AMME2500

MODULE 1 – DYNAMICS
OF POINT-MASS SYSTEMS
Lecture 1.3 Kinematics of Particles (continued) &
Kinetics of Particles

Matthew Cleary
School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering,
University of Sydney
 Last Lecture
• Kinematics of particles:
• Curvilinear motion in different coordinate systems:
• Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates
• n-t coordinates
• Polar coordinates

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 Today’s Lecture
• Kinematics of particles:
• Relative Motion
• Constrained Motion
• Kinetics of Particles:
• Force, Mass and Acceleration

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
• We have considered up to now coordinate systems with
origins fixed in space

• Some dynamics problems are simplified by using multiple

coordinate systems that move with respect to each other:
are in relative motion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Aerial_refueling

• We will begin by considering only relative translation

between frames, without relative rotation

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
• Consider two particles A and
B which have separate
y
motions (in-plane)
A
Y j
B
x
i

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
• Consider two particles A and
B which have separate
y
motions (in-plane)
• The position of A relative to B A
is rAB and we sum its position Y j rAB
to rB to determine rA with B
x
respect to the absolute i
coordinates at O: rB
rA
rA = rB + rAB
X
rAB = xi + yj rA and rB are absolute positions relative
to the fixed coordinates X and Y

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
y
• If we differentiate this vector
expression w.r.t time, we A
obtain the velocity and Y j rAB
acceleration vectors B
x
i
rB
rA

ṙA = ṙB + ṙAB r̈A = r̈B + r̈AB

vA = vB + vAB aA = aB + aAB

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
y
• Since the frames translate
but do not rotate, the di/dt, A
dj/dt vector terms are zero Y j rAB
B
x
i
rB
rA

ṙAB = vAB = ẋi + ẏj r̈AB = aAB = ẍi + ÿj

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
y
• We can additionally express
the relative position between A
A and B using the difference Y j rAB
of the absolute position B
x
vectors i
rB
rAB = rA rB rA

vAB = vA vB X
aAB = aA aB

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
y
• We can additionally express
the relative position between A
A and B using the difference Y j rBA
of the absolute position B
x
vectors i
rB
rAB = rA rB rA

vAB = vA vB X
aAB = aA aB rAB = rBA
• We can determine the vAB = vBA
position of B relative to A aAB = aBA
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 Relative Motion: Example 1.3.1
• Train A travels with a constant speed
along the tracks of vA = 40 m/s. Car
B is travelling at vB = 20 m/s and
begins to decelerate at 3 m/s2 upon
seeing the train. Determine the
relative velocity and acceleration
vectors of the train relative to the car

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 Relative motion between coordinate systems
and frames of reference
• It’s important to remember that the relationships here only
hold for non-rotating frames of reference
• We will re-examine relative motion for rotating reference
frames when we start to consider the kinematics of rigid
bodies

Y y

A
j
B
x
i
X
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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• So far we have examined V
the kinematics of particles
using various coordinate yA
systems in 2D and 3D yB
space (rectangular, n-t,
polar)
xB
• Vectors representing
position, velocity and
xA
acceleration of objects can
be represented in any of
these coordinate systems:
they are still the same
vector, just represented
using different components

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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• A vector V can be V
represented in the
coordinate system A by yA
expressing the
components and basis
vectors of A

xA

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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• A vector V can be V
vyA
represented in the
coordinate system A by yA
expressing the
components and basis
vectors of A

xA
vxA

v = vxA uxA + vyA uyA

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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• A vector V can be V
represented in the
coordinate system A by yA
expressing the yB
components and basis
vectors of A
xB
• Alternatively, the same
vector may be represented
xA
in the coordinate system B
by expressing the
components and basis
vectors of B

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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• A vector V can be V
represented in the
coordinate system A by
expressing the yB
components and basis
vectors of A
xB
• Alternatively, the same
vector may be represented
in the coordinate system B
by expressing the
components and basis
vectors of B

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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• A vector V can be V
represented in the
coordinate system A by
expressing the yB
components and basis
vectors of A vxB
vyB xB
• Alternatively, the same
vector may be represented
in the coordinate system B
by expressing the
components and basis
vectors of B
v = vxB uxB + vyB uyB

