CRIM 3 WEEK 12

Victimology is the study of victimization, including the relationships between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the
criminal justice system-that is, the police and courts and corrections officials-and the connections between victims and other social groups and
institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social movements. Victimology is, however, not restricted to the study of victims of crime alone but
may include other forms of human rights violation.

The definition of victimology is defined as the study of the victims of crime and their relationship with an offender. Where criminology is the study
of the crime itself, victimology is best described as the study of the victim of a crime. Overall, the field of victimology critically examines the crime
victim, the perpetrator of the crime, and the offender. The field itself is a sub-field of criminology and uses data, both empirical and theoretical
references, to draw conclusions about the victims of crimes.

Specifically, victimology focuses on whether the perpetrators were complete strangers, mere acquaintances, friends, family members, or
even intimates and why a particular person or place was targeted. Criminal victimization  may inflict economic costs, physical injuries, and
psychological harm.

Historical background of Victimology

Historically, the Latin term victima was used to individuals or animals whose lives were destined to be sacrificed t a deity it did not necessarily imply
pain or suffering, only a s role "Victimology" arose in Europe after World War II, primarily to understand the criminal-victim relationship. Early
victimology the posited that victim attitudes and conduct are among the causes of gen behavior.

 In the nineteenth century, the word victim became connected with the notion of harm or loss in general (Spalek 2006). In the mode criminal justice
system, the word victim has come to describe any person who has experienced injury, loss, or hardship due to the illegal action or another individual,
group, or organization (Karmen 2004).

As Tokiwa University (Japan) Professor of Criminology Victimology John Dussich noted, "As a graduate student in 1962, had th privilege of
being a student of Stephen Schafer who was a victimolog and criminologist from Hungary, one of the early victimologists. He first spoke about
victimology in his class on criminological theory. It was the first time that he ever gave a lecture in this country and we became friends after that the
interest in victimology correlated with increasing concern about crime in America in the late 1960s. It is perhaps no coincidence that the precursor to
Dr. Schafer's book was a study he conducted for the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The crime wave of the time led to the
formation of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice in 1966, which conducted the
first national victimization surveys that, in turn, showed that victimization rates were far higher than shown in law enforcement figures - and that
many non-reporting victims acted out of distrust of the justice system. This captured the attention of researchers who began to examine the impact of
crime on victims, as well as victim disillusionment with the system.

The interest in victimology correlated with increasing concern about crime in America in the late 1960s. It is perhaps no coincidence that the
precursor to Dr. Schafer's book was a study he conducted for the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The crime wave of the time led
to the formation of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice in 1966, which conducted the first
national victimization surveys that, in turn, showed that victimization rates were far higher than shown in law enforcement figures - and that many
non reporting victims acted out of distrust of the justice system. This captured the attention of researchers who began to examine the impact of crime
on victims, as well as victim disillusionment with the system.

"In my view it is no accident that the explosion of interest in victims and victimization surveys developed simultaneously," Michael J. Hindelang
wrote in "Victimization Surveying, Theory and Research" published in 1982. "Each has provided some stimulus for the other and each has the
potential for providing benefits to the other." As will be discussed, the prosecutor based victim/witness revolution in particular was a direct
consequence of victimological research. The importation of victimology to the United States was due largely to the work of the scholar Stephen
Schafer, whose book The Victim and His Criminal: a Study in Functional Responsibility became mandatory reading for anyone interested in the
study of crime victims and their behaviors.

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), between the 1970's and 1980's, just after the civil rights movement, there was increased
awareness about victims. In 1972, the FBI formed the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU) to study the relationships between the offenders, the victims,
and group dynamics in society. Police officers would gather at the FBI headquarters in Quantico, Virginia for trainings. During these training's, the
police officers began to realize they were seeing different patterns between victims and offenders.” The BSU studied these patterns and relationships
between victims and offenders. Along with the BSU, several independent victim support organizations, such as Mothers against Drunk Drivers
(MADD) and Parents of Murdered Children (POMC), formed to study different crimes that had happened to their loved ones. These groups worked
together to help to better define the relationships between victims and offenders that are used in current theories of victimology.

 "In my view, it is no accident that the explosion of interest in victims and victimization surveys developed simultaneously," Michael J. Hindelang
wrote in "Victimization Surveying, Theory and Research" published in 1982. "Each has provided some stimulus for the other and each has the
potential for providing benefits to the other."

The victim is a person who has been harmed by a perpetrator. A victim is a person who suffers direct or threatened physical, emotional or financial
harm as a result of an act by someone else, which is a crime. A victim of misplaced confidence; a victim of a swindler, and a victim of an optical
illusion; a person or animal sacrificed or regarded as sacrificed: war victims living creature sacrificed in religious rites. A living being sacrificed to a
deity or in the performance of a rite.
A victim is a person who has been hurt or taken advantage of, which most of us try to avoid. Some people hit others over the head with this word.
Some seem to like being victimized; some almost compete over who is the biggest victim, a person who suffers from a destructive or injurious action
or agency a victim of an automobile accident who experience loss, injury, or hardship for any reason.

The perpetrator, also known as the offender, is an individual who has committed the crime against the victim.

Additionally, he is an aggressor, assailant, criminal, evil doer, felon, lawbreaker, malefactor, malfeasant, one implicated in the commission of a
crime, one who breaks the law, one who commits a crime, peccans, sinner, transgressor, violator, wrongdoer. Law enforcement agencies use the
study of victimology and the theories of victimology to determine why the victim was targeted by the offender.

• 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook.

