World Planning History

History, Concepts, Theories and
Principles of Environmental Planning

Political / Geographical / Legal Settings: Definition / Scope and
Characteristics
Introduction
Homo Sapiens
…early times, a rare animal living in
sporadic but intense competition with
other animals
subsisting by hunting and food gathering
…became successful in
adapting his environment to
his own needs and in the
creation of artificial habitats.
Characteristics
Introduction
Homo Sapiens
…gained a position of almost complete domination over all other forms of
life on earth,
greatly expanded his sources of food and energy
and his ability to modify the effects of nature on him
…unique skills and powers

evidenced by the great increase
in his numbers
human population doubling itself
within one hundred years.
Characteristics MALTHUSIAN POPULATION THEORY
Introduction
T.R. Malthus, an English economist theorized…
“population increases in a
geometric ratio while subsistence
increases arithmetically and that
unless natural catastrophes, war,
or sexual restraint control
population increase, worldwide
famine or war will follow.”
Exploitation of nature in new

and disturbing ways were
recognized. Increasing
numbers of mankind and the
supplies of food and shelter
are the most profound
problems
Characteristics
…beyond mere subsistence lie questions of the quality of life – bodily and
mental health, happiness, fulfillment, joy.
the ultimate source of all the benefits of life is the EARTH itself and man’s
relationship to all its life and resources
Characteristics
Introduction
Solutions must come about in two ways…
- there are enormous ethical problems raised by the need

to make choices and decisions affecting the relationships
between men and all other forms of life and between
different human groups.
- there is the problem of understanding the nature of all

these relationships in order to create more effective and
sympathetic controls over the problem.
This course is concerned with the aspect of understanding the

complex systems of man’s activities in the whole context of the
planets ecological systems.
Characteristics
Environmental Planning
Activities concerned with the management and development of land, as
well as the preservation, conservation, and rehabilitation of the human
environment (PD 1308)
Characteristics
Urban Planning
the art and science of ordering and managing the use of land and its
environment and the character and siting of buildings and
communication routes so as to secure the maximum practicable degree
of economy, convenience and beauty. (PD 933 – Creating the Human
Settlements Commission) – (referred to as Town Planning by Keeble)
Evolution, Goals, Concepts and Principles / Theories of Planning
Ekistics (Science of Human Settlements) - Doxiadis
Human settlements are

no longer satisfactory
for their inhabitants…
creating better conditions for

tomorrow can be understood
better if we look into the
different elements of the
human settlements…
Ekistics (Science of Human Settlements) – Constantine Doxiadis

Human settlements are settlements inhabited by man…
Human settlements should satisfy man…
human settlements consist of:
the CONTAINER
(or the physical
settlement, which
consists both natural
the CONTENT
and man-made or
(man, alone or artificial elements)
in societies)
When taken together make up the human settlement whose largest

possible dimensions are defined by the geographic limits of the
earths surface.
2 basic elements of human settlements (Doxiadis)
 the CONTENT  the CONTAINER
…this can be further subdivided into 5 elements:
 NATURE – providing the foundation upon which the settlement is

created and the frame within it can function
 MAN – an individual, Homo Sapiens

- biological needs (oxygen, nutrition)
- sensation and perception (5 senses)
- emotional needs (satisfaction, security, sense of belonging)
- moral values
 SOCIETY – a group of individuals sharing the same

culture, values, norms, and traditions
 SHELLS or the structures within which man lives and carries out
his different functions, the built component.
 NETWORKS or the natural and man-made system which facilitate

the functioning of the settlement, or links within the settlement, roads,
communications systems, utilities, etc.
Hierarchy of human settlements…

 a hamlet, a neighborhood, a small village
 a community, a town
 a city, an urban area

Megalopolis - concept coined
by Jean Gottmann for urban
 a metropolis
complexes in the
Northeastern United States.
 a conurbation – a composite of cities, metropolises, urban areas
 a megalopolis – merging of two or more metropolises with a population

of 10M or more; a 20th century phenomenon
… a hierarchy of settlements is characterized by a few large cities,

some medium-sized cities, and many small settlements.
 actions taken by individuals and groups in interest can
bring about conditions which give rise to serious
social, economic, and aesthetic problems connected
Goals with the use of land.
Planning seeks to…

 regulate or control the activity of individual and groups in
such
a way as to minimize the bad effects which may arise.
 promote better performance of the physical environment
in accordance with a set of broad aims and more specific
objectives set out in a plan.
Location Theor y – a foundation for planning
 explains the pattern of land use
 indicates a solution to the problem of what is the most

rational use of land suggesting ways in which the current
pattern can be improved.
Location Theory – Johann-Heinrich von Thunen (1826)

 postulated that around a central town…
…..rural land of constant fertility
assumed different forms
- The type of land use varies with distance away
from the market
….. land use diminishing intensively in reverse

relationship to increased distance from the
town.
- The intensity of production declines with distance
away from the market

land in greatest demand would be as near as possible to the
market on account of low transport costs.
- the highest rent would be gained for
this advantage and the highest value
output per hectare would accrue.
outer belt would have little demand for

land because of transport costs.
- rent would
be low and
the value of
extensive
production
would be
correspondi
ngly low.

