TABLE OF CONTENTS FIGURE

CERTIFICATION…………………………………………...i
DEDICATION……………………………………………….ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………iii
ABSTRACT.………………………………..………………...iv
1.0 CHARPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………….2
1.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………..3-4
1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY……………………………….….4
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY………………………….4
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY………………………………..4-5
1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY………………………...5
2.0 CHARPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………….......6-8
2.2 NATURE AND TYPE OF WASTE MATERIALS……..8-9
2.3 CONSTRUCTION PHASE………………………………9-13
2.4 OPERATIONAL PHASE………………………………...13-14
2.5 PREVALENCE OF COMMON MATERIALS…………14-18
2.6 WASTE CONTROL MEASURE………………….........19
3.0 CHARPTER THREE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………20-21
REFERENCE……………………………………………...….21

1
1.0 CHARPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction

During the construction phase, quantities of excavated materials and other

wastes will be generated which will require disposal in an appropriate and
environmentally acceptable manner. This section of the EIA report involves an
assessment of the potential environmental impacts from solid and construction
waste streams generated by the proposed works and describes an appropriate
disposal strategy. The disposal strategy is based upon the waste management
principle of reducing the amount of waste requiring final disposal through the
development of outline plans for waste avoidance, material re-use, and
recycling. Excavated materials and residual wastes may give rise to impacts
during their handling, temporary stockpiling or storage on site, transportation
and final disposal. A key task of this waste management assessment is to
determine the types and where possible estimate the quantities of all solid waste
arising’s. Moreover, in order to determine the most appropriate methods of
treatment, handling and disposal, it will also be important to understand the
nature and composition of the waste, in particular whether the waste materials
are inert or contaminated. Wastes generated during the operational phase have
also been considered within this assessment. Impacts on water quality from the
generation of waste waters and proposed mitigation measures are discussed
separately in Section 6 (Water Quality).
In the first decade after independence, the tempo of what is referred to as
modern construction was at low level in Nigeria. This was restricted to isolated
urban centres that were essentially the seat of government as it marked the
transitional stage of the nation’s growth. Hence, the low level of economic
activities was precipitated by 1967 to 1970 civil war. Moreover, improper
control of materials during different stages of construction has caused waste and
associated environmental problems. Hence, this research assesses the forms,
causes and factors incidental to waste and measures to effectively control
construction waste. It is shown that among the factors incidental to waste, last
minute client requirement was ranked highest as the factor that leads to design
variation with relative importance index value of 3.97; cost of construction
materials was ranked highest as a factor that affects selection of construction
materials with relative importance index value of 4.05, and construction cost
was ranked highest as the factor that leads to construction method with relative
importance index

2
1.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The scope of coverage of this work was limited to construction companies in

Lagos to determine issues related to waste management and control on
construction sites. The restriction to Lagos state was informed by the fact that
the vast majority of construction activities in the country take place in the state.
Also, Ajanlekoko (2001) confirmed that Lagos state accounted for 60% of
prospective clients that patronize construction industry in Nigeria. The sample
frame for this study was gotten from the Building/Construction Industry
Directory (2003). From the sample frame, construction companies that are
based in Lagos state, Nigeria were selected. For research purposes, different
types of sampling techniques could be appropriate; hence, for the purpose of
this study, simple random method was used from the study population of
construction firms in Lagos State, Nigeria. Researchers have used different
methods to evaluate wastes generated during construction process. Bossink and
Brouwers (1996) used brainstorming technique. Serpell and Labra (2003) used
the interview approach. In the study of Poon et al. (2004) on construction waste
management in Hong Kong public housing projects; there was the use of
questionnaires that covered a wide range of topics concerning construction
waste minimization; regular visits to know the scope of work done where
wastes were generated by using a checklist of information and the quantities of
waste estimated by visual inspections, tape (that is volume) measurments and
truck load records. In this study, primary data was obtained using structured
questionnaires, interviews and site visits. Questionnaires were designed on
structural basis to get information about personal data of the respondents to
depict their profile that may let them have experience on issues relating to waste
management in construction process.