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 Vector Components and Coordinate Transformations
• A vector V can be V
represented in the coordinate
vyA
system A by expressing the yA
components and basis yB
vectors of A
• Alternatively, the same vector vxB
may be represented in the vyB xB
coordinate system B by
expressing the components xA
and basis vectors of B
• Here we are only interested in vxA
the components of the vector,
so the origin of either v = vxA uxA + vyA uyA
coordinate system is
irrelevant v = vxB uxB + vyB uyB

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• The relative orientation
between coordinate systems
A and B (in 2D) can be yA
specified by a single angle θ yB

xB

Θ
xA

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• The relative orientation
between coordinate systems
A and B (in 2D) can be yA
specified by a single angle θ yB
• We can represent the
components of any vector in
coordinates A as a function of xB
the components in coordinate
B and θ Θ
xA

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• The relative orientation
between coordinate systems
vyA
A and B (in 2D) can be yA
specified by a single angle θ yB
• We can represent the
components of any vector in
coordinates A as a function of xB
the components in coordinate
B and θ Θ
xA
v = vxA uxA + vyA uyA vxA

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• The relative orientation
between coordinate systems
A and B (in 2D) can be yA
specified by a single angle θ yB
• We can represent the
components of any vector in vxB
coordinates A as a function of vyB Θ xB
the components in coordinate
B and θ Θ
xA
v = vxA uxA + vyA uyA vyBsinθ
vxBcosθ
v = [vxB cos ✓ vyB sin ✓]uxA + vyA uyA

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• The relative orientation
between coordinate systems
A and B (in 2D) can be yA
specified by a single angle θ yB
• We can represent the
components of any vector in vxB
coordinates A as a function of vyB xB
the components in coordinate
B and θ Θ
xA
v = vxA uxA + vyA uyA vyBcosθ vxBsinθ

v = [vxB cos ✓ vyB sin ✓]uxA + vyA uyA

v = [vxB cos ✓ vyB sin ✓]uxA + [vxB sin ✓ + vyB cos ✓]uyA

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• We can now relate the
components of the vector in
one coordinate system to the yA
components of the vector in yB
another coordinate system

xB

Θ
xA

vxA = cos ✓vxB sin ✓vyB

vyA = sin ✓vxB + cos ✓vyB

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• If we rearrange this into a
matrix expression, where
components are represented yA
as column vectors, then the yB
matrix is referred to as a
rotation matrix or
transformation matrix xB
between the two coordinate
systems Θ
xA

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 Coordinate System Transformations in 2D
• The rotation matrix RBA transforms vectors represented in
coordinate system B components into coordinate system
A components
• The inverse of RBA is RAB and is used to transform from a
vector in A to a vector in B coordinates
• Rotation matrices are orthogonal, so the inverse is equal
to the matrix transpose

RB
A = (R A
B)
1
= (RA
B ) T

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 Coordinate Transforms: Example 1.3.2
• Consider again our train-car
relative motion problem. If we
consider an n-t coordinate ut
system attached to the car B,
determine the relative velocity
and acceleration in n-t frame nt frame
coordinates
F frame un

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Some problems in dynamics involve particles that are interconnected
by linkages. Rather than model the elastic forces within linkages, it is
often convenient and sufficient to represent linkages as constraints to
the relative motion of the particles
• Particles connected by a cord or tether, that can be approximated as
inextensible, are a common example of a situation in which kinematic
constraints can be applied

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Motion of block A
produces a corresponding
motion of block B
• We can model the motion
constraint via the length of
the cord:

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Motion of block A sA + lCD + sB = lT
produces a corresponding
motion of block B
• We can model the motion
constraint via the length of
the cord:

Note: lengths
are measured
postitive out
from the fixed
pulley centre

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Taking the time derivative
sA + lCD + sB = lT
of this equations:
• The displacements, ṡA + 0 + ṡB = 0
velocities and
accelerations of blocks A
and B are equal and
vB = vA
opposite

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Taking the time derivative
sA + lCD + sB = lT
of this equations:
• The displacements, s̈A + 0 + s̈B = 0
velocities and
accelerations of blocks A
and B are equal and aB = aA
opposite

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Consider a slightly more
complicated, but still one-
degree of freedom, example
• There is still only one chord of
length lT
• The segments of cord shown
in red don’t change length. Let
their combined length be lp

2sB + sA + lp = lT
2ṡB + ṡA + 0 = 0
Note: sB and h are coordinates relative
2s̈B + s̈A + 0 = 0 to a fixed datum

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• Consider a slightly more
complicated, but still one-
degree of freedom, example
• There is still only one chord of
length lT
• The segments of cord shown
in red don’t change length. Let
their combined length be lp

2sB + sA + lp = lT
2ṡB + ṡA + 0 = 0 2vB = vA

2s̈B + s̈A + 0 = 0 2aB = aA

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• If the velocity of particle A is
vA = 2 m/s to the right, what
is the velocity of particle B?

