Gravitational and electric fields 1

1. Gravitational Field Free fall in a gravitational field

1. A gravitational field is a region around a 1. The weight of an object is the force of
body that has mass, in which another body gravity on it. The gravitational force on it,
with mass experiences a force. F=mg .
2. A small mass placed close to a massive Using Newton’s second law, if no other forces
body attract each other with equal and act on the object, its acceleration is
opposite forces. However, the force is too F mg
a= = =g
small to move the massive body noticeably, m m
and the small mass, assuming it is free to 2. The object falls freely with acceleration g.
move, is pulled by the force towards the The acceleration due to gravity equals the
massive body. The path which the smaller gravitational field strength, g.
mass would follow is called a field line or a Hence the unit of g are N kg-1 or m s-2.
fine of force.
3. The gravitational field strength, g, is the 2. Newton’s Law of Gravitation
force per unit mass on a small test mass 1. Any two point masses, m1 and m2, attract
placed in the field at that point. each other with a force that is proportional to
F each of their masses and inversely
g=
m proportional to the square of the distance
where g = field strength where the test mass between them.
m is placed, and F = force on the test mass −Gm1 m2
m. (Test mass means that the mass is so F= 2
r
small that it does not affect the field in which The minus sign indicates an attractive force.
it is placed.) G is the Universal Gravitational constant,
g is a vector quantity with units N kg-1. G = 6.67 x 10 -11 N m2 kg -1. The law applies
4. The field lines around a planet are radial, to point masses or particles whose size is
and point towards the centre of the planet. small compared with their distance apart.
The spacing of the field lines indicates the
strength of the field. The field strength Gravitational field strength near a
decreases with increasing distance from the spherical planet
body. 1. For a spherical mass or planet M, of
radius R, the force of attraction on a test
mass m, at a distance r from the centre of M,
is the same as if the mass were concentrated
at its centre.
−Gm M
F=
r2
The gravitational strength at a distance r from
its centre is
F −G m M −G M
g= = = 2
m mr 2 r
provided distance r is greater than or equal to
the radius R.
2. The gravitational strength is
−G M
g= 2
In a uniform field, such as the space close to r
the Earth’s surface, where the distance is The minus sign indicates an attractive force.
small compared with the Earth’s radius, the
field lines are parallel. The field strength, g
has the same value at all points and the test
mass experiences the same force wherever it
is placed. The gravitational field strength of
the Earth at the surface is 9.8 N kg-1.
 Gravitational and electric fields 2
shows that g varies linearly with distance
Variation of g with distance from the from the centre.
centre of a spherical planet
1. At the surface of a spherical planet of
radius R, the gravitational field strength
−G M 5. The area under the graph between two
gs =
R
2 points gives the gravitational p.d. between
then G M =−gs R2 them (i.e. work done per unit mass between
2. Beyond the surface of the planet them). The work done to move a mass from
−G M the surface to infinity can be found from the
g= 2 area under the graph, by ‘counting squares’.
r
where r is the distance from the centre of the
How g varies with latitude.
planet.
g at the poles = 9.83 m s-2
3. Therefore
g at the equator = 9.78 m s-2,
−g s R2 R
2
the difference = 0.05 m s-2
g= =−g s 2
r2 r Earth’s radius at equator, rE= 6.4 x 106 m,
The equation shows how g changes with radius at the poles, rp = 6.38 x 10 6 m,
increase of distance r. mass, ME = 6.0 x 1024 kg, and
4. At a distance r = 2R, G = 6.67 x 10 -11 N m2 kg -1
2
−g s R −gs
g= 2
= What are the two causes for the difference?
(2 R ) 4
Show that g at the poles = 9.83 m s-2 and
At a distance r = 3R,
g at the equator = 9.78 m s-2.
−g s R2 −gs
g= =
(3 R )
2
9
At a distance 4R,
2
−g s R −gs
g= 2
=
( 4 R) 16
3. The graph shows how g varies with
distance from the centre of a planet.
The shape of the curve beyond r= R is an
inverse-square law curve

distance from centre of planet of radius R

1. The polar radius is smaller than the
0 R 2R 3R 4R 5R
equatorial radius by about 21km, so a body at
- gs/4 the equator feels a smaller gravitational
attraction because it is further away from the
- gs/2 earth’s centre. This accounts for 0.02 m s-2 of
the difference.
2. Because the earth rotates, a body at the
- gs
equator has a centripetal acceleration of:

( )
2
2π
a=r E ω =( 6.4 x 10 ) x
2 6 −2
gravitational ¿ 0.03 m s
24 x 60 x 60
field strength
This does not apply at the poles, because the
Negative values indicate an attractive force body spins but does not rotate. There is no
field - the force acts to the left as the distance centripetal acceleration.
increases to the right. 3. At the poles, two forces act on a mass m
resting on the surface and these two forces
4. Assuming the earth to have a uniform are in equilibrium:
density, which is not true in practice, theory
 Gravitational and electric fields 3
Gm M E 2π r 2 4 π2r 2
m g p= , Because T = , v=
rP
2
v T
2

2 2
4π r GM
=
T
2
r
The force towards the centre of the Earth due 2 3
4π r
Gm M E T 2=
to gravity is GM
2
rP T ∝ r3
2

The force exerted on the mass by the ground 3. By assuming the force of attraction F
is m g p varies with distance according to the inverse
This force is equal in size and opposite in
direction to the weight of the mass.
G ME
( 1
)
square law, i.e. F ∝ 2 Newton proved
r
g p= = 9.83 m s-2 Kepler’s third law.
2
rp
4. At the equator, a mass resting on the Low Earth Orbit
surface also has two forces acting on it but (e.g. International Space Station)
the two forces are not in equilibrium. There is
a resultant centripetal force acting on the 1. At about 200 km above the earth, the
mass, given by: radius of satellite’s orbit is approximate equal
2 Gm M E to the Earth’s radius, 6400 km.
m rE ω = – m gE The centripetal force needed is provided by
r E2
2 the gravitational attraction of the Earth.
where m r E ω is the resultant centripetal force, Gm M E 2
v
Gm M E 2
=m
is the force towards the centre of the rE rE
2
rE GME
2
Earth due to gravity, and v =¿
rE
m g E is the force exerted by the ground on
GM
the mass. But g= 2 G M E =g r 2
r
Gm M E So v 2=g r E
2
m gE= 2
−mr E ω
rE
2. The speed of the satellite is
GME 2 2
g E= 2
−r E ω v =g r E
rE = 9.8 x 6.4 x 106
= 9.8 – 0.03 = 9.77 m s-2 = 7920 ms-1
= 8 km s-1
3. Circular orbits 3. The period of orbit is
1. Kepler’s third law for planetary motion 2π r
T=
stated that: v
The squares of the periods of revolution of 2 π 6.4 x 10 6
the planets about the Sun are proportional to =
7920
the cubes of their mean distances from it, = 5077.35 s = 85 minutes
2
T
3
=consta nt
r Note:
2. Newton explained this law using the idea 1. That r is measured from the centre of the
that the gravitational force of attraction earth.
between each planet and the Sun, is the 2. Both the speed and period depends on the
centripetal force that keeps the planet in its radius of the orbit, not on the satellite’s mass,
orbit: since G and ME are constants.
2
Gm M v
=m Geostationary satellites (e.g.
r
2
r
GM Communication Satellites like INTELSAT)
2
v =¿ r
 Gravitational and electric fields 4
1. These orbit around the equator in the
same direction of rotation as the earth with a Coulomb’s Law
period of 24 hours, so the satellite remains 1. Any two point charges Q1 , Q2 exert a force
above a fixed point on the Earth’s surface on each other that is proportional to the
and appears stationary when viewed from the product of their charge and inversely
Earth. proportional to the square of the distance r
2. The radius of orbit is between them.
2π r 2 4 π2 r 2 k Q1 Q 2
T= , v = F=
v T2 r
2

GME The constant of proportionality

and v 2=¿ 1
r k=
G M E 4 π2r 2 4 π ε0
=
r T
2 where ε0 = permittivity of free space.
T 2G M E (ε0 = 8.85 x 10 -12 F m-1.
r3 = k = 9 x 109 N m2 C-2.)
4π2 The very high value for k means that large
( 24 x 60 x 60 )2 x 6.7 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024 forces exist even between small charges.
¿ 2
4π Permittivity is a measure of how easy it is for
r = 42.36 x 106 m an electric field to pass through space. A
= 42 400 km material of high permittivity reduces the force
and the height above the Earth’s surface between the charges.
= 42400km – 6400km 2. Charged bodies can be considered to be
= 36 000km point charges if the separation between the
3. The speed is bodies is large compared with their sizes.
2
GME Newton’s law applies to point masses.
v =¿ 3. For charged spheres, the distance from
r
−11
6.7 x 10 x 6 x 10
24 the centres of each sphere is measured.
= 3 Charged spheres behave as if their charge
42400 x 10
was all concentrated at the centre.
v=3079 ms -1
4. The force is attractive or repulsive
= about 3 kms-1
depending on the charge. In gravity, the
force is only attractive.
4. Electric fields
1. An electric field is a region around an Electric field strength due to a Point
electric charge, in which another electric Charge and charged sphere
charge experiences a force. 1.

