CHAPTER V – Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water

Physical Properties

o Description of the soil profile and the soil horizons are often described in the
field in terms of the soil's physical properties.  Horizon boundaries within a soil
profile are defined based on difference in the physical properties.
o Soil physical properties are also key determinants of the appropriate land use
for an area.

Two Types of Soil Physical Properties:

1. Static Soil Physical Properties

- are properties that do not change on short time scales under natural conditions or
without significant applied force.
2. Dynamic Soil Physical Properties
- are readily changed on short time scales under natural conditions or with relatively
minor amounts of force.

The major soil physical properties used in profile description:

1. Soil Color
2. Soil Texture
3. Soil Structure
4. Soil Consistence
5. Soil Density

I. SOIL COLOR

It is the most obvious and easily determined soil physical property. It has little direct effect on
the soil, but is an indicator of soil properties. There are many things we can tell about the soil by
observing the color.

 Organic matter content -- the more organic content the darker the soil color
 Soil color and soil temperature --dark colored soils absorb more heat so they warm
up quicker and have higher soil temperatures.
 Soil color and parent material --generally dark parent material will develop into dark
soils.
 Soil color and drainage --soil drainage refers to the length of time a soil is
waterlogged. Not how fast the soil is drained.

Relationship of Soil Color to Drainage

Soil Color is very important in determining a soils drainage and depth to the water table.
It can be very important in predicting land use hazards.

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 Soil Drainage: refers to the length and duration of saturation and is not a measure of
how fast water drains from the soil.

Soil Drainage Classes

1. Well-drained - no gray colors with the top 48 inches
2. Moderately well-drained - gray colors between 24 to 48 inches
from the surface
3. Somewhat poorly drained - gray colors between 12 to 24 inches
from surface

4. Poorly drained - gray colors within 12 inches from the surface

5. Very Poorly drained – gray colors within 12 inches from the

surface and has a O horizon

When do we consider the color gray?

Use the Munsell Color Chart. A soil is considered gray if it has a

CHROMA OF 2 OR LESS

Soil Color Measurement

Munsell Color System: A standardized system used by soil scientists and geologists.
The system has the following color parameters:
1. Hue: dominant spectral color
2. Value: lightness - darkness; white to black
3. Chroma: color purity or intensity
Color Notation: 10YR 5/2
 10YR – the Hue
 5 – the Value
 2 – the chroma

Additional things to take note:

 red, yellow, and light brown colors – likely due to Fe oxides

 dark brown or black colors – likely due to organic matter or Mn oxides
 low color value = high organic matter content
 high chroma = well drained soil, oxidizing conditions
 chroma of 2 or less = red Fe-oxide coatings had been removed under reducing
conditions

II. SOIL TEXTURE

A soil's texture is then the relative proportion of SAND, SILT, and CLAY. Together, these three
SOIL SEPARATES must add up to be 100%. The organic matter is not a part of the soil's texture.

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 24

Each soil separate represents a distinct physical size group of mineral particles. We will be using
these separates the rest of the semester:

Effective Diameter
Sand 2.0 - 0.05 mm
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 mm
Clay <0.002 mm

For a more detailed textural classification the sand fraction is further divided into the following

Very Coarse Sand 2.0 - 1.0 mm

Coarse Sand 1.0 - 0.5 mm
Medium Sand 0.5 - 0.25 mm
Fine Sand 0.25 - 0.10 mm
Very Fine Sand 0.10 - 0.05 mm

Modifiers that are used for coarse materials those are greater than 2 mm (effective diameter).
gravels 2mm - 3 in
cobbles 3 in - 10 in

stones 10 in - 24 in

boulders > 24 in

Textural Classes/Textural Grades:

Since there is such a large number of 　　　

combinations that could occur, soil
scientists group similar amounts of sand,
silt and clay into groups called soil
textural classes or textural grades. There
are 12 textural classes and classification
into a specific soil textural class uses the
Soil Textural Triangle

Materials belonging to the same textural classification generally behave

similarly and may be managed similarly.