• 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the rapist and his victim.
• 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and criminal interactions.
• 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term “victimology” in a French journal.
• 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim.
• 1949 Frederic Wertham first used the word “victimology” in a book Show of Violence.
o Significant gains in the United States when the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice urged
criminologists to pay more attention to victims.
o By the 70s victimology became field of study
o By 1990, 240 colleges and universities offered courses in victimology
o Most states passed crime victims rights amendments to their state constitution
o 2004 – Congress enacts the Crime Victims’ Rights Act which provides for fair treatment and opportunities for input in federal court proceedings

First-generation scholarly work in victimology proposed victim typologies based on the offender–victim dyad in a criminal act. Common to the
ideas of these early victimologists was that each classified victims in regard to the degree to which they had caused their own victimization. These
early theoretical reflections pushed the budding field of victimology in a direction that eventually led to a reformulation of the definition of
victimization.

German criminologist HansVon Hentig (1948) developed a typology of victims based on the degree to which victims contributed to causing the
criminal act. Examining the psychological, social, and biological dynamics of the situation, he classified victims into 13 categories depending on
their propensity or risk for victimization. His typology included the young, female, old, immigrants, depressed, wanton, tormentor, blocked,
exempted, or fighting. His notion that victims contributed to their victimization through their actions and behaviors led to the development of
the concept of “victim-blaming” and is seen bymany victimadvocates as an attempt to assign equal culpability to the victim.

Benjamin Mendelsohn (1976), an attorney, has often been referred to as the “father” of victimology. Intrigued by the dynamics that take place
between victims and offenders, he surveyed both parties during the course of preparing a case for trial. Using these data, he developed a six-category
typology of victims based on legal considerations of the degree of a victim’s culpability. This classification ranged from the completely innocent
victim (e.g., a child or a completely unconscious person) to the imaginary victim (e.g., persons suffering from mental disorders who believe they are
victims).

The first empirical evidence to support the notion that victims are to some degree responsible for their own victimization was presented by Marvin
E. Wolfgang (1958), who analyzed Philadelphia’s police homicide records from 1948 through 1952. He reported that 26% of homicides resulted
from victim precipitation. Wolfgang identified three factors common to victim-precipitated homicides: (1) The victim and offender had some prior
interpersonal relationship, (2) there was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties, and (3) the victim had consumed alcohol.

Moving from classifying victims on the basis of propensity or risk and yet still focused on the victim– offender relationship, Stephen
Schafer’s (1968) typology classifies victims on the basis of their “functional responsibility.” Victims’ dual role was to function so that they did not
provoke others to harm them while also preventing such acts. Schafer’s seven-category functional responsibility typology ranged from no victim
responsibility (e.g., unrelated victims, those who are biologically weak), to some degree of victim responsibility (e.g., precipitative victims), to total
victim responsibility (e.g., self-victimizing).

Menachem Amir

Several years later, Menachem Amir (1971) undertook one of the first studies of rape. On the basis of the details in the Philadelphia police rape
records, Amir reported that 19% of all forcible rapes were victim precipitated by such factors as the use of alcohol by both parties; seductive actions
by the victim; and the victim’s wearing of revealing clothing, which could tantalize the offender to the point of misreading the victim’s behavior. His
work was criticized by the victim’s movement and the feminist movement as blaming the victim.
Subsequently, some general facts have been gathered about victimization.

o Victimization is more likely at night (6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.). Personal larceny is more common during the day, with more serious crime
occurring at night.
o Crime occurs more in open public areas, although rapes and simple assaults tend to occur in homes.
o Crime is most frequent in central city areas. Western urban areas have the highest crime rates, while the Northeast rural areas have the lowest.
o The National Crime Survey indicates that 25% of U.S. househol have at least one individual who was victimized in some way during the past
year.
o Personal theft is very common.
o About 99% of Americans will be the victim of personal theft at some time in their lives, and 87% will be a theft victim three or more times.
o Men are twice as likely as women to be victims of robbery and assault.
o The violent victimization rate for females has been fairly stable, but there has been a 20% increase for males in the lag 15 years.
o Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Contrary to popular bellet, grandparents are safer than their grandchildren.
o Unmarried/never married people are more likely to be victims than the married or widowed.
o The poor are more likely to be victims of crime.
o They are far more likely to be victims of violent crime, while the middle class are more likely to be victims of property crime.
o African Americans are victimized at the highest rates. Crime tends to be intra-racial (criminals and victims of the same race) rather than
interracial (criminal and victim of different races). About 75% of crime is intra-racial.
o Strangers commit about 60% of violent crimes. However, females are more likely to know their assailants.
o In some studies, over half of offenders report being under the influence of alcohol and/or other drugs when they committed the offense resulting
in incarceration.  
o The characteristics of those most likely to be victimized might be summarized as: young, black, urban, poor and male.

CRIM 3 LESSON 13
1. Target vulnerability - Victim’s physical weakness or psychological distress.
2. Target gratifiability - some victims have quality, possession, skill or attribute that an offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate.

3. Target antagonism - some characteristics increase risk because they arouse anger, jealousy or destructive impulses in potential offenders.

During passive precipitation, the victim unconsciously exhibits behaviors or characteristics that instigate or encourage the attack. Siegel (2006) lists
job promotions, job status, successes, love interests, and the like as examples of these unconscious behaviors and characteristics. Additionally,
political activists, minority groups, those of different sexual orientations, and other individuals pursuing alternate lifestyles may also find themselves
as targets of violence due to the inadvertent threat they pose to certain individuals of power.