The questionnaires were also designed in line with the method adopted by Poon
et al. (2004), but also made to cover various factors that lead to wastages on
construction sites, waste control measures, effectiveness of the waste control
measures and existence of waste management plan in contractual process.
Eighty (80) structured questionnaires were administered to the core practitioners
in the industry who had knowledge of waste generated during construction
process. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire is based on the use of
measurement scale to assess the causes of construction waste, and a total of
seventy-five (75) questionnaires were returned and found useful which amounts
to a return rate of 93.75%. Interviews were conducted to complement the

3
questionnaires. Personal interviews were conducted to complement the
questionnaires administered to the respondents. The interviews were conducted
among construction personnel namely architects, builders, engineers and
foremen by covering issues related to the order of site activities, waste handling
methods, problems of waste management, waste reduction measures and likely
suggestions to avoid and minimize waste. Site visits were carried out to
physically identify the methods used at the construction sites to manage streams
of waste generated. The data collected were analysed with the use of descriptive
and inferential statistical methods.

1.3 Aim of the study

This study is aimed at the use of construction wastes in maintenance works.

1.4 Objectives of the study

The overall objectives for the waste management assessment are summarised
below:
(i) To assess the construction activities involved for the proposed works
and determine the type, nature and where possible, estimate the
volume of waste to be generated;
(ii) To identify any potential environmental impacts from the generation
of waste associated with the works;
(iii) To categorise waste materials where practical, i.e. suitability for re-
use/recycling, disposal to public filling areas, disposal to landfill and
any pre-treatment requirements prior to disposal
(iv) To recommend appropriate waste management options (including
waste minimisation on-site, re-use or recycling opportunities and off-
site disposal options)
(v) To identify site management/mitigation measures that should be
implemented to minimise any potential impacts from the generation,
handling, storage and disposal measures/routings of waste, in
accordance with the current legislative and administrative
requirements
(vi) To assess handling and disposal requirements of bentonite slurries in
accordance with the Practice.
(vii) The contracting firms should create a functioning section that would
see to the appraisal of the plan and compliance with its provisions
through capacity building and manpower development.
(viii) The site worker should be enlightened about the environmental and
health risks associated with waste generated from materials used
during construction process.

4
1.5 Scope of the study
The research showed that most of the firms do not calculate waste indices
which could assist them to determine the amount of waste that could be
generated on sites. Sorting exercise that could help firms to identify economy
advantage associated with the waste streams is not adequately carried out. It
was also discovered that most firms do not incorporate “waste management
plan” into the collection of documents that are required of contracting firms
during tendering process. To control waste, designers should be able to co-
ordinate dimensions between materials specified during design and those
procured for use at sites. There is need to allow proper control in the handling,
storage and use of materials on site. Also, “waste management plan” should be
incorporated as one of the documents dearly expected to be submitted by
contracting firms during tendering process.
1.6 Limitation of the study
There is need for a policy that would mandate contracting firms to carry
out the calculation of waste indices to determine the amount of waste that will
be generated so that proper measures will be in place to control the waste.

5
2.0 CHARPTER TWO
2.1 Literature review

Key words: Construction processes, waste, factors, effects, control measures.

According to Henry et al. (2009), the construction sector represents one of the
most dynamic and complex industrial developments the world over. The
construction activities in the context of the Nigeria economy cannot be treated
with a wave of hand. Obadan and Uga (1996) claimed that the construction
industry contributes between 3 and 6% of the gross development product (GDP)
in developing countries and records from the Federal Office of Statistics
specifically ascertain that the contribution of construction industry to Nigeria’s
gross development product (GDP) has hovered around 2% for the past 15 years
and this accounts for about 69% of the Nation’s Gross Fixed Capital Formation
(FOS, 1997). Empirical studies had also reinforced the fact that 1% increase in
the stock of infrastructure generates 1% increase in the GDP across all
countries. Ilesanmi (1986) posited that the cost of materials accounted for 50 to
60% of the total cost of construction of any project, while Skoyles (2000) came
out with the most recent information that cost of material alone in the building
construction project is 55 to 65%. To reduce cost of construction projects, an
optimum material control on site should be therefore adopted. Construction
waste is a growing problem in many countries. Stokoe et al. (1999) reported that
construction and demolition (C&D) waste took up about 65% of Hong Kong’s
landfill space at its peak in 1994/1995.