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 25

Other important effects of Soil Texture:
Specific Surface Area – the amount of particle surface area exposed and available as a
site for chemical and physical processes per unit mass or volume
of soil. The finer the particle sizes of the soil mass, the larger the
specific surface area.

Estimates of Specific Surface Area:

 1g of sand = 1.5 ft2
 1g of silt = 14.9 ft2
 1g of clay = 262,467 ft2

Specific Surface Area affects the:

1. adsorption of water
2. area for chemical reactions
3. adsorption of nutrients
4. plasticity
5. shrink/swell

Soil Texture and Management

Coarse Textured Soils (sands, loamy sands)

 Hold low amounts of water and nutrients - may have to irrigate and
fertilize frequently
 Not highly erosize - allows water to infiltrate; less runoff
 Very permeable - good for waste disposal only if a deep soil
 May compact to form a hardpan

Fine textured soils (clays, sandy clays, silty clays)

 Hold large amounts of nutrients and water - may hold things too
tightly
 Erosion - slow infiltration; high runoff means much erosion.
 Slow permeability - often unacceptable for septic tanks
 May shrink/swell - depends upon the type of clay minerals present

Medium Textured Soils (loams, clay loams, sandy loams, silt loams)

 Properties fall in between the other two.

III. SOIL STRUCTURE

Structure is the arrangement of primary sand, silt and clay particles into secondary aggregates

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 26

called peds or structural units which have distinct shapes and are easy to recognize. These
differently shaped aggregates are called the structural type.

TYPES: There are 5 basic types of structural units:

1. Platy: Plate-like aggregates that form parallel to the horizons like pages in a
book.
 This type of structure may reduce air, water and root movement.
 common structure in an E horizon and usually not seen in other
horizons.
2. Blocky: Two types--angular blocky and subangular blocky
 These types of structures are commonly seen in the B horizon.
 Angular is cube-like with sharp corners while subangular blocky has
rounded corners.
3. Prismatic: Vertical axis is longer than the horizontal axis. If the top is flat, it is
referred to as prismatic. If the top is rounded, it is called columnar.
4. Granular: Peds are round and porous, spheroidal. This is usually the structure
of A horizons.
5. Structureless: No observable aggregation or structural units.
 Single grain-sand
 Massive-solid mass without aggregates

GRADES: Grade of structure – relates to the degree of inter-aggregate adhesion and to

aggregate stability.

1. structureless- particles are not arranged to aggregates or peds

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 27

 2. weak – poorly formed peds or aggregates that are barely observable in
place
3. moderate – well-formed and moderately durable peds that are not very
distinct in undisturbed soils
4. strong – durable peds that are quite evident in undisturbed soil but may be
separated when the soil is disturbed.

CLASS: Class of structure - Describes size of the aggregates.

1. very fine
2. fine
3. medium
4. coarse
5. very coarse
Note: the exact dimension for each class varies from one type to another

Structure Description:

In describing the structure the Class, Grade and Type has to be indicated (in this
particular order).

Example: coarse, strong, sub-angular blocky

Processes involved in formation of soil structure

1. wetting / drying
2. root pressure
3. microorganisms – effect of fungal hypha or mucilaginous bacterial exudates
4. cementing by clay, organic matter, iron and aluminum compounds

Importance of Soil Structure

1. Increases infiltration of water, thus reducing runoff and erosion and increases the
amount of plant available water.
2. Improves seedling emergence, root growth and rooting depth.
3. Large continuous pores increase permeability.

Tips in Maintaining Soil Structure/Preventing Structure Destruction

1. Till soil only at the proper wetness. Never till when the soil is too wet. This
will cause the soil to become cloddy and the aggregates to be destroyed.
2. Add the proper amounts of lime and fertilizer. Proper plant growth will lead
to the development of good soil structure.
3. Maintain or increase organic matter contents of Ap horizon.

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 28

IV. SOIL CONSISTENCE.

Expresses cohesive and adhesive forces holding soil particles together; varies with moisture
content. Describes the resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to mechanical stress or
manipulation. . It refers to the degree of plasticity and stickiness of the soil. Soil consistence is
affected by the type and amount of clay that is in the soil.