Essentially, the victim precipitation theory focuses on the idea that passive precipitation of violence is a result of a power struggle. A politician may
feel threatened by an activist group leader because his action draws attention to negative aspects of his personality and actions that will, or may
cause, loss of power in society. This sort of passive precipitation may also be present when the victim is not even aware of the existence of the
attacker.

Active precipitation, on the other hand, is the opposite of the afore- described. Victimization under this theory occurs through the threatening or
provocative actions of the victim. One of the most controversial points of this theory is the idea that women who are raped actively contributed in
some way, either through provocative dress, a relationship, or suggested consent of intimacy (Siegel, 2006). Because of this viewpoint, it is hard to
convict an accused rapist who has had some form of relationship with the accused, or one that was behaving provocatively or suggestively. When
dealing with this theory we must ask ourselves whether or not it is really okay to blame the occurrence of a crime on the victim.

This is especially true in cases of rape when flirtation may be present, yet they is no consent to sexual intercourse. Examples of Victim Precipitation

Active Precipitation
● A woman kills her husband due to a prolonged history of regular domestic violence.
● In the midst of a heated argument, the victim physically lashes out at the offender, causing him to shove or hit the victim so hard that he/she
falls and gravely injures himself/herself.
● Constant derogation and humiliation of an employee, in public, by the employer, causes the employee to lash out and physically ham the
employer.
● A drunken man engages in eve-teasing a woman, keeps chasing her, and eventually tries to get physical with her. In desperation the woman
reaches for any sharp object she can find, and starts the man.

Passive Precipitation
● The horrifying practice of lynching (hate crime) that was carried ou by Americans against people of African origins, due to racism.
● One employee is passed over for a promotion that is offered to his her colleague (victim).
● This motivates him to physically harm or spread rumors about the victim.
● Two men competing for the love of the same woman may indulge in antagonistic acts towards each other.
● The act of terrorism against a select community of people. In general, according to studies on victimology, victim-precipitated crimes are
largely those crimes that involve acts of terrorism, hate crimes, racial hatred, physical and sexual assaults, etc. These tend to be
spontaneous and crimes of passion. Very rarely are these crimes premeditated. Analysis of various victim-precipitated crimes suggests that
males are more likely to be victimized by strangers, whereas women are likely to be victimized by friends and known acquaintances.
Almost one third of all violent crimes involve the use of mind-altering drugs or alcohol
The lifestyle theory maintains that criminals target individuals due to their lifestyle choices. Many victims’ options expose them to criminal
offenders and situations where crime is likely to occur. their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization risk is increased by
such behaviors as associating young men, going out in public places late at night, and living in an urban area.
This theory also cites research that shows a correlation between the lifestyles of victims and offenders. Both tend to be impulsive and lack self-
control, making the victim more likely to put themselves in high-risk situations and the offender more likely to engage in an unlawful act.

Examples of lifestyle choices that may raise one’s risk of victimization include:
1. Walking alone at night.
2. Living in the “bad” part of town.
3. Being promiscuous.
4. Drinking in excess.
5. Doing drugs.
6. Associating with felons.

High risk victims - victims in this group have a lifestyle that makes a higher risk for being a victim of a violent crime.
Moderate risk victims - some reasons were in a situation that placed them in a greater risk of level.
Low risk victims- These individuals stay out of trouble,do not have peers that are criminal
This theory purports that individuals are targeted based on their lifestyle choices, and that these lifestyle choices expose them to criminal offenders
and situations in which crimes may be committed. Examples of some lifestyle choices indicated by this theory include going out at night alone, living
in "bad" parts of town, associating with known felons, being promiscuous, excessive alcohol use, and doing drugs.

In addition to theorizing that victimization is not random, but rather a part of the lifestyle the victims pursue, the lifestyle theory cites research that
victims "share personality traits also commonly found in law violators, namely impulsivity and low self control" (Siegel, 2006). This previous
statement was discussed in a psychology journal by Jared Dempsey, Gary Fireman, and Eugene Wang, in which they note the correlation between
victims and the perpetrators of crimes, both exhibiting impulsive and antisocial-like behaviors (2006). These behaviors may contribute to their
victimization since they cause the individual to put themselves at higher risk for victimization than their more conservative lifestyle counterparts.

Victims do not encourage crime but are victim-prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where they have the greatest risk
of coming into contact with criminal offenders. Minorities tend to be victimized at higher rates because of social and economic inequality. Minorities
are more likely to reside in low-income neighborhoods with high crime rates and cannot move from areas with significant criminal activity compared
to their caucasian neighbors.
This theory of victimology also proposes that safety measures taken in dangerous areas may be of little to no use since it’s the area’s demographic
that increases victimization rather than the victim’s lifestyle choices. If an individual lives in a deviant area, the only way to lower their chance of
being a victim of a crime is to leave the deviant and dangerous neighborhood for one that is less deviant and has a lower crime rate.

The deviant place theory states that greater exposure to dangerous places makes an individual more likely to become the victim of a crime (Seigel,
2006). Unlike the victim precipitation theory, the victims do not influence the crime by actively or passively encouraging it, but rather are victimized
as a result of being in "bad" areas. In order to lower the chance that one will become the victim of a crime, the individual should avoid the "bad"
areas of town where crime rates are high. For example, Tondo, Divisoria or Quiapo in Metro Manila are notorious for its gangs, and high crime rate.
The more an individual ventures into these areas, the more likely they are to become the victim of a crime there.

Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity to warrant disapproval from the majority of society.
Deviance can be criminal or non-criminal. The sociological discipline that deals with crime (behavior that violates laws) is criminology (also known
as criminal justice). Today, Americans consider such activities as alcoholism, excessive gambling, being nude in public places, playing with fire,
stealing, lying, refusing to bathe, purchasing the services of prostitutes, and cross-dressing-to name only a few-as deviant. People who engage in
deviant behavior are referred to as deviants.

The study of social deviance is the study of the vines of natural norms in either formal or informal contexts. Social divines a phenomenon that has
existed in all societies with norms. Sociology theories of deviance are those that use social context and social pressure to explain deviance.

The differential-association theory applies to many types of deviant behavior. For example, juvenile gangs provide an environment in which young
people learn to become criminals. These gangs define perseveres as counter-cultural and glorify violence, retaliation, and crime as means to
achieving social status. Gang members earn to embrace and conform to their gang's norms.

Differential-association theory has contributed to the field of criminology in its focus on the developmental nature of criminality People a deviance
from the people with whom they associate. Critics of the differential-association theory, on the other hand, claim the vagueness of the theory's
terminology does not lend itself to social science research methods or empirical validation.
Anomie refers to the confusion that arises when social norms conflict or do not even exist. In the 1960s, Robert Merton used the term to describe the
differences between socially accepted goals and the availability of means to achieve those goals. Merton stressed, for instance, that attaining wealth is
a major goal of Americans, but not all Americans possess the means to do this, especially members of minority and disadvantaged groups. Those
who find the "road to riches" closed to them experience anomie, because an obstacle has thwarted their pursuit of a socially approved goal. When this
happens, these individuals may employ deviant behaviors to attain their goals, retaliate against society, or merely "make a point."

According to Walter Reckless's control theory, both inner and outer controls work against deviant tendencies. People may want-at least some of the
time-to act in deviant ways, but most do not. various restraints: internal controls, such as conscience, values, integrity, morality and the desire to be a
"good person"; and outer controls, as police, family, friends, and religious authorities. Travis Hirschi noted that these inner and outer restraints form a
person's self-control, who prevents acting against social norms. The key to developing self-cont is proper socialization, especially early in childhood.
Children who have this self-control, then, may grow up to commit crimes and other deviant behaviors.

1. A type of symbolic interaction, labeling theory concerns the meanings people derive from one another's labels, symbols, actions and
reactions. This theory holds that behaviors are deviant only whe society labels them as deviant. As such, conforming members of
society who interpret certain behaviors as deviant and then attach this label to individuals, determine the distinction between deviance
and non-deviance Labeling theory questions who applies what label to whom, why they do this, and what happens as a result of this
labeling.

William Chambliss in 1973 conducted a classic study into the effects of labeling. His two groups of white, male, high-school students were both
frequently involved in delinquent acts of theft, vandalism, drinking, and truancy. The police never arrested the members of one group, which
Chambliss labeled the "Saints," but the police did have frequent run-ins with members of the other group, which he labeled the "Roughnecks." The
boys in the Saints came from respectable families, had good reputations and grades in school, and were careful not to get caught when breaking the
law. By being polite, cordial, and apologetic whenever confronted by the police, the Saints escaped labeling themselves as "deviants." In contrast, the
Roughnecks came from families of lower socio- economic status, had poor reputations and grades in school, and were not careful about being caught
when breaking the law. By being hostile and insolent whenever confronted by the police, the Roughnecks were easily labeled by others and
themselves as "deviants." In other words, while both groups committed crimes, the Saints were perceived to be "good" because of their polite
behavior (which was attributed to their upper-class backgrounds) and the Roughnecks were seen as "bad" because of their insolent behavior (which
was attributed to their lower-class backgrounds). As a result, the police always took action against the Roughnecks, but never against the Saints.

General Strain Theory

Main article: General Strain Theory

General Strain Theory (GST) is a sociology and criminology theory developed in 1992 by Robert Agnew. The core idea of general strain theory is
that people who experience strain or stress become distressed or upset which may lead them to commit crime in order to cope. One of the key
principles of this theory is emotion as the motivation for crime. The theory was developed to conceptualize the full range of sources in society where
strain possibly comes from, which Merton's strain theory does not. The theory also focuses on the perspective of goals for status, expectations and
class rather than focusing on money theory does) Examples of General Strain Theory are people who use legal drugs to make themselves feel better,
or a student assaulting his s to end the harassment they causes peers t

GST introduces 3 main sources of strain such as:

1. Loss of positive stimuli (death of family or friend)

2. Presentation of negative stimuli (physical and verbal assaults)
3. The inability to reach a desired goal,

Institutional Anomie Theory is a criminology theory developed in 1994 by Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld. The theory proposes that an
institutional arrangement with a market, where the market/economy is allowed to operate/dominate without restraints from other social intuitions like
family will likely cause criminal behavior. Derived from Merton's Strain Theory, IAT expands on the macro levels of the theory. IAT's focus centers
on the criminal influences of varied social institutions, rather than just the economic structure.

Illegitimate opportunities are a sociology theory developed in 1960 by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. The theory states that crimes result from a
high number of illegitimate opportunities and not from a lack of legitimate ones. The theory was created from Merton's strain theory to help address
juvenile delinquency.

Robert King Merton was an American sociologist who argued that society can encourage deviance to a large degree. Merton believed that socially
accepted goals put pressure on people to conform. People are forced to work within the system or become members of a deviant subculture to achieve
the desired goal. Merton's belief the theory known
Routine activities theory is bound up in opportunity and lifestyle. A person’s living arrangements can affect victim risk; people who live in
unguarded areas are at the mercy of motivated offenders. Lifestyle affects the opportunity for crime because it controls a person’s proximity to
criminals, time of exposure to criminals, attractiveness as a target, and ability to be protected.
They concluded that the volume and distribution of predatory crime (violent crimes against a person and crimes in which an offender attempts to steal
an object directly

1. The availability of suitable targets, including homes that contain high-value items that are relatively easy to obtain.

