stage compression behavior dur-
ing which unlocking and locking effects are equal and
M remains constant with s v0 . Type C compression be-
havior, which is especially observed for angular weak
particles such as carbonate sands, for which significant
389
level I and level II particle damage begins at low ef-
fective stress and continues with or without gradual le-
vel III particle damage, displays a net locking effect
throughout the effective stress range.
(7) A yield stress for type A and type B compression be-
havior is defined at ðs v0 ÞMmax , which marks the abrupt
onset of particle fracturing and splitting. The values
of ðs v0 ÞMmax range from less than 0.3 MPa for an angu-
lar biogenic carbonate sand to near 30 MPa for a well-
rounded quartz sand.
(8) The effective stress that marks the end of the second
stage of compression, ðs v0 ÞMmin , is two to five times
the value of ðs v0 ÞMmax .
(9) The yield stress commonly defined at the point of
maximum curvature of void ratio against the logarithm
of effective vertical stress, ðs v0 ÞMC , is 0.7–2.5 times the
value of ðs v0 ÞMmax and 0.3–0.8 times the value of
ðs v0 ÞMmin .
(10) All mechanisms of compression, including particle re-
arrangement through interparticle slip and rotation and
particle damage, that operate during primary compres-
sion continue into secondary compression.
(11) Secondary compression of granular materials follows
the Ca/Cc law of compressibility, with Ca/Cc in the
range of 0.01–0.03.
(12) The Ca/Cc for any one granular material is indepen-
dent of the mechanism that facilitates particle rearran-
gement. Therefore, Ca/Cc is a constant independent of
effective vertical stress range. For any one sand, Ca/Cc
has the same value for both one-dimensional compres-
sion and isotropic compression.
(13) The Ca/Cc law of compressibility also correctly pre-
dicts the behavior of Ca with time: when Cc increases
with an increase in s v0 , Ca increases with an increase
in time; and when Cc is constant with s v0 , Ca remains
constant with time.
(14) The coefficient of lateral pressure at rest of a normally
consolidated young loose sand starts at
0
Kop ¼ 1  sin fcv and remains constant with an in-
crease in effective vertical stress.
(15) The coefficient of earth pressure at rest of an initially

dense sand starts with K ¼ 1  sin f0 , which is less
than Kop, and remains constant up to ðs v0 ÞMmax , at
which point the onset of level III particle damage de-
structures the aggregate framework  and K begins to
increase, however, returning to K = Kop by the end of
the second stage of compression.
(16) In summary, it is possible to provide a rational expla-
nation of the observed primary compression, including
yielding of the aggregate framework, secondary com-
pression, and lateral pressure in constrained compres-
sion, of granular materials in terms of particle
rearrangement facilitated through interparticle slip and
rotation and particle damage.
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List of symbols
Cccompression index (¼ De=Dlog s v0 )
Crrecompression index (¼ De=Dlog s v0 )
CU uniformity coefficient (= D60/D10)
Casecondary compression index (= De/Dlog t)
D10grain size at which 10% of the sample is finer
D50mean grain size
D60grain size at which 60% of the sample is finer
Drrelative density
evoid ratio
eoinitial void ratio
emaxvoid ratio in loosest state
eminvoid ratio in densest state
Kocoefficient of earth pressure at rest
Kopcoefficient of earth pressure at rest in normally con-
 solidated young loose sands
K slope of s h0 versus s v0 ¼ Ds h0 =Ds v0
M tangent constrained modulus (Ds v0 =D3v )
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 392 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009

Mmax tangent constrained modulus at the first inflection f0 maximum friction angle
0
point of s v0 versus 3v or p’ versus 3v fcv constant-volume friction angle
Mmin tangent constrained modulus at the second inflec- s h0 effective horizontal stress
tion point of s v0 versus 3v or p’ versus 3v s p0 preconsolidation pressure
0
p’ equal all-around pressure s pI preconsolidation pressure in isotropic compression
(p’)MC equal all-around pressure at the yield point defined s v0 effective vertical stress
at the point of maximum curvature of e versus log ðs v0 ÞMC effective vertical stress at the yield point defined at
p’ the point of maximum curvature of e versus log s v0
ðp0 ÞMmax equal all-around pressure at the yield point defined ðs v0 ÞMmax effective vertical stress at the yield point defined at
at the first inflection point of e versus p’ the first inflection point of e versus s v0
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ðp0 ÞMmin equal all-around pressure at the second inflection ðs v0 ÞMmin effective vertical stress at the second inflection
point of e versus p’ defining the end of the second point of e versus s v0 defining the end of the second
stage of compression stage of compression
t time
tp duration of primary consolidation
3v vertical strain; volumetric strain
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