The cost and environmental implications of construction activities are now well
known. The construction industry in particular and the built environment in
general has been found to be among the main consumers of resources and
energy. Moreover, the construction sector is reported to be generating unaccep-
table levels of material and manpower waste. Generally, construction activities
which produce wastage can be grouped into off-site and on-site operational
activities. Off-site activities include prefabrication, project design (architectural,
structural, mechanical and electrical design), manufacturing and transporting of
materials and components. On-site construction activities relate to construction
of a physical facility which consists of the substructure and superstructure of the
building. Some degrees of waste materials are inevitable in the construction
process. All estimators allow wastage factors in pricing a bill of quantities. Over
the years, experience has shown, however, that unless site management control
is tight, wastage can frequently exceed, often by a large margin, than the figure

6
allowed in the tender document. Enshassi (1996) buttressed the need for re-
unification when he suggested that effective materials control demands
concentrated and coordinated action of numerous people performing a variety of
functions within the industry. He further suggested that waste seen on site is not
necessarily caused by failure or inadequacy of individual functions involved in
materials management system. Control of material is relatively a new practice in
the construction industry. In the present situation, the management and the
designers are mainly concerned on how to control cost without any emphasis on
waste control measures. Generally, it is accepted that cost of materials
accounted for a great percentage of the total cost of construction projects.
Therefore, a critical control of materials on site should be adopted. Materials
wastage on site cannot be treated fully without materials control. In fact,
material waste level on site is a measure of site management. It is also one of
the enemies of contractors. Most loss of materials occurs as a result of the
decision of the site management. Decision taken at the initial stage of any
project that is the design stage, either by the manufacturer or supplier of
materials are capable of increasing waste level. This can occur as a result of
manufacturers not following strictly the buyers' speci- fication and supplier not
packaging the product for easy transportation. Since all the burden of waste lies
solely on the contractor, it is important that the site management should ensure a
good supervision of materials and apply an effective method of controlling
waste. Waste normally emanates during different stages of construction which
can be during planning, estimating or construction stage. In Nigeria, not all the
materials procured are used during construction and this indicates that the left-
overs may remain as waste that may not be accounted for. Over the years, there
has been an increase in the rate of construction activities in the country. This
has inevitably led to the generation of waste at different stages of projects.
Currently in Nigeria, little consideration has been paid to the control of
generation of construction and demolition waste (C & D) in the last decade.
This can be attributed to the availability of relatively low means of waste
disposal and the generally, low environmental awareness of the construction
industry wastes in the country. And despite being a major generation of consi-
derable waste, the construction industry in Nigeria, has been slow to embrace
environmental friendly practices. The study aims at identifying the sources of
waste on construction sites, determine the current waste control measures and
assess the effectiveness of the waste control measures with a view to seeking for
ways to control waste generation in future construction projects.

7
2.2 Nature and Type of Waste Materials
2.3 Construction Phase
Wastes which will be generated during the construction phase include the
following:
(i) vegetation and demolition waste from site clearance;
(ii) excavated materials from earthworks (e.g. cuttings, pile foundations,
regrading works);
(iii) general construction waste (e.g. wood, scrap metal, concrete);
(iv) bentonite slurries from pile construction;
(v) chemical wastes generated by general site practices (e.g. vehicle and
plant maintenance/servicing); and
(vi) Municipal wastes generated by site workers.
The construction works will also require the diversion of a number of water
supply pipes. Historically, water supply pipework within Hong Kong has
incorporated the use of asbestos containing materials. However, based on a
review of available WSD records there is no evidence to suggest that asbestos
containing materials will be encountered during the utility diversion works.
Excavated Materials
The greatest volume of excavated material will arise from the
re-excavation/modification of existing cuttings and slope cutting for new
retaining walls. Wherever possible, excavated material from the earthworks will
be re-used on site as structural fill or for landscaping purposes. This will
maximise the utilisation rate of materials on site and reduce the requirement for
off site disposal.
Construction Waste Material
Construction waste likely to be generated during the site formation works
include the following:
• Waste wood from concrete form work;
• Spent concrete;
• Waste steel rebar from concrete reinforcement activities; and
• Material and equipment wrappings.
The project works incorporate the construction of retaining walls, abutments
and viaducts which may have piled foundations that may require the use of
bentonite slurries. It is common practice among contractors to reuse these
slurries during construction, thus reducing the volume requiring final disposal.
Chemical Waste Material
Plant and vehicle maintenance will likely be the primary source of chemical
wastes during the construction period. The majority of chemical waste produced
is therefore expected to consist of waste oils and solvents. Typical wastes may
include the following:
• Solid wastes (empty fuel/lubricant drums, used oil/air filters, scrap
batteries, vehicle parts);