overall use pattern might be modified by the existence of a
navigable river.
…cost of river transport are low especially for bulky commodities
compared to fairly high transport cost overland.
further modification
might occur if a small
city with its own
production zones is
located within the land
use pattern of the main
settlements.
Von Thunen model assumed

unlikely conditions such as
production taking place around
an isolated market place and soil
being of constant fertility.
However, it established a
distance-cost relationship which
recently became the basis of
urban location theory.
 as price mechanism largely decides
the profitability or utility of goods and
services, it subsequently determines
the location of activity and the spatial
structure of the urban area supplying
these goods and services
William Alonso
rents diminish outward from the center of a city to offset both lower
revenue and higher operating costs and not least transport costs.
…a rent gradient would compensate for falling revenue and
higher operating costs
…different land uses would have different rent gradients, the use
with the highest gradient prevailing.
use “a” prevails up to a distance of 2kms

from the CBD, from 2 to 5kms use “b” is
dominant, and beyond 5kms use “c” prevails.
a change of use could be expected to take

place through the price mechanism when one
gradient falls below another.
Alonso model did not specify the type of land

use associated with each bid-gradient.
assumed that the urban area has a single

nucleus and that the market for land is
perfect.
World Planning
History
World Planning History Ancient Times
Innovations that influenced the development
of the earliest cities
The plow and

rectilinear
farming.
Circular and
radiocentric
planning
for herding
and eventually
for defense
7000- Neolithic Cities
9000 B.C. Jericho: early settlement in Israel -9000b.c.
- A well-organized community of about 3000 people
- Built around a reliable source of freshwater
- Only 3 hectares and enclosed with a
circular stone wall
- Overrun in about 6500 b.c., rectangular layouts
followed
Khirokitia: early settlement in Cyprus - 5500 b.c
- First documented
Settlement with streets
- The main street heading uphill
was narrow but had a wider
terminal, which may have
been a social spot
2000-4000 B.C. • Cities in the Fertile Crescent were formed by the Tigris and
Euphrates river valleys of Mesopotamia
Eridu- acknowledged as the oldest city.
Damascus- oldest continually inhabited city
Babylon- the largest city with 80,000 inhabitants
Rectilinear plotting with the use of the plow – suited all the needs of
agriculture societies on the Nile, Tigris, and the Euphrates river for easy
land division for crop planning, land ownership and land plotting and
reapportionment after a flood.
3000 B.C. Cities of Thebes and Memphis along the Nile Valley
- characterized by monumental architecture
- cities had monumental avenues, colossal temple

plazas and tombs
- worker’s communities were built in cells along

narrow roads
2500 B.C. Indus Valley (present day Pakistan)
Cities of Mohenjo – Daro and Harrapa:
- administrative-religious centers with 40,000 inhabitants
- archeological evidence indicates an advanced civilization
lived here as there were housing variations, sanitary and
sewage systems, etc.
1900 B.C.
Yellow River Valley of China
“land within the passes”. Precursor of Linear City.
- Anyang- largest city of the Yellow River Valley
800 B.C.
Beijing
founded in approximately same location it’s in today
- present form originated in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
B.C. to Elaborate network of cities in Mesoamerica were
built by the Zapotecs, Mextecs, and Aztecs in rough
A.D. rugged land.
Teotijuacan and Dzibilchatun were the largest cities
World Planning History Greek & Roman Cities
700 B.C. Greek Classical Cities
Greek cities spread to
the Aegean region –
Westward to France
and Spain
“polis” : defined as
a “city-state”. Most
famous is the Acropolis-
a religious and
defensive structure up
on the hills, with no
definite geometrical plan
Neopolis and Paleopolis (new and old

cities)
700 B.C. Sparta and Athens : the largest cities (100-150T)
Compact urban form

Never planned as a whole
Integration of social and civic life

Components
Acropolis
Main Harbors
Agora Complex
Cultural and leisure facilities
700 B.C. Acropolis- visible relationship between buildings and nature;
sacred
Agora- buildings served as facades to form an enclosed urban

space; grouped around central open space
400 B.C. Hippodamus
• the first noted urban planner. Introduced the grid system
and the Agora (public marketplace)
Hippodamus of
Miletus (Father of
Town Planning) -
Greek Architect who
emphasized
geometric designs
grid pattern of
streets
Miletus:
3 sections: for artisans, farmers, and the military