(A) vB = 2 m/s down (D) vB = 1 m/s up

(B) vB = 4 m/s down (E) vB = 4 m/s up

(C) vB = 1 m/s down

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• If the velocity of particle A is
vA = 2 m/s to the right, what
is the velocity of particle B?

(C) vB = 1 m/s down

x + 2y + lp = lT

ẋ + 2ẏ + 0 = 0
1 1
vA + 2vB + 0 = 0 vB = vA = 2 = 1m/s
2 2

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• General procedure for analysing connected particles with a
single cord:
• Establish position coordinates from fixed points
• Determine the length of the cord using position coordinates, neglecting
cord segments that do not change length as the particles move
• Evaluate the time derivative of the equation of cord length to relate velocity
and accelerations

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 Connected Particles: Two Degrees of Freedom
• Problems involving multiple cords
will incorporate additional degrees
of freedom to the relative motion of
the particles
• Consider the following problem:

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 Connected Particles: Two Degrees of Freedom
• Problems involving multiple cords
will incorporate additional degrees
of freedom to the relative motion of
the particles
• Consider the following problem:
• The constraint applied by each
cord forms a separate equation:

yA + 2yD + lp1 = l1

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 Connected Particles: Two Degrees of Freedom
• Problems involving multiple cords
will incorporate additional degrees
of freedom to the relative motion of
the particles
• Consider the following problem:
• The constraint applied by each
cord forms a separate equation:

yB + yC + (yC yD ) + lp2 = l2

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 Connected Particles: Two Degrees of Freedom
• Problems involving multiple cords
will incorporate additional degrees
of freedom to the relative motion of
the particles
• Consider the following problem:
• The constraint applied by each
cord forms a separate equation:

yA + 2yD + lp1 = l1
yB + yC + (yC yD ) + lp2 = l2

vA + 2vD = 0 aA + 2aD = 0
vB + 2vC vD = 0 aB + 2aC aD = 0

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 Connected Particles: Two Degrees of Freedom
• Problems involving multiple cords
will incorporate additional degrees
of freedom to the relative motion of
the particles
• Consider the following problem:
• The constraint applied by each
cord forms a separate equation
• Eliminating vD and aD :

vA + 2vB + 4vC = 0

aA + 2aB + 4aC = 0

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 Connected Particles: Constrained Motion
• General procedure for analysing connected particles with a
multiple cords:
• Establish position coordinates and directions from fixed points as before,
making sure to include coordinates for all components that can move
• Establish N equations for N cords, differentiate length w.r.t time
• Substitute to eliminate components that are not of interest

• The resulting constraints may then be used to evaluate the

velocity and acceleration of certain particles based on the
others

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 Connected Particles: Example 1.3.3
• Consider the case that particles A
and B accelerate downwards with
aA = 2 m/s2 and aB = 5 m/s2.
Determine the acceleration of the
mass connected to point C.

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 Connected Particles: Example 4.3
• Consider the case that particles A
and B accelerate downwards with
aA = 2 m/s2 and aB = 5 m/s2.
Determine the acceleration of the
mass connected to point C.

vA + 2vB + 4vC = 0

aA + 2aB + 4aC = 0

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 Connected Particles: Example 1.3.3
• Consider the case that particles A
and B accelerate downwards with
aA = 2 m/s2 and aB = 5 m/s2.
Determine the acceleration of the
mass connected to point C.

vA + 2vB + 4vC = 0

aA + 2aB + 4aC = 0

1
aC = (aA + 2aB )
4
1
= (2 + 2(5)) = 3m/s2 upwards
4

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 break

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 Kinetics of Particles
• Dynamics: the principles governing the state of motion or
rest of bodies under the influence of applied force and
torque
• Kinematics: the “geometry” of motion: the relationships between
position, velocity, acceleration and rotation and bodies joined by
linkages and other constraints