+
Q

r
P
2. Electric field strength, E, is the force F per +q
unit charge on a stationary positive point
charge q placed at that point in the field. Infinity (∞)
F point charge +Q produces a radial field. The
E=
q force on a small positive test charge +q
The unit of E is N C-1 or V m-1. placed in the field at a distance r from +Q is
E is a vector quantity. The direction of E is
the direction of the force on a positive charge.
 Gravitational and electric fields 5
Qq assuming that g is constant.
F=
4 π ϵor
2 Over large distances from the Earth, such as
F in space, the value of g changes as the
Since E= distance from the Earth changes.
q
Qq Gravitational potential is used to calculate
E= 2 energy changes when a body moves in a
4 π ϵ or q
gravitational field.
The electric field strength at a distance r from 2. The gravitational potential V, at a point is
+Q is the work done per unit mass in bringing the
Q mass from infinity to that point.
E=
4 π ϵ or 2 W
V=
m
Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity.
The unit of gravitational potential is J kg-1.
3. The gravitational potential at infinity is
zero. Elsewhere it is negative. This is
1 because gravity is an attractive force and
E∝ 2
r work has to be done on a mass to move it to
E infinity, so its potential energy is increases.
Since potential at infinity is zero, the potential
energy increases, i.e. becomes less negative
E/2 as it moves to infinity.
4. Equipotentials are surfaces which are at
E/4 the same potential.
0 R 2R 3R 4R
distance from centre of sphere

2. The field of a conducting sphere of radius

R is similar to that of a point charge on the
outside. All the sphere’s charge is at the
surface. Inside the sphere, there is no
electric field. A test charge inside the sphere
does not experience a force.
3. The field strength E at a distance r away
from a negative point charge –Q is
−Q 5. To find the work done or energy change
E= when an object moves from one point to
4 π ϵ or 2 another in a field, first find the change in
The negative sign tells us that the field is gravitational potential, which gives the
inwards. change in energy per kilogram. Then multiply
4. In a uniform electric field, such as the field by the mass of the object to give the total
between opposite charge parallel plates, E energy change.
has the same value at all points in the field,
energy change ( J )=change∈ gravitational potential ( J kg
−1
so the force on a test charge is the same
x mass(kg)
wherever the test charge is placed.
6. It can be shown that the gravitational
potential at a distance r from the centre of a
5. Gravitational Potential (V or Φ) planet is
1. Gravitational potential energy is the GM
energy of an object due to its position in a V =−¿
r
gravitational field. Changes in gravitational Applying this formula to the surface of the
potential energy, close to the Earth’s surface, Earth gives
is given by −11 24
ΔEp=mg Δh
6.67 x 10 x 6.0 x 10
V =−¿ 3
6400 x 10
 Gravitational and electric fields 6
= - 62.5 MJ kg-1 moved to infinity is
where r = RE the radius of the Earth GMEm
= 6400 km and M = mass of the Earth RE
.
= 6.0 x 1024 kg. The body needs to have at least this amount
This means that 63 MJ of work needs to be of kinetic energy when projected.
done to remove a 1 kg mass from the surface GMEm
2
to infinity. ½mv = .
RE
2GM E
v 2=
RE
But
−G M E
g= 2
RE
So
v = √2 g RE
Note- The escape speed does not depend on
the mass m of the body.
Variation of gravitational potential with
distance from the centre of the Earth

Distance from the RE 2RE 3RE 4RE 6. Electric potential (V or Φ)