700 B.C. Roman Classical Cities
Roman Cities : adopted Greek forms but with different
scale- monumental, had a social hierarchy
During the
Etruscans’ reign,
Rome grew into a
great city built on
seven hills along the
Tiber.
ANCIENT ROME:
Vitruvius - 10-volume treatise “De Arkitectura” – relates experience of

Roman architecture and town design; treats architecture and town design as a
single theme; suggested location of streets in relation to prevailing wind; the
siting of public buildings; the testing of drinking water; design of plazas
Organization of towns - a system of gridiron streets enclosed by a wall;
theater, arena and market were common places for public assembly
Perfected enclosed urban and architectural space – collonaded plazas with
a temple or basilica at the end of the space.
Model of Ancient Rome: Flavian

Amphitheater (1) and Circus
Maximus (2)
Romans as engineers- built aqueducts
(serving 200 cities), elaborate plumbing
systems for public baths, network of paved
roads (covering 50,000 miles), drainage
Roman Forums systems, large open interiors for public
gatherings
Romans incorporated public works and

arts into city designs
Romans as conquerors- built forum after

forum
Developed housing variations and other spaces:
• Basilica- covered markets; later, law courts
• Curia- the local meeting hall; later, the capitol
• Domus- traditional Roman house; with a central atrium
• Insulae- 3 to 6- storey apartments with storefronts
Walls: Black
Circuses and
Arenas: Blue
Temples: Purple
Roads: Brown
Theaters: Green
Baths: Red
Other Buildings:
Gray
The Central Area
(The ancient city
center)
Forum Romanum:
Gold two-tone
Palatine Hill: Orange
World Planning History Medieval Ages
Decline of Roman power left many outposts all over Europe,
where growth revolved around
Growth of towns around either a monastery or castle,

assumed a radiocentric pattern; relied on protective town
walls or fortification for security
Towns were fine and intimate with winding roads and

sequenced views of cathedrals or military fortifications
Sienna and Constantinople: signified the rise of the Church
Feudalism affected the urban design of most towns

11th century towns in Europe: Coastal port towns

many of these
coastal towns grew
from military
fortifications, but
expansion was
limited to
what the city
could support
Mercantilist cities : continuous increase in size
World trade and travel created major population

concentrations like Florence, Paris, and Venice
Growth eventually led to congestion and slums

Renaissance &
World Planning History Baroque Periods
Rebirth of classical towns ; piazza planning in Venice;
grandeur in civic structure and public spaces; streets
were wide regular and circumferential with the piazza
at the center as in Italy.
Vatican Square
Piazza de San Antonio Marco

Renaissance &
15th Century France:

display of power
Arts and architecture

became a major element
of town planning and
urban design
Geometrical forms of
cities were proposed
World Planning History Renaissance &
Baroque Periods
Vienna emerged as
the city of culture
and the arts-
the first “university
town”
karlsruhe (Germany)
Landscape
architecture
showcased
palaces
Versailles (France) and gardens
Renaissance &
Pierre Charles L’Enfant - Prepared plan for Washington, DC.
Axial plan of the Mall, Washington, D.C.: the

Reflecting Pool and Lincoln Memorial extend the
central axis
World Planning History ROME (1500’S)
Leonardo da Vinci –
In his “Codex Atlanticus” he described a new concept of urban planning that
was suited for Milan – sketched a city straddling a river where upstream, the
river was directed into 6 or 7 branches, all parallel to the main stream and
rejoining it below the city.
World Planning History 1844
Arturo Soria Y Mata – Spanish Engineer
Suggested the idea of “Linear City” from Cadiz, Spain across Europe
through St. Petersburg, Russia in which he proposed that the logic of linear
utility line should be the basis of all city lay-out. Houses and buildings could
be set alongside linear utility systems supplying water, communications and
electricity. Proposed high-speed, high-intensity transport from an existing
city.
Stalingrad
N.A Milyutin, 1930
Settlements in the
World Planning History Americas
Medieval Organic City

taken after the “boug” (military town) and
“fauborg” (citizen’s town) of the medieval ages
Medieval Bastide
taken from the French bastide
(eventually referred to as “new towns”)
came in the form of grids or radial plans
reflecting flexibility
The Spanish “Laws of the Indies” town

King Philip II’s city guidelines that produced
3 types of towns- the pueblo (civil), the presidio
(military), and the mission (religious)
Settlements in the
The English Renaissance