The absence of capable guardians. Lack of guardianship such as the police, a homeowner, neighbors, friends, and relatives can increase the
probability of a crime. A target that is undefended and attractive is the holy grail for a motivated criminal. However, if a target is well-defended by
capable guardianship, even the most seasoned criminal may hesitate to attack.
Even the most motivated offenders may ignore valuable targets if they are well guarded. Despite containing valuable commodities, private homes
and/or public businesses may be considered off-limits by seasoned criminals if they are well protected by capable guardians and efficient security
systems.
The presence of motivated offenders who have criminal intent and the ability to act on their plan. For example, a substantial amount of jobless
teenagers. If there is a lack of motivated criminals in an area, the crime rate is likely to be lower than the rate in an area with significantly more
motivated offenders.

Hot spots
Motivated people - such as teenage males, drug users, and unemployed adults- are the ones most likely to commit crime. If they congregate in a
particular neighborhood, it becomes a “hot spot” for crime and violence.

Routine Activity Theory is a sub-field of crime opportunity theory that focuses on situations of crimes. It has been developed by Marcus Felson
and Lawrence E. Cohen, The premise of routine activity theory is that crime is relatively unaffected by social causes such as poverty, inequality and
unemployment. For instance, after World War II, the economy of Western countries was booming and the Welfare states were expanding. Despite
this, crime rose significantly during this time. According to Felson and Cohen, the reason for the increase is that the prosperity of contemporary
society offers more opportunities for crime to occur; there is much more to steal.

CRIM 3 WEEK 14
Freudian psychology involving the death wish, the drive for punishment or other subconscious or instinctual motivations, could be alleged to be
operating in the propensity toward victimization. If victim proneness exists in a criminal case, then it could be asserted that the victim contributed to
his own victimization. Yet, as von Hentig indicated, victims may be contributory agents to a crime without warranting the label of victim proneness.
The owner's keys left in his car, newspapers and mail left piled on the vacationing family's stoop, other forms of negligence in security of
possessions, may contribute to crime. However, the victim's contribution may go a step beyond negligence to provocation. The woman who entices
men to the point of assault was mentioned by von Hentig in

The Criminal and His Victim. Patterns in Criminal Homicide referred to a quarter of the 588 homicides as being "victim-precipitated" cases in which
the victim was the one to begin the deadly quarrel by resort to a physical weapon.
Primary victims 

A primary victim is a person who is injured or dies as a direct result of an act of violence committed against them as a direct result of:

For example: 

o I was injured when my partner hit me in a domestic violence incident.'.

o  'I was injured when I was attacked by a stranger while walking my dog.'

o 'I was injured in a road accident and the driver was charged with dangerous driving causing grievous bodily harm.

o Jim was murdered by a stranger in his home. He is a primary victim who has died as a result of an act of violence.

Special primary victim 

o A special primary victim is a primary victim of an act of violence who:

o  was under 18 years of age when the violence was committed

o  has an impaired capacity

o is the victim of violence involving a sexual offense

o was harmed or injured by someone in a position of power, influence or trust over the victim at the time

o is being threatened or intimidated by either the person who committed the violence or someone else.

For example: 

'I was sexually assaulted by a friend. I went to my doctor for a checkup and pregnancy test but was too traumatized to go to the police. I now need
financial assistance to help me recover from the incident.'

A "secondary victim" is a person who suffers nervous shock himself being exposed to danger. An example of this is a spectator car race, who
witnesses a terrible crash caused by negligence on the of the car manufacturers and develops a nervous illness as a result of his experience. It is in
these cases where the courts have been particular reluctant to award damages for nervous shock. In several dens the courts have identified several
strict requirements for the recognition of a duty of care not to cause nervous shock, as well as causation remoteness:

The claimant must perceive a "shocking event with his o unaided senses, as an eye-witness to the event, or hearing the event in person, or viewing its
"immediate aftermath The requires close physical proximity to the event, and would usually exclude events witnessed by television or informed of by
a party. T witnessed something so terrible that anybody could be expected to suffer psychiatric injury as a result. ion).

Parent secondary victim

A parent secondary victim is a parent who is injured as a result of an act of violence against their child.

For example:
o  'I'm a parent and I have suffered an anxiety disorder as a result of violence against my child."'

o  'I collapsed and broke my arm when the police told me that my child was in hospital because of an act of violence.

A witness secondary victim is a person who is injured as a direct result of witnessing an act of violence against another person. They may be a
witness to either a more or less serious act of violence. A more serious act of violence may involve murder, manslaughter or dangerous driving
causing death. Other offenses are classed as less serious acts of violence.

For example:
o  'I was in my neighbor's home and I saw them being murdered. I had a heart attack, and now I am depressed and scared when I am alone in my
home' (more serious act of violence).

o 'I was in a petrol station when it was robbed by a man with a gun and the attendant was assaulted. Now I suffer an anxiety disorder as a direct
result of seeing the robbery (less serious act of violence).

Related victims
 A related victim is a close family member or dependant of a primary victim who has died as a direct result of an act of violence against them.
A close family member of a primary victim must have had a genuine personal relationship with the primary victim when they died. A close family
member of the primary victim may be a: the spouse of the victim; a parent, guardian or step-parent of the victim; a child or step-child of the victim or
some other child of whom the victim is the guardian; or a brother, sister, step-brother or step-sister of the victim. person who, under Aboriginal or
Island custom, is regarded as a person above. A related victim is a person who, at the time of the violent crime was a close family member of a
deceased primary victim; was a dependant of a deceased primary victim; or had an intimate personal relationship with a deceased primary victim.