8
 • Liquid wastes (waste oils/grease, spent solvents/detergents and possibly
spent acid/alkali from batteries maintenance).
The volume of chemical waste will depend upon the total number of
plant/vehicles and how much maintenance is actually carried out on site.
However it is unlikely that volumes will exceed 450 litres / month.
2.4 Operational Phase
Wastes may be generated from specific maintenance operations (e.g. road re-
surfacing, upkeep of landscaped areas) and may include asphalt, concrete and
organic wastes (vegetation). The total volumes and types of waste materials will
be dependent upon the nature and frequency of the maintenance works
undertaken and cannot be accurately estimated at this stage.
2.5 Potential Impacts & Mitigation Measures
Waste materials have the potential to cause adverse environmental impacts
during generation, storage, transport and disposal. The principal adverse effects
relate to dust, water quality, general health and safety and visual impacts. For
each anticipated waste category, the potential environmental impacts are
highlighted and appropriate mitigation measures/disposal options recommended
below.
The Traffic Impact Assessment, carried out separately from the EIA, considers
the overall impacts from all traffic associated with the construction works,
including the movement of haulage vehicles disposing of waste materials off-
site. The TIA recommends temporary traffic measures and phasing of the
construction works. Other mitigation measures associated with potential
impacts from construction haulage vehicles are discussed within Section 4 (Air)
and Section 5 (Noise).

Waste management procedures should be implemented to minimise potential

impacts to the environment. This may be achieved by consideration and
application of the following protocols :
(i) Avoiding and/or minimising waste generation where practical by
improvements or changes in the project design or site procedures;
(ii) Reusing/recycling/recovering materials where possible and thereby
negating /minimising disposal requirements (e.g. by waste segregation
according to type, separation of recyclable materials such as metal,
reuse of wood from site hoarding/concrete formwork, utilisation of
excavated material for filling or landscaping)
(iii) Ensuring that all treatment and disposal options comply with best
practice and all relevant guidelines and legislation.
The following specific measures should therefore be adopted during the detailed
design and construction stages of the project to minimise waste generation:
Detailed Design:
• Minimising excavation requirements as far as possible.
• Balancing cut and fill requirements.

9
 • Evaluating the potential for maximising the re-use of excavated materials
for example, within landscape mounds.
• Considering treatments for unsuitable excavated materials e.g. upgrading
of subsoil to top soils by mixing with compost.
• Providing an area within the construction site to allow for sorting and
segregation of materials.
Construction
• Segregating waste materials according to type to facilitate re-use and
recycling.
• Separation of inert construction and demolition materials for either re-use
on-site or use as public fill.
• During demolition works, segregating materials at source as far as
practical.
• Co-ordinate material deliveries to site in order to minimise storage times
on site and the likelihood of causing damage.
• Consider on site mulching of vegetation to reduce bulk and review
opportunities for possible use within landscaping areas.
• Training site staff in waste minimisation practices.
In accordance with good practice, accurate site records should be maintained
throughout the construction works detailing the quantities of materials;

a) Generated on site
b) Reused on site
c) Disposed off-site, together with disposal routes/locations. The burning of
wastes on-site will not be permitted.
2.6 Wastes Generated from Site Clearance and Excavated Materials
All materials should be re-used or transported off site as soon as possible to
minimise the potential for adverse environmental impacts. It is recognised that
some stockpiling of materials will be required in some instances although these
should be segregated in terms of material type as far as practical to facilitate
material re-use (i.e. top soil for landscaping, suitable fill for engineering works).
All excavated material should be handled in a manner that minimises the release
of fugitive dust (especially during hot and dry weather) and where possible the
movement of material should be kept to a minimum. Mitigation measures for
the handling of excavated materials on-site have been addressed in detail within
Section 4 (Air Quality). Within the stockpile area, the following measures
should be in place to control potential impacts:
• Covering material during heavy rainfall;
• Using dust suppression techniques (such as dampening with fine water
spray and covering with tarpaulin);
• Controlling the excessive use of water during spraying to prevent the
generation of runoff contaminated with elevated levels of suspended
solids;