“the European Planned City” – ex. Savannah (designed by
James Oglethorpe), Charleston, Annapolis, and Williamsburg
(Col. Francis Nicholson)
Today, Savannah is the world’s largest officially recognized

historical district
Settlements in the
Annapolis Williamsburg
government bldgs were plan was anchored by the

focal points of the plan, Governor’s palace, the state
though a civic square capitol, and the College of
was also provided William and Mary
Settlements in the
The Speculator’s Town
developments were driven by speculation
Philadelphia– designed by William Penn
Built between the Delaware and Scool Kill

World Planning History Industrial Revolution
The “Machine Age” - change from manpower to

assembly lines
2 schools of thought - the “reform movements” and the

“specialists”
The reform movements:
Robert Owens
(New Lanark Mills,
Manchester, England)
•Designed for 800 to 1200
persons
•Built factories in rural lands
and house the labor force
outside the city.
•With agricultural, light
industrial, educational, and
recreational facilities
The “Owenite Communities”:
New Harmony, Indiana, USA by Owens, Jr.
Brook Farm, Massachusetts, by a group of

New England Planners
Icarus, Red River, Texas, by Cabet
(eventually, Cabet joined the Mormons in laying out Salt-lake
City, Utah)
Bournville, outside Birmingham built by chocolate

manufacturer George Cadbury
Port Sunlight, in the Mersy builkt by William Lever

Tony Garnier, 1868-1948 (Une Cite Industrielle )
like Howard’s garden city, was to be a self- contained new
settlement with its own industries and housing close by.
Locational
features may
have been a
precursor to
modern zoning
Ideas and
theories adopted
by Dutch
Architect JJP Oud
in the design of
Rotterdam
The Conservationists
World Planning History and the Park Movement
Frederick Law Olmstead - Believed that cities should be
planned two generations ahead; maintain sufficient
breathing space, be constantly renewed and that
suburban design should embrace the whole city.
Use of open space as
element of urban
system; despoilment of
land through landscape
system; urban park as
an aid to social reform.
The Garden City
World Planning History Movement
Ebenezer Howard –
Author of “Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Social
Reform”
“Garden City of Tomorrow” – one of the
most important books in the history of urban
planning.
cluster with a mother town of 58,000 to
65,000
with smaller “garden cities” of 30,000 to
32,000 each
with permanent green space separating the
cities with the towns serving as horizontal
fence of farmland;
rails and roads would link the towns with
industries and nearby towns supplying
fresh food.
The Garden City
Influences on Howard
EDWARD GIBBON WAKEFIELD had advocated the planned

movement of population.
JAMES SICK BUKINGHAM- developed the idea of a model city.
ALFRED MARSHALL- invented the idea of the new town as an

answer to the problems of the city.
The Garden City
Advocated concept of ‘Social City’ – polycentric settlement, growth without
limit, surrounded by a greenbelt; town grows by cellular addition into a
complex multi-centered agglomeration of towns set against a green
background of open country.
The Garden City
The 3 magnets in his
paradigm depicted both the
city and the countryside had a
indisoluble mixture of
advantages and
disadvantages – the city has
the opportunities offered
through jobs and urban
services of all kinds, which
resulted in poor natural
environment; the countryside
offered an excellent natural
environment but virtually no
opportunities of any kind
The Garden City
Garden City combined the

advantages of the town by way of
access and all the advantages of
the country by way of the
environment without any of the
disadvantages of either. Achieved
by planned decentralization of
workers and their places of
employment thus transferring the
advantages of urban
agglomeration en bloc to the new
settlement.
The Garden City
The Garden City Association
• established by Howard in 1899
Consisted of 4,500 acres

(3000 for agriculture,
1500 for city proper)
Letchworth:
first Garden City designed by
Raymond Unwin & Barry Parker
in 1902
The Garden City
Welwyn, 1920
(by Louis de Soisson)
brought formality
and Georgian taste
The Garden City
Followers of Howard
SIR FREDERICK OSBORNE
RAYMUND UNWIN
BARRY PARKER
Hampstead Garden Suburbs opened in 1907

meant only for housing but with a variety of housing types lined
along streets with terminating axes on civic buildings in a
large common green
Wythenshawe - called the 3rd garden city

Modifications on Howard’s principles:
-Background of open space instead of greenbelts (adaptation of
inter-urban railway)
-Dividing the town into clearly articulated neighborhood units
The City Beautiful
World Planning History Era (1900-1945)
Daniel Burnham – Father of American City Planning
spearheaded the movement with his design for Chicago and his famous words:
“make no little plans…”
Influenced by the world fairs of the late 19th

century, like the 1891Columbian Exposition
In Chicago
Emphasis was on grand formal designs, with

wide boulevards, civic spaces, arts, etc.
Also credited for the designs of San Francisco

and Cleveland
The City Beautiful
•Golden era of urban design in the US;