Sexual Misconduct is an umbrella term that includes any non-consensual sexual activity that is committed by force or fear or mental or physical
incapacitation, including through the use of alcohol or drugs. Sexual misconduct can vary in its severity and consists of a range of behavior, including
rape, statutory rape (sexual contact with a person under 18 years old), sexual touching, sexual exploitation, sexual harassment, and conduct
suggestive of attempting to commit any of the aforementioned acts.

Rape is the sexual penetration (however sigh the victim's vagina, mouth, or rectum without consent. Rape involves penetration with (a) the use of
force/fear or the threat of force/fear or; (b) with a person who is otherwise incapable of giving consent, ind situations where the individual is under
the influence of alcohol or and this condition was or should have reasonably been known to accused. This is especially true in cases when flirtation
may be present yet there is no consent to sexual intercourse.

Sexual Touching
 also known as sexual is the act of making unwanted and sexually offensive contact (cloth unclothed) with an intimate body part of another person or
action, causes immediate apprehension that sexual touch will occur. Intimate body parts include sexual organs, the anus, the groin, breasts or but of
any person. Sexual touching includes situations in which the a engages in the contacts described with a person who is incapable of consent.

Sexual Exploitation
 is the taking advantage of a non-consenting person or situation for personal benefit or gratification or for the benefit of anyone other than the alleged
victim; and the behavior does not constitute rape, sexual touching or sexual harassment.

Sexual exploitation includes, but is not limited to:

o Photographing or making audio or video recordings of sexual activity without consent; Dissemination of Images or recordings without consent
of the participant(s);

o allowing others to observe sexual activity without or consent of the partner;

o Voyeurism (peeping tom); the knowledge knowingly transmitting a sexually transmitted infection or HIV to another student;

o prostituting another person;

o Giving alcohol or other drugs to another student with the intention of rending him or her incapable of giving consent.

Sexual Harassment-  

is any unwelcome sexual conduct or behavior that creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive working or educational environment. When someone
calls you insulting sexual names, talks about you in a sexual way that makes you feel uncomfortable (like commenting on your body), or spreads
sexual rumors about you, this is known as sexual harassment. This could happen in person, over the phone, or online.

Stalking and harassment

A lot of people think stalking is something that just happens to celebrities, but the reality is that it can happen to anyone. Stalking can be defined as
persistent and unwanted attention that makes you feel pestered and harassed. Stalking and harassment includes behavior that happens two or more
times, directed at or towards you by another person, which causes you to feel alarmed or distressed or to fear that violence might be used against you.

Physical Assault/Battery
o Physical assault or be prohibited. It is to touch or strike a person against his or her will threaten violence against that person. If someone
intentionally touches you in a sexual way that you do not like, or you are forced to someone or do something else sexual against your will, this is
classed as sexual assault. This includes sexual touching of any part of some body, and it makes no difference whether you are clothed or not.
grab Some survivors of sexual assault and rape take many year to acknowledge that they have been a victim and find it hard to take st get help.
But it is never too late. We can find the best person to sup you, depending on what you decide you want to do. If you want to re the crime to the
police, this is still a possibility. Even if you got supp the time, you can still get more support now, as there may be thing happen which still scare
you or worry you.

Dating Relationship/Domestic Violence 

is prohibited. This type of violence may be emotional, verbal, physical and/or sexual abuse by an intimate partner, family members or parties in a
dating relationship.

Human Sex Trafficking 

o Sex trafficking in which a commercial or act is induced by force fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not
attained 18 years of age, or the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of
force, fraud, or coercion, for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, personage, debt bondage, or slavery.
Types of Domestic Violence Domestic abuse describes negative behaviors that one person exhibits over another within families or relationships.
These patterns of behavior can include threats, put-downs, isolation, violence and control. Sometimes domestic abuse can be called domestic
violence.

Domestic abuse can take different forms, including Physical abuse: pushing, hitting, punching, kicking, choking, and using weapons.

o Sexual abuse: forcing or pressuring someone to have sex (rape), unwanted sexual activity, touching, groping someone or making them watch
pornography.

o Financial abuse: taking money, controlling finances, not letting someone work.

o Emotional abuse/ coercive control: repeatedly making someone feel bad or scared, stalking, blackmailing, constantly checking up on someone,
playing mind games. Coercive control is now a criminal offense under the Serious Crime

o Digital/online abuse: using technology to further isolate, humiliate or control someone..

o Honor-based violence and forced marriage

Physical abuse is the most recognizable form of domestic violence. It involves the use of force against the victim, causing injury (e.g. a punch or a
kick, stabbing, shooting, choking, slapping, forcing you to use drugs, etc.). Remember that the injury doesn't need to be a major one. Consider, for
example, that your abuser slaps you a few times, causing only minor injuries that do not require a visit to the hospital. Is that domestic violence? Yes.
The slapping would still be considered domestic violence.

Emotional Abuse is saying or doing something to the other person that causes the person to be afraid, have lower self-esteem, or cause
psychological or emotional distress. Manipulating or controlling the person's feelings or behaviors. Behavior that causes harm with words or actions
Likewise it involves the destruction of the victim's self-worth, and is brought about by persistent insult, humiliation, or criticism. Emotional abuse
can be a difficult type of domestic violence for many people to understand, since, on the surface, it appears to be quite common in unhealthy
relationships. As a victim, you should know that in most states, emotional abuse is not enough on its own to bring a domestic violence action unless
the abuse is so persistent and so significant that the relationship can be labeled extremely coercive. Most commonly, evidence of emotional abuse is
combined with other abuse (physical, financial, sexual, or psychological) to bring a domestic violence action.