10
 • Segregation of the surface water system for the stockpile area and the
fitting of silt traps where appropriate;
• Locating stockpiles to minimise potential visual impacts;
• Minimising land intake of stockpile areas as far as possible;
• Provide fencing within designated areas to separate sensitive habitats
and prevent stockpiling in unsuitable locations; and
• Designate appropriate haulage roads.
A reduction in the total volume of excavated materials requiring off site
disposal will be achieved as far as possible by optimising the re-use of suitable
material on-site.
The capacity for the public filling areas to accept inert construction and
demolition material will however be dependent upon current and future
demands on disposal sites. Accurate predictions on the likely disposal site for
excavated materials derived from the project works can therefore not be made at
this stage. Any material which is not suitable for re-use on site will be removed
during the initial 16 months of the construction works programme. The majority
of demolition wastes will be generated from the dismantling of existing bridges,
which will commence 18 months into the construction programme.
The stockpiles should be covered and removed for off-site disposal by a
licensed waste collector as soon as practical. Final disposal should be to a
licensed landfill site, upon approval from EPD. During the handling and
excavation of any contaminated materials, appropriate health and safety
precautions will be required to minimise any potential risks to site workers.
Implementation of “standard” civil engineering techniques (e.g. provision of
overalls, gloves etc.., no smoking or eating on site) and the minimisation of dust
generated during construction will serve to ensure that direct contact by site
workers is avoided.
2.7 Inert Construction and Demolition Material
In view of the inert nature of such material, its disposal is unlikely to cause
long-term environmental concern. Stockpiling of all construction material prior
to disposal should comply with the control measures outlined earlier in order to
minimise any potential impacts related to dust, visual impact, water quality and
general health and safety.
The excessive generation of inert construction and demolition material increases
disposal costs and may take up valuable landfill space. With the implementation
of good site management and careful planning, the over-ordering of materials
and generation of inert construction and demolition material should be
minimised. In accordance with WBTC No. 19/99 (Metallic Site
Hoardings and Signboards), re-useable metal hoarding and signboards should
also be utilised on site to reduce the volumes of inert construction and
demolition material wood generated. Where possible, inert construction and
demolition materials such as wood and metal should be separated out from other
materials for recycling. All recyclable material should be clearly segregated and

11
stored in appropriate skips/containers or stockpiled. Segregation of material will
aid in the potential for re-use of material and in final disposal, if necessary.
Materia recycling or re-use reduces both the need for new construction
materials and subsequent collection, transportation and disposal costs. Only
when materials cannot be reused should they be disposed of to a public filling
area or, as a last resort, landfilled. All construction and demolition material
disposed at public filling sites must comply with the public dumping licensing
requirements (e.g. the material should be inert and contain <5% by volume of
timber). As far as possible, materials should be sorted to minimise the
requirement for off-site disposal.
2.8 Chemical Wastes
Chemical waste, as defined in the Waste Disposal (Chemical Waste) (General)
Regulation, will require disposal by appropriate and approved means. Potential
hazards associated with the inappropriate handling of these materials include:
• Effects on human health (i.e. dermal and toxic effects with respect to site
workers);
• Phytotoxic effects to vegetation;
• Contamination of the soil, groundwaters and surface water following
spillage;
• Risk of fire or explosions; and
• Discharge of chemical wastes to sewer and potential disruption of the
sewage treatment works.
Chemical wastes should be stored in a locked, fully bunded area which is
impermeable to both water and the waste being stored. The waste storage area
should also be covered to prevent rainfall from accumulating within the bunded
areas. The bunded area must have a volume of either 110% of the largest
container or 20% by volume of the chemical waste stored in that area.
Appropriate spill absorption material should be stored near the storage area in
order to clean up any minor spill events. The risks associated with chemical
waste storage and handling can be further minimised by :
• Designation of an appropriate, well ventilated storage area;
• Minimisation of waste production and recycling/reprocessing for certain
waste liquids where appropriate (e.g. oils, solvents);
• Careful handling of waste fuel and oil residues;
• Use of appropriate and labelled (Chinese and English) storage containers;
• Storage of wastes remote from sensitive receivers (e.g. drains, residential
properties and water bodies); and
• Education of workers on the concepts of site cleanliness and appropriate
waste management procedures.
2.9.1 Municipal Waste
If not appropriately managed, municipal wastes generated by site workers have
a potential to cause impacts in terms of nuisance, insects and vermin. This may