•according to Burnham, city was a totally designed system of main
circulation arteries., a network of parks and clusters or focal buildings or
building blocks of civic centers incl. City hall, a country court house, a
library, an opera house, a museum, and a plaza
The City Beautiful
Total concentration on the monumental and on the superficial, on architecture

as symbols of power, and an almost complete lack of interest on the wider
social purposes of planning. Planning was intended to impress or for display.
The City Beautiful
Wrote “Chicago Plan” but was heavily criticized & referred to as centro-
centrist
•based on business core with no conscious provision for business
expansion in the rest of the city;
• planned as an aristocratic city for merchant princess;
•not in accord with the realities of downtown real estate development which
demanded overbuilding and congestion;
• utopian
Part of the scenic 1909 Chicago

master plan by Daniel Burnham.
The City Beautiful
Castigated by Lewis Mumford as cosmetic, comparing Burnham’s approach with
planning practiced in totalitarian regimes;
•approach ignored housing, schools & sanitation.
•According to Abercrombie, beauty stood supreme for Burnham, commercial
convenience was significant but health and sanitation concerns were almost
nowhere.
• Burnham’s plan devoted scant attention to zoning.
The City Beautiful
Champs d’ Elysee
Baron George Eugene Hausmann- worked on the

reconstruction of Paris- linear connection between
the place de concord, arc de triomph, eiffel tower
and others
World Planning History The Urban Theorist
Constantine Doxiadis - Addressed problem of urbanization on a worldwide
scale and his major designs have been made for countries where the
economy and productive system can be coordinated by policy and decree
such as the new developing countries of Africa and the MiddleEast.
Published his “Ekistics Grid” a system for recording

planning data and ordering the planning process.
Approaches town planning as a science which
includes planning and design as well as contributions
from the sociologist, geographer, economist,
demographer, politician, social anthropologist,
ecologist, etc. all these he assembles into a total
rational and human approach which he calls “Ekistics”
– the science of human settlements.
The New Communities
World Planning History Movement (Early 1920s)
Clarence Stein, Lewis Mumford, Frederick Lee Ackerman –
Piecemeal development of residential communities on endless gridiron
tracts was wasteful & unnecessary; practice of laying out block pattern
streets prevented clustered community design & the interspersal of open
and built-up spaces.
One of the aims of the group was the creation of neighborhood centers
and the physical delineation of neighborhood groups
Christopher Alexander –
“a city is not a tree” - suggested that sociologically, different people had varied
needs for local services & the privilege* of choice was paramount.
The New Communities
Alker Tripp –
assistant commissioner of police at London’s Scotland Yard.
published a book called TOWN PLANNING & TRAFFIC.
-idea that after the war, cities should be reconstructed in the basis of
PRECINTS.
-hierarchy of roads in which main arterial or sub arterial roads were sharply
segregated from the local streets with only occasional access and also were
free of direct frontage development.
influenced Patrick Abercrombie and Forshaw (called for application of the PRECINTUAL
PRINCIPLE to London.)
The New Communities
Clarence Stein - The Radburn Idea or
“new town idea” was to create a series
of superblocks (an island of greens,
bordered by homes and carefully
skirted by peripheral auto roads), each
around open green spaces which are
themselves interconnected. The
greenways were the pedestrian ways.
The New Communities
The basic layout of the community
introduced the ff:
-"super-block" concept
- cul-de-sac (cluster) grouping
- interior parklands
- and separation of vehicular and
pedestrian traffic to promote safety.
Every home was planned with access to

park walks.
Town & Country
World Planning History Planning of Britain
The Neighborhood Unit
-book by Clarence Perry (1929)
-the embryo of NEIGHBORHOOD- UNIT

AREA- certain services which are provided
everyday for groups of population who
can’t or do not travel far, should be
provided at an accessible central place for
a small community w/in walking distance.
-defined as the physical environment

wherein social, cultural, educational,
and commercial are within easy reach of
each other
Town & Country
World Planning History Planning of Britain
The Neighborhood Unit
concerns self sustainability of