Financial Abuse 
Of the types of domestic violence, financial abuse is perhaps least obvious Financial abuse may take on many forms, such as a husband preventing
his wife from obtaining an education or a job outside the to Financial abuse is extremely common, particularly when families pooled their money into
joint accounts (with one partner controlling where there is little or no family support system to help. Financial abuse simply another form of control,
even though it is usually less obvious to physical or sexual abuse.

o Cases Involving the Elderly 

o Elder financial abuse involves someone targeting an older adult often a parent or other close relative, in the hope of being allowed access to his
or her financial information. He might act as though he is simply helping manage the senior's finances, but instead, he takes the money for him.
This might be in the form of convincing an elderly person to sign legal financial documents or getting the victim to change the mailing address
on bills and other records

o Marital Manipulation 
o Financial abuse also can occur in marriages as a means to have control over a partner in order to make him feel hopeless enough to never leave.
One partner might not allow the other to have access to any of the household money, or he might give only a small allowance. He might even
confiscate the victim's own paycheck or other means of personal funds. b some cases, a person might force a spouse to quit a job, or he might
cause disruptions in the workplace to get the victim fired. Another potential instance is when one partner purposely accumulates large amounts
of debt using joint checking or credit accounts.

o Abuse of Children

o  Some people choose to financially hurt kids rather than an elderly individual or spouse. The majority of parents are legally able to handle
money issues for their minor children, so these cases frequently go unreported.

o The motivation,similar to cases in marriages, is usually to keep the child from eventually leaving. Another common issue is to take care of
money related issues but to purposely not discuss them with the child first. The parent us the her's just trying to make things easier or be nice,
but try beating the to the financial punch, he is essentially controig what a ch or does. When the child tries to assert more independence, makes
him feel guilty, saving that he is unappreciative or ungratefu only for the financial "help" but for everything else provided, too

o Between Friends
o Sometimes, this type of mistreatment occurs between frien Here, as in cases with the elderly, a person preys on the other ind fear of loneliness or
need for true help. He might say, for example, be he won't be friends or provide other assistance anymore without access to  financial
information, or that a true friend would loan him money. He might conveniently "forget" his cash or credit cards when out, forcing t friend to
pick up the tab and then never repaying him.

Psychological Abuse Psychological abuse is basically a catchall term for intimidating, threatening, or fear-causing behavior. This behavior must be
persistent and significant. A one-time event generally will not be enough t domestic violence action. A wide variety of behaviors fall under the
umbrella of psychological abuse.

Cyber crime - the term cyber crime refers to a variety of crimes out online, using the internet through computers, laptops, tablets, enabled
televisions, games consoles and smart phones. Cyber-enacted crimes can only be committed on the in stealing confidential information that's stored
online, for example crimes which are carried out online, but could be committed without use of the internet, such as sexual grooming, stalking or
harassed bullying, and financial or romance fraud, are called cyber-enabled on Why people commit cyber-crime.

Hate Crime
 These are criminal actions intended to harm or intimidate people because of their race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or other minority group
status. They are also referred to as bias crimes.

Bullying
Is intentional aggressive behavior. It can take the form of physical or verbal harassment and involves an imbalance of power (a group of children can
gang up on a victim or someone who is physically bigger or more aggressive can intimidate someone else, for instance).

Types of Bullying

Physical bullying
This is any bullying that hurts someone’s body or damages their possessions. Stealing, shoving, hitting,fighting, and destroying property all are types
of physical bullying.

Verbal bullying
This is any bullying that Is done by speaking.Calling names, spreading humors, threatening somebody,and making fun others are all forms of verbal
bullying.Verbal bullying is one of the most common types of bullying.The main weapon the bully uses is their voice.

Social bullying/Relational aggression

This is any bully that is done with the intent to hurt somebody’s reputation or social standing.

Cyberbullying
This is any bullying that happens over any technological device. This includes email, instant messaging, social networking sites (such as
Facebook).The weapon the bully uses are relationships.

Dating abuse
Is a type of bullying that can take the form of any type of bullying mentioned above within the context of a dating relationship. Verbal, emotional,
physical, or sexual abuse are all signs of an unhealthy relationship. An abusive relationship can be characterized by any one of those signs or a
combination of many.

Damage to Property
Injury to real or personal property through another’s negligence, willful, destruction or a willful act, property damage is distinguished from personal
injury.

Sexual Orientation
It means the clear, persistent desire of a person for affiliation with one sex rather than the other. A person’s sexual preference or identity as bisexual,
heterosexual, or homosexual: the state of being bisexual, heterosexual or homosexual.

Gender Identity refers to one’s sense of oneself as male,female or transgender”.When one’s gender identity and biological sex are not congruent,the
individual may identify as transsexual or as another transgender category.(cf.Gainor,2000).

 
CRIM 3 WEEK 15
Theorists have developed victim typologies that are concerned primarily with the situational and personal characteristics of victims
and the relationship between victims and offenders. Benjamin Mendelsohn was one of the first criminologists to create a victim
typology, in the 1950s, but was not without controversy. Below is a table of Mendelsohn’s typology of crime victims and as you can
see he placed a lot of emphasis on most victims’ attitude that leads to their victimization

Complete Innocent victim

Someone who did not contribute to the victimization and is in the wrong place at the wrong time. This is the victim we most often
envision when thinking about enhancing victim rights. This person exhibits no provocative or contributory behavior prior to the
offender’s attack.