Soil consistence indicates:

 where are zones that may restrict root growth and seedling emergence.
 whether a soil is likely to develop compacted zones; ruts, crusts, hardpans etc...

Description of Consistence:
Described at three moisture levels:
1. Wet
Stickiness (non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky,very sticky)
Plasticity (non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic, very plastic)
2. Moist
Very friable, friable, firm ,very firm
3. Dry
Loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard ,extremely hard

V. SOIL DENSITY

Two Expressions of Soil Density:

1. Particle Density (Dp)

- the density of the soil solids alone (volume of pores excluded in computation)
- determined by the mineralogy of the soil material

Dp = mass of Oven-dried Soil ÷ volume of soil solids

Or
Dp = mass Soil Solids ÷ volume of soil solids

For most soils, this assumed to be 2.65 g -3 which is the Dp for quartz.

2. Bulk Density (Db)

- density of the bulk soil (volume of pores included in the computation)

- determined by mineralogy as well as packing and sorting of soil particles

- index of compaction. Soil of a given texture is considered compact if its bulk

density is close to the bulk densities outlined in the table below.

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 29

 Maximum soil
densities for
common soil
textures. Roth,
1997

Db = mass of oven-dried Soil ÷ bulk volume volume of soil material

Or
Db = mass soil solids ÷ (volume of soil solids + volume of pores)

Bulk density is affected by the solids and pore space:

o high pore space = low bulk density
o low pore space = high bulk density
 fine textures silt loams, clay, clay loam - generally lower bulk
density 0.9-1.6 g/cc
 sandy soils may range 1.2 - 1.8 g/cc
 strong structure (well granulated topsoil) - low bulk density
 high organic matter = low bulk density

As bulk density increases:

o soil strength increases
o pore space decreases
o soils become more compact

Remember that bulk density is related to the amount of pores in the soil.
 the greater the total pore space the lower the bulk density

Other Important Soil Physical Properties:

1. Porosity (f) = a soil physical property which indicates how much of the bulk volume of
the soil is occupied by pores. This can be expressed as a decimal or as a
percentage. Porosity values normally range from 0.35 to 0.65. Non-
compacted tmedium-textured soils may be assumed to have porosity of
0.5 or 50%.

f= volume pores ÷ bulk volume or total volume of soil

By doing a simple derivation, porosity can also be computed as:

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 30

 f= 1- (Db/Dp)

Soils with a high porosity means:

1. The soil can accommodate a large volume of air and water.

2. Air and water movement may be effective.
3. Limited or no problem of root penetration.
4. Soil is relatively less prone to erosion.

2. Penetration Resistance (PR) – this a measure of the resistance offered by the soil
against root penetration. This is largely a function of the
soil bulk density and consistency.

o Penetration resistance is measured using a standardized penetrometer.

Units of the measurements are units of pressure.

3. Hydraulic Conductivity (K) – a parameter describing the soil’s ability to transmit

water

- to be discussed further under “Soil Water”

SOIL WATER
o Soil water content and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil are dynamic soil
physical properties.
o Although they are not as important as soil texture, soil structure, soil color, soil
consistence, soil density in characterizing the soil profile or classifying the soil,
soil water content and hydraulic conductivity are very important in deciding the
appropriate land management scheme for a given area.

Qualitative expressions of soil water content:

1. Saturation – all the pores are filled with water

2. Field Capacity (FC)– water content referring to water left in the soil after
gravitational water has drained.
o For medium-textured soils, this is usually achieved three days after the end of a
rain event/irrigation event that fully saturates a certain horizon/location in the
soil.

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 o Technically refers to a condition where water is held by the soil by tensions of
0.3 bar to 15 bars

Gravitational Water – water drained from the pores due to the action of gravity

3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) - water content referring to a condition wherein

the quantity of water in the field is very low such that plants growing in it will wilt
beyond recovery.
o Technically refers to a condition where water is held by the soil by a tension of
15 bars or more.

Total Available Water/Plant-Available Water

o Amount of water (expressed in a volume or mass basis) that is considered

available for plant use.
o Computed as the difference between the water content at FC and PWP.