smaller units
Principle based on the natural

catchment area of community
facilities such as primary schools
and local shops.
- the elementary school as the
center of development, determines
the size of the neighborhood
World Planning History The Regional City
Patrick Geddes - “Survey before plan”
The answer to the sordid congestion of the giant city is a vast program of
regional planning within which each sub-regional part would be harmoniously
developed on the basis of its own natural resources with total respect for the
principles of ecological balance and resource renewal. Cities in the scheme
became subordinate to the region; old cities and new towns alike would grow
just as necessary parts of the regional scheme.
Planning must start with a survey of the resources of such a region and of
human responses to it, and of the resulting complexities of the cultural
landscape; emphasis on survey method.
Patrick Geddes - “Survey before plan”
•Wrote “Cities in Evolution” (1915); coined the term “conurbation” which meant
conglomeration of town aggregates; describing the waves of population to large
cities followed by overcrowding and slum formation, and the wave of backflow;
the whole process resulting in amorphic sprawl, waste and unnecessary
obsolescence; stressed social basis of the city – concerned with the
relationship between people and cities and how they affect one another;
Stages in the creation of conurbation:

Inflow→build-up→backflow(central slums)→sprawling mass (central blight)
Patrick Abercrombie
- most notable professional planner in Britain in the Anglo American period.
- most notable contribution to planning to a wider scale: the scale which region around it
in a single planning exercise.
- did the Greater London Plan 1944
Lewis Mumford
- Geddes Follower
- wrote CULTURE OF CITIES, the Bible of regional planning movement
P.G.F. Le Play
-stressed the intimate and subtle relationship between human settlement and the land
through the nature of local economy.
PLACE-WORK-FOLK
Le Play’s famous triad- was the fundamental study of men living and on their land;
social-survey method of determining relationships of the family and worker to the
environment.
Modern Architecture
World Planning History and Planning
Charles-Eduoard Jeanneret - Popularly known as Le Corbusier.
His most outstanding contribution as a thinker and writer was an urban
planner on the grand scale.
- the most notable are his Unite’ d’ Habitation (1946-52) at Marseilles in

France, a self-contained 'vertical city', with modular housing units for 1600
people, internal streets and community services.
Modern Architecture
In 1933, proposed “La Ville Radieuse (Radiant City)” anchored on
objective to decongest the centers of our cities by increasing their densities
by building high on small part of the total ground area. Accordingly, every
great city must rebuild on centers
Modern Architecture
Le Corbusier also conceptualized Le Contemporaine, high-rise
offices and residential buildings with a greenbelt for a population of
3,000,000 people
The City of Towers

Modern Architecture
Last of the City Beautiful planners

Chandigarh
the only realized plan of Le Corbusier:
Original Master Plan by Albert Myer
The whole plan represents a large scale application of the Radburn principle regularized by
Le Corbusier’s predilection for the rectilinear and the monumental.
Modern Architecture
Two important books- The City of Tomorrow (1922) and The Radiant City;
➢small number of propositions:
traditional city has become functionally obsolete, due to increasing
size and increasing congestion at the centre.
the paradox that the congestion could be cured by increasing the

density. a very high proportion of the available ground space- Corbusier
advocated 95%- could and should be left open.
argued that this new urban form could accommodate a new and
highly efficient urban transportation system, incorporating both rail
lines and completely segregated elevated motorways, running above the
ground level, though, of course, below the levels at which most people
lived.
Modern Architecture
Brasilia
capital of Brazil and a completely new twentieth-
century city, the biggest planning exercise of the 20th
century
Designed by Lucio Costa with a lot of influence from
Le Corbusier, his plans or schemes did not include a
single population projection, economic analyses, land
use schedule, model or mechanical drawing, yet it
was awarded to him; plan did not attempt to resolve
pedestrian-vehicle conflicts. Unplanned city grew up
beside the planned one.
•with two huge axes in the sign of
the cross, one for gov’t, commerce,
and entertainment, the other for the
residential component
•Oscar Niemeyer was among the

architects employed to design the
buildings
Modern Architecture
Frank Lloyd Wright
In the 1930s, he wrote the “The Disappearing City” and later “Broadacres” –
proposing that every family live on an acre of land and where the city would be built
by its inhabitants using mass-produced components; this met difficulties in land
supply and logistics as the population increased.
Modern Architecture
“Broadacres”
-that mass car would allow cities to spread widely into

countryside.
-homes would be connected by super highways.
Easy and fast travel by car to any direction.
- he anticipated “out- of-town shopping center”
Problems with lack of land lead to his design of the…
Mile High Tower

•Proposed to house a significant amount of
Manhattan residents to free up space for
Greenfields
•10 or more of these could possibly replace all