• Kinetics: the relationship between motion

and it’s cause due to force, torque, mass
and inertia

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 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
• Any two particles or bodies have a mutually attractive
gravitational force acting between them. Newton postulated the
law governing this gravitational force:

F = G(m1m2/r2)
where F = force of attraction between the two bodies,
G = universal constant of gravitation ,
m1, m2 = mass of each body, and
r = distance between centres of the two bodies.
• When near the surface of the earth, the only gravitational force
having any sizable magnitude is that between the earth and the
body. This force is called the weight of the body.
• For small ranges of r (relative to REarth), weight force can be
approximated as F = m1g, where g = G(mEarth/REarth2) ≈ 9.81 m/s2

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 Mass and Weight
• Mass is an absolute property of a body. It is independent of
the gravitational field in which it is measured.
• The mass provides a measure of the resistance of a body
to a change in velocity.
• In SI units mass is measured in kg.

• The weight of a body is not absolute, since it depends on

the gravitational field in which it is measured.
• Weight is a force defined as
W = mg

where g is the acceleration due to gravity measured in m/s2.

In SI units, weight is measured in kg.m/s2, otherwise known
as a Newton (N).
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 Newton’s “Laws of Motion”
The motion of a particle is governed by Newton’s three
laws of motion:

1. First Law: A particle originally at rest, or moving in a

straight line at constant velocity, will remain in this state
if the resultant force acting on the particle is zero.
2. Second Law: If the resultant force on the particle is not
zero, the particle experiences an acceleration in the
same direction as the resultant force. This acceleration
has a magnitude proportional to the resultant force, and
inversely proportional to its mass.
3. Third Law: Mutual forces of action and reaction
between two particles are equal, opposite, and collinear.

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 Newton’s “Laws of Motion”
• The first and third laws are used in the development of the
concepts of statics. Newton’s second law forms the basis
of the study of dynamics.
• Mathematically, Newton’s second law of motion can be
written:
F = ma

where F is the resultant unbalanced force acting on the

particle, and a is the acceleration of the particle. The
positive scalar m is the mass of the particle.
• Newton’s second law becomes less accurate when the particle’s
speed approaches the speed of light, or if the size of the particle is
extremely small (~ size of an atom), or in the presence of intense
gravitational fields (see special and general relativity)

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 Inertial Frame of Reference
• Newton’s equation of motion is only valid if the
acceleration is measured in a Newtonian or inertial frame
of reference.
• An inertial reference frame is both non-rotating and has
zero acceleration (it can be moving !)
• The surface of the Earth is not really an inertial reference frame,
but it is usually sufficient to treat it as one as it has a very low
magnitude of rotation and acceleration, as the Earth moves through
space around the sun
• Problems requiring very high-accuracy often require these effects
to be included when developing equations of motion using
Newton’s second law
• See Meriam, Kraige and Bolton Section 3/2 for an excellent
explanation

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 Equations of Motion from Newton’s Laws
The motion of a particle is governed by Newton’s second law, relating
the unbalanced forces on a particle to its acceleration. If more than one
force acts on the particle, the equation of motion can be written

åF = FR = ma

where FR is the resultant force, which is a vector summation of all the

forces.

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 Example 4.4
• A 75kg person stands on a set of scales in an
elevator. The elevator is released from rest and
the tension in the hoisting cable is 8300N. If the
total mass of the elevator, person and scales is
750kg, find the reading in the scales and the
velocity of the elevator after 3 seconds.

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 Procedure for Developing Equations of Motion

1) Select a convenient inertial coordinate system. Rectangular,

normal/tangential, or cylindrical coordinates may be used.

2) Draw a free-body diagram showing all external forces applied to the

particle. Resolve forces into their appropriate components.

3) Apply the equations of motion 𝚺F = FR = ma into scalar component

form and solve these equations for the unknowns.

4) It may be necessary to apply the kinematic relations and constraints

to generate additional equations.

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 Next Lecture
• Kinetics of particles:
• Force, mass and acceleration: Equations of motion in rectangular,
n-t and polar coordinates
• Work and Energy
• Impulse and Momentum

• Suggested Reading
• Mariam, Kraige and Bolton: Section 3/4, 3/5, 3/6, 3/7, 3/8

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