Quantitative Expressions of Soil Water Content:

1. Volumetric Water Content –(ϴ) = volume of water per bulk volume of soil

ϴ = volume of water ÷ bulk volume of soil (which includes the volume of pores)

common unit = cm3/cm3

2. Gravimetric Water Content (w) = mass of water per mass of soil solids

w = mass of water ÷ mass of soil solids (or dry mass of soil)

common unit = g/g

3. Thickness of water (l) = equivalent thickness of water in a given thickness of soil

l = ϴ × thickness of soil considered

common unit = cm or mm

Hydraulic Conductivity (k):

- A physical parameter which relates to the ability of the water to allow water to pass or
permeate through it.

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 - Under saturated conditions, the ability of the soil to transmit water is known as
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity or Ksat.
- Under unsaturated conditions, the ability of the soil to transmit water is known as
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity or K unsat
- Units – usually expressed as cm travelled by water per hour (cm/h)
- Computed using the following Darcy’s Law Equation:

k= Darcian flux ÷ hydraulic gradient

Note: computations of k is discussed in detail in higher Soil Science courses but

not in this course

Soil Hydraulic Conductivity vs Soil drainage

1. Hydraulic Conductivity is the speed of water movement in a soil -- this is affected by

texture and structure

 if K is high : water moves quickly

 if K is low : water moves slowly

2. Drainage is the frequency and duration of saturation. The time that the soil is
waterlogged. -- this is affected by landscape position and conductivity.

 A sand could have a high conductivity, but in a low landscape position and
be poorly drained.

 A clay loam could have a high conductivity, but in a low landscape position
and be poorly drained.

 A clay may have a very low conductivity but may be well drained because it
is at the top of a hill.

Factors affecting hydraulic conductivity.

1. Water content. This is not a factor for Ksat. But Kunsat is affected by water content.
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity declines with drop in water content

2. Pore size present in the soil

Water moves faster through larger pores than smaller pores.

3. Pore Continuity

High Conductivity - contains pores which are continuous and large enough for water to
pass through. This is expected in course-texture soils where pores tends to be large and
continuous.

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 33

 4. Natural aggregation of the separates will increase the large pore space. When soils with
good structure are compacted the large pore space is lost because the big pores are
squashed.

This is why it is important to maintain good soil structure if it already exists.

Other factors:

a) Root and worm channels:

increase permeability by forming large continuous pores through out
the soil. These pores must extend from the soil surface to depth. These
allow for rapid water infiltration.

b) organic matter :
increases permeability by promoting aggregation and increasing the
stability of soil aggregates. Remember that organic matter decomposes
to form glues, gums, etc. ... that help cement or stick soil particles
together. Organic matter forms large pores when plant residues are
added or left on the soil surface.

Important Term:
Infiltration – Entry of the water through the soil surface
o This is influenced by the properties of the surface and porosity and structure of
the sub-surface
o Areas with high infiltration rate usually does not keep water ponded at the
surface.
o When water ponded at the surface moves horizontally, it is called “runoff” and
it can cause soil erosion

Review Questions:

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 34

 1. Why is characterization of soil physical properties important?
2. Differentiate static from dynamic properties.
3. What are examples of important properties that can be inferred from soil color?
4. What do we use/how is soil color described?
5. What value and chroma should be noted to appropriately classify the soil into drainage
classifications?
6. What are textural grades?
7. How many textural grades are there and what is the benefit of classifying the soil into
textural grades?
8. What are the different structural types and describe how water moves through a soil having
such structures?
9. How can good soil structure be maintained/developed?
10. What is soil consistence and what does consistency description tell an agriculturist using the
soil in an area?
11. What are the two expressions of soil densities? Which of the two is an index of compaction?
12. What is porosity?
13. How is porosity related to amount and effectiveness of water movement?
14. What are the three qualitative expressions of soil water content?
15. How are the TAW and amount of gravitational water computed?
16. What are three quantitative expressions of water content?
17. What is hydraulic conductivity?
18. What influences hydraulic conductivity of soil in the field?

Soils: Soil Physical Properties 35