Manhattan buildings
World Planning History Radical Ideas
The Arcology Alternative
the 3D city by Paolo Soleri
Motopia
Proposed by
Edgar Chambless
Vehicular traffic will

be along rooftops
of a continuous
network of buildings,
while the streets will
be for pedestrian
use only
Science Cities
Proposed by the “metabolism group”; visionary urban
designers that proposed underwater cities, “biological” cities,
cities in pyramids, etc.
The Floating City
Kiyonori Kikutake
The Barbican City

a 63 acre area. mixed used
development that was built in
response to the pressures of
the automobile. An early
type of Planned Urban
development that had all
amenities in one compound
with multi-level circulation
patterns.
CITY GROWTH & SPATIAL PLANNING
THEORIES
City Growth and Spatial Planning Theories
CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY (Burgess, 1929)

The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status
(mainly income) of households and the distance from the CBD. The further
from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the
commuting time.
CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY (Burgess, 1929)

Areas are characterized in terms of ethnic groupings, income levels, types
of commerce/industry.
Residents of one zone "migrate" to outer zones as their economic
positions improve. . . . . . and new residents take their place.
SECTOR THEORY (Hoyt, 1934)
Residential land use tend to be arranged in wedges or sectors radiating
from the center of the city along lines of transportation
High rent sectors often extend along fashionable boulevards.
High rent sectors usually buffered by middle rent sectors.
High rent sectors separated from low rent by physical barriers
SECTOR THEORY (Hoyt, 1934)
High rent areas tend to…
- …grow from a given point along lines of transportation
- …grow towards the high ground free from flooding
- …grow toward the open country – they don’t dead end
- …grow towards the homes of community leaders
- …pull office buildings, banks, and stores along with them
- …develop along the fastest lines of communication
- …continue to grow in the same direction for a long period
- …not to skip around at random.
MULTIPLE NUCLEI THEORY (Ullman & Harris,1945)

They combine the elements of the Concentric Zone Theory and Sector
Theory with other factors to explain land use.
They argued that cities grow around certain discrete nuclei rather than
around a single center.
MULTIPLE NUCLEI THEORY (Ullman &
Harris,1945)
4 Factors that give rise to separate nuclei:
- certain activities require special activities
(CBD=accessibility;
warehousing/docks=waterfront;
low density housing=land)
- some activities group together because they
profit from cohesion
(financial/office district; medical district;
manufacturing districts)
- other activities are detrimental to each other
(heavy industry and high rent resd’l; meat
packing plants and funeral homes)
- certain activities can not afford high rents
(forced together in the low rent areas)
URBAN REALMS MODEL
--a CBD, but multiple suburbs that have

suburban downtowns, also, a "New
Downtown" outside of the CBD
Urban Renewal and Gentrification
YUPPIFICATION
--movement back into

downtowns--higher-
income, single, or no children
couples living in suburban
downtowns or "New Downtown"
GENTRIFICATION
--the rehabilitation of deteriorated

inner-city housing with favorable
locations relative to the CBD
DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS /
THEORIES
Development Concepts / Theories
GROWTH CENTER (Boudeville, 1966)
set of expanding industries located in an urban area and inducing further
development of economic activities throughout its zone of influence.
CONCEPT OF PROPULSIVE FIRMS

leading industries dominate other economic units; relatively new and
dynamic; advanced technology; high income elasticity of demand for
products usually sold to national markets.
POLARIZATION (Albert O. Hirshman)
negative; rapid growth of leading industries further induces concentration
of other economic units in the pole leading to geographical polarisation
TRICKLING DOWN EFFECT (Hirshman)
positive; growth will radiate from core to periphery
leading to convergence between the core and
periphery.
DEPENDENCY THEORY
development of First World derived from
underdevelopment of Third World.
Modernization of West at expense of others
Development originated out of 16h century
patterns of relations in which certain nations
able to exploit others
CORE PERIPHERY (John Friedman, 1966)
unbalanced growth leads to dualism – North and
South, growing points and lagging regions.
tries to represent the emergence of an urban system

in four major stages which goes on par with the
development of transportation
Stage 1 (Pre-industrial). The pre-industrial (agricultural) society, with localized

economies and a small scale settlement structure. Each element is fairly
isolated, dispersed and characterized by low mobility.
Stage 2 (Transitional). The concentration of the economy in the core begins as

a result of capital accumulation and industrial growth. A dominant center
emerges within an urban system to become its growth pole. Trade and mobility
increase, but within a pattern dominated by the core even if overall mobility
remains low. Among the numerous examples of such a phase is the early
industrialization of Great Britain in the late 18th century or the beginning of the
colonial incorporation of regions in Latin America, Africa or Asia.
Stage 3 (Industrial). Through a process or economic growth and diffusion other

growth centers appear. The main reasons for deconcentration are increasing
production costs (mainly labor and land) in the core area. This diffusion is linked
with increased interactions between elements of the urban system and the
construction of transport infrastructures.
Stage 4 (Post-industrial). The urban system becomes fully integrated and