earth’s centre 1. Consider bringing a positive charge q from
Potential V/ MJ kg-1 -62.5 -31.3 -20.8 -15.6 infinity towards a fixed, positive charge Q.
Because of the repulsion between the
charges, we must do work on q to bring it
1
V∝ closer to Q. This work is stored as the electric
r potential energy of q.
distance from earth’s centre
0 RE 2RE 3RE 4RE 2. The electric potential V at a point in a field
E is the work done per unit positive charge
-20 moving from infinity to that point, against the
action of the field.
-40 W
V=
-60 q
where W = work done in moving charge q
from infinity to a point P in the field. The
Potential V/ MJ kg-1 electric potential at ∞ = 0. Potential is a
scalar quantity. The unit of V is J C-1.
The gradient of the potential curve at any 3. The work done W =q V , so the electrical
point is equal to –g, where g is the potential energy of a test charge q at potential
gravitational field strength at the point. V is
ΔV electric p . e .=q V
g = - Δx = - potential gradient
ele ctric p . e .
The negative value of the slope gives the field V=
q
strength. The minus sign indicates that the The electric potential V at a point in a field is
potential falls in the direction of the field. the potential energy per unit charge of a
positive test charge placed at that point.
Escape Speed 4. Potential difference (p.d.) between two
What is meant by escape speed? points is the work done per unit charge (or
Show that the escape speed is given by energy transferred per unit charge), passing
v = √ 2 g RE from one point to the other.
For example: If the work done or energy
1. This is the speed needed by an object to transferred when a charge of 2 C is moved
escape from the gravitational force of
attraction of the Earth (or other planet).
2. The increase in p.e. of a body when
 Gravitational and electric fields 7
between the two points A and B is 20 J, the
W 20
p.d. between A and B = = =10V
q 2 potential –V
5. The volt- The p.d. between two points is 1
V if 1J of work is done in taking 1 C of charge 3. Inside a charged conductor, all points are
between the points. 1 V = 1 J C-1 at the same potential. No work needs to be
done to move the charges because they are
Electric potential in a radial field at the same potential. The potential gradient
1. It can be shown that the potential V of a is zero, so the electric field inside a conductor
point charge Q is is zero.
Q 4. There is a force of repulsion between the
V=
4 π ε0 r charge +Q and the test charge +q and work is
where r is the distance from the charge Q. done to move one charge closer to the other.
1 In doing work, energy is transferred to the
V∝
r test charge which gains electrical potential
V varies with distance r according to an energy. The diagram shows how the
inverse law, whereas E varies with distance r potential energy of a test charge increases as
according to an inverse square law. the test charge moves towards the charge
2. The potential due to a positive charge is +Q, forming a potential ‘hill’.
positive, The opposite occurs for a negative charge –
Q Q, so a potential ‘well’ forms.
V=
4 π ε0 r

Negative charges cause a negative potential,

−Q
V= .
4 π ε0 r

potential with distance from the centre of a

positive charge

potential +V

5. The strength of the field is shown by the

slope of the hill or well.
Electric field strength
¿−potential gradient
−dV
E=
dx
0 R 2R 3R 4R 5R This equation applies for all electric fields.
distance from centre The minus sign shows that the potential
decreases in the direction of the field.
potential with distance from the centre of a
negative charge
7. P.E. and K.E. of Satellite
distance from centre
1. The total energy ET of a satellite in orbit is
0 R 2R 3R 4R 5R
the sum of its potential and kinetic energies.
ET =E P + E K
−GM m
ET =¿ +½ m v
2
r
We know that
 Gravitational and electric fields 8
2 mv GMm2 square law with obey an inverse
mr ω =¿ =¿ 2 distance square law with
r r distance
So Potential GM Q
GMm V=- V=
½ m v =¿2
r 4 π ε0 r
2r J kg-1 V or J C-1
This means that Potential energy Potential energy
−GM m GMm between two point between two
ET =¿ + masses:
r 2r point charges:
GMm Q1 Q2
¿− −G m M E=
2r E= 4 π ϵ or
2 r
¿−½ m v obeys an
obeys an inverse
inverse
2. As the radius of the orbit decreases, the relationship with
relationship with
total energy decreases, i.e. becomes more distance and is
distance and is
GMm zero at infinity
zero at infinity
negative or increases.
2r
However, the satellites K.E. increases making
it speed up.

10. Comparing gravitational and

electric fields
Gravitational Electric fields
fields
origin arise from mass arise from
electric charges
Field line path of a free ‘test’ path of a free
mass in the field ‘test’ charge in
the field
Vector only gravitational both electrical
forces attraction attraction and
repulsion
Field F F
strength g= E=
m q
N kg-1 or m s-2 N C-1 or V m-1
Uniform parallel parallel electric
field gravitational field field lines
lines
g = constant V
E= =constant
d
Radial field Newton’s law F = Coulomb’s law
Gm M Q1 Q2
- 2 F= 2
r 4 π ϵo r
field strength field strength
−G M Q
g= 2 E=
r 4 π ϵor
2
force and field
force and field
obey an inverse