The victim with minor guilt

Does not actively participate in their victimization but contributes to some minor degree, such as frequenting high-crime areas. This
would be a person that continues to go to a bar that is known for nightly assault. This person unwittingly does something that places
him or her in a position to be victimized.

The guilty victim, guilty offender (Voluntary Victim)

The victim and offender may have engaged in criminal activity together. This would be two people attempting to steal a car, rob a
store, sell drugs, etc. Victims make a conscious and deliberate choice to suffer harm or loss. This includes suicides, or those injured
while participating in high–risk activities and crimes such as drug abuse or prostitution.

Victim more Guilty than the Offender

The victim may have been the primary attacker, but the offender won the fight. The victim provokes a criminal act (e.g., throws the
first punch to start a fight but ends up a loser).

Most Guilty victim

The victim instigated a conflict but is killed in self-defense. An example would be an abused woman killing her partner while he is
abusing her. yond his or her control ends up the victim (e.g., attempts to rob a convenience store but is short by the storeowner).

Simulating or Imaginary victim

Some people pretend to be victims and are not. This person is a pretender, or false reporter. No crime has happened yet the person
reports suffering harm or loss.

Other criminologists developed similar typologies but included other elements. For example, Hans Von Hentig expanded his typology
from situational factors that Mendelsohn looked at and considered the role of biological, sociological, and psychological factors. For
example, Von Henting said the young, elderly, and women are more susceptible to victimization because of things such as physical
vulnerabilities. It is important to recognize that some crimes, and ultimately crime victims, are excluded in these typologies such as
white-collar and corporate crime.

Von Hentig’s Typology

1. Females/elderly Lack of physical strength

2. Mentally ill/intellectually disabled  Can be taken advantage of easily

3. Immigrants  Cannot understand language or the threat of deportation makes them vulnerable.

4. Minorities  Marginalized in society, so vulnerable to victimization.

5. Dull normals  Reasonably intelligent people who are naive or vulnerable in some way. These people are easily deceived.
Gullible, easily swayed, and not vigilant.

6. The depressed

7. The Young: Von Hentig was referring to children and infants. From a contemporary point of view, children are physically
weaker have less mental prowess, have fewer legal rights, and are dependent on their caretakers (e.g., parents, guardians, teachers,
and day – care providers); they also have the potential to be exposed to a wider range of harm than adults. Moreover, they are less
able to defend themselves and sometimes less likely to believed should they report abuse. This includes children who suffer
emotional, physical, and sexual abuse at home because of abusive parents (often under the influence of drugs and alcohol);
children who are bullied at school because of some aspect of their appearance or personality; and children who are forced into
acts of prostitution or sold into slavery by impoverished parents.

8. The Acquisitive: Von Hentig was referring to those who are greedy and looking for quick gain. In other words, those focused in
acquiring wealth and possessions. Such individuals may suspend their judgment, or intentionally put themselves in dangerous
situations, to get the things of value that they desire.

9. The Wanton: Von Hentig was referring to promiscuous individuals. People who engage in indiscriminate sexual activity with
many different partners expose themselves to different levels of disease and varying personalities. Some of these personalities
may be healthy and supportive; some may be narcissistic, possessive, jealous, and destructive.

10. The Lonesome or Heartbroken: Von Hentig was referring to widows, widowers, and those in mourning. From a contemporary
standpoint, loneliness is at epidemic proportions, with more than half of marriages ending in divorce, the rise of the culture of
narcissism since the late 1970s and diminishing intimacy skills across all cultures. This category does not apply only to those in
mourning; those who are lonely or heartbroken are prone to substance abuse, and can be easy prey for con men, the abusive and
the manipulative.
11. The Tormentor: Von Hentig was referring to the abusive parent. In contemporary terms, there are abusive caretakers, intimates,
and family members of all kids. Such abusers expose themselves to the harm they inflict, the resulting guilt and angst, and the
potential for their victims to fight back. For example, an abusive mother who gets drunk and punches a child exposes herself to
the dangers of injuring her hand, of misjudging her strike and even her balance, of feeling bad about it, and of the child punching
back

12. Blocked, exempted, and fighting victims   Enter situations in which they are taken advantage such as blackmail.

          Von Hentig was referring to victims of blackmail, extortion, and confidence scams. In such cases, the attention of law
enforcement, and any subsequent publicity, is something that these victims wish to avoid. They find a means of dealing with the
crimes being committed against them (e.g., giving in to demands) without avoiding harm or loss – and without involving the
authorities.

      Von Hentig’s work was the basis for later theories of victim precipitation. Victim precipitation suggests many victims play a role
in their victimization. First, the victim acted during the offense, and second that the victim instigated the commission of the offense. It
is important to note that criminologists were attempting to demonstrate that victims may have some role in the victimization and are
not truly innocent. Today we often recognize the role of victimization without blaming the individual because ultimately the person
who offended is the person who offended.

          From a research point of view, these are interesting and even somewhat useful classifications with important theoretical
implications, although the terminology is sometimes inappropriate. However, the case working victimologists must study each victim
to determine the extent to which such classification has a bearing on the harm suffered within a particular crime. Some children are
smart and fast; many women are strong and self – assured; some of the elderly are quick and resourceful; immigrants and travelers can
learn languages and customs; and the “blocked” may decide to go to the police. In short, many of the generalizations suggested in this
typology may not when applied to a specific crime or victim.