inequalities are reduced significantly. The distribution of economic activities
creates a specialization and a division of labor linked with intense flows along
high capacity transport corridors.
AGGLOMERATION ECONOMIES
explain the advantages of the "clustering
effect" of many activities ranging from
retailing to transport terminals.
Localization economies – proximity of linked

firms;
agglomeration of a set of activities near a specific
facility, let it be a transport terminal, a seat of
government power or a large university.
Urbanization economies – provision of wide On the above figure, three activities (P,Q and R) having their
range of urban services respective locational constraints can benefit from agglomeration
economies if they locate at A. The additional transport costs that
agglomeration of population, namely common may derive will be more than compensated by the cheaper functional
linkages between the activities. For instance, a shopping mall is
infrastructures (e.g. utilities or public transit), the composed of many unrelated commercial activities which would
availability and diversity of labor and market size. otherwise have their own location based of specific factors, such as
rent, accessibility or market size. They substantially benefit from this
Industrialization economies clustering by sharing a common facility with many amenities (parking
lots, public space) and having consumers combine multipurpose
agglomeration of industrial activities, such as commercial trips into one (in addition to maximize the chances of
being their respective suppliers or customers impulse buying).
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

(Walter Christaller, 1933)
a theoretical work that explains the spatial spread and dimensions of urban
centers.
Christaller claims that the role of large cities and towns is to coordinate
within the regions, the supply of goods and services.
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
(Walter Christaller, 1933)
explains the size and function of
settlements and their relationships with
their hinterlands
Centrality –amount of draw to a particular
place
Heirarchy of Services -hierarchical
arrangement of centers and functions
Market Range -maximum distance a
consumer is willing to travel to avail of a
good or service beyond which people will
look to another center.
Threshold Population -minimum
population necessary to support a service
or normal profits
INDUSTRIAL LOCATION THEORY
incorporation of location factor into the “theory of the firm”
Least Cost Approach (Alfred Weber, 1909) – minimization of

total costs (transport and production costs) in site selection;
supply oriented.
Market Area Analysis (August Losch, 1954) – optimum location is the

site of maximum profit, one that affords greatest access to market
and serve greatest demand, demand oriented.
Profit Maximizing Approach (Walter Isard & Melvin Greenhunt, 1956)

– cost and demand factors of location combined, cost reducing and
revenue increasing.

World Planning History

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

World Planning History

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

World Planning History

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

History, Concepts, Theories and

Principles of Environmental Planning

…unique skills and powers

Exploitation of nature in new

- there are enormous ethical problems raised by the need

- there is the problem of understanding the nature of all

This course is concerned with the aspect of understanding the

Ekistics (Science of Human Settlements) - Doxiadis

Human settlements are

creating better conditions for

Ekistics (Science of Human Settlements) – Constantine Doxiadis

When taken together make up the human settlement whose largest

 NATURE – providing the foundation upon which the settlement is

 MAN – an individual, Homo Sapiens

 SOCIETY – a group of individuals sharing the same

 NETWORKS or the natural and man-made system which facilitate

Hierarchy of human settlements…

 a city, an urban area

 a megalopolis – merging of two or more metropolises with a population

… a hierarchy of settlements is characterized by a few large cities,

Planning seeks to…

Location Theor y – a foundation for planning

 explains the pattern of land use

 indicates a solution to the problem of what is the most

Location Theory – Johann-Heinrich von Thunen (1826)

….. land use diminishing intensively in reverse

Location Theory – Johann-Heinrich von Thunen (1826)

outer belt would have little demand for

Location Theory – Johann-Heinrich von Thunen (1826)

Location Theory – Johann-Heinrich von Thunen (1826)

Von Thunen model assumed

use “a” prevails up to a distance of 2kms

a change of use could be expected to take

Alonso model did not specify the type of land

assumed that the urban area has a single

The plow and

- cities had monumental avenues, colossal temple

- worker’s communities were built in cells along

Neopolis and Paleopolis (new and old

Compact urban form

Integration of social and civic life

Agora- buildings served as facades to form an enclosed urban

3 sections: for artisans, farmers, and the military

Vitruvius - 10-volume treatise “De Arkitectura” – relates experience of

Model of Ancient Rome: Flavian

Romans incorporated public works and

Romans as conquerors- built forum after

Growth of towns around either a monastery or castle,

Towns were fine and intimate with winding roads and

Feudalism affected the urban design of most towns

11th century towns in Europe: Coastal port towns

Mercantilist cities : continuous increase in size

World trade and travel created major population

Growth eventually led to congestion and slums

Piazza de San Antonio Marco

15th Century France:

Arts and architecture