12
give rise to adverse environmental impacts for both site workers and site
neighbours which could include:
• Odour nuisance if putrescible material is not collected on a frequent
basis;
• Wind-blown material causing litter problems;
• Vermin and pests in the waste storage area if it is not well maintained and
cleaned regularly
• Adverse visual impacts.
A temporary refuse collection facility should be set-up by the contractor and
wastes should be stored in appropriate containers prior to collection and
disposal.
2.9.2 Operational Phase Wastes
Waste generated from the operational phase of the road widening project is
likely to be restricted to small volumes associated with maintenance works and
the upkeep of landscaped areas. Provided that appropriate waste handling,
storage and disposal procedures are adopted no significant impacts are
considered likely.
Control Measures Proposed Disposal method / area
General requirements Detailed Design Stage
• Minimising excavation requirements as far as Possible
• Balancing cut and fill requirements
• Evaluating the potential for maximising the re-use of excavated materials
for example, within landscape mounds
• Considering treatments for unsuitable excavated materials e.g. upgrading
of subsoil to top soils by mixing with compost
• Providing an area within the construction site to allow for sorting and
segregation of materials-Construction Stage
• Minimisation of waste generation for disposal (via reduction/recycling/re-
use)
• Segregating waste materials according to type to facilitate re-use and
recycling
• Separation of inert construction and demolition materials for either re-use
on-site or use as public fill
• Training site staff in waste minimisation practices
• Transport of wastes off site as soon as possible
• Maintenance of accurate waste records
• Use of re-useable metal hoardings/signboards
Demolition Waste
• Segregation of materials to facilitate disposal / reuse
• Appropriate stockpile management
• Re-use of excavated material on or off site (where possible)
• Special handling and disposal procedures in the even that contaminated
materials are excavated Re-use on site for suitable material.

13
Construction Waste
• Segregation of materials to facilitate recycling/reuse (within designated
area and in appropriate containers/stockpiles)
• Appropriate stockpile management
• Planning and design considerations to reduce over ordering and waste
generation
• Recycling and re-use of materials where possible (e.g. metal, wood from
hoardings, formwork)
Chemical Waste
• Storage within locked, covered and bounded area
• The storage area should not be located adjacent to sensitive receivers e.g.
drains
• Minimise waste production and recycle oils/solvents where possible
• A spill response procedure should be in place and absorption material
available for minor spillages
• Use appropriate and labelled containers
• Educate site workers on site cleanliness/waste management procedures
• Waste should be stored within a temporary refuse collection facility, in
appropriate containers prior to collection and disposal
• Regular, daily collections are required by an approved waste collector
• Wastes should be stored within a designated storage area
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE INDEX OF CAUSES OF SELECTION
OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.
1 Ease of construction
2 Client requirement
3 Materials availability
4 Site space
5 Availability of equipment
6 Efficiency
7 Production of waste
CAUSES OF WASTE
1. Over consumption of resources.
2. Composite and the design of building
3. Materials damage due to weather and inappropriate storage
4. Material damage on site due to mishandling or careless delivery
5. Vandalism
6. Rework/Improve
7. Lack of recording
8. Materials supplied on site and used on site
9. Site office waste

14
FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION METHOD
SELECTION.
1 Construction time
2 Developer's requirement
3 Familiarity with the construction technology
4 Labour dependence
5 Waste reduction

Prevalence of Common Materials

Constituent proportions of materials culled and sorted in the construction
and demolition waste stream shows a high degree of correlation with local
priorities and economic trends at a given time. For example, communities with a
preponderance of 19th century buildings and undergoing gentrification tend to
have a larger proportion of masonry waste as contrasted with a suburban
neighbourhood undergoing renovations and additions to lightly-built wood
frame structures. Diversion performance over a two year period (2009-10)
processing 20,000 tons of construction and demolition waste generated in an
urban area in the US (2010) demonstrates the following proportions:

Ferrous and non-ferrous metal—9%: Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are

among the most valuable materials in the construction and demolition waste
stream. Ferrous metals are extracted from bits of concrete with hydraulic
excavating equipment, and deposited into containers. Small bits of ferrous metal
are collected with electromagnets positioned over the sort line belt, and grabbed
manually. Non-ferrous metals, predominantly aluminium, are collected with a
reverse magnet known as an Eddy current separator, and grabbed manually.
Metals consistently demonstrate the highest diversion rate of all the recoverable
materials.

Cardboard and Paper—3%: Cardboard and paper recovered from

construction and demolition debris waste have value as recyclable materials,
however are generally of a lower grade than cardboard collected at curbside, as
a result of consequential exposure to water, and contamination with dusts.
Cardboard and paper are usually baled for economical transport to paper and
cardboard mills.

Plastic—1%: Post-consumer plastics 1 (PET) & 2 (HDPE) are valuable

commodities. Plastics 3 through 7 are generally recyclable but have less value.
Generally plastics are not recycled into material of the same type and grade
(down cycled). PET is readily converted into a wide variety of products. HDPE
is down cycled into plastic lumber, trash receptacles, etc. Plastic film is a

15
nuisance material that impedes efficient picking and sorting of all other
materials. When prices of the recycled commodities are low, plastic materials
may be exported and or combusted for their energy-producing potential. Plastic
may be granulated or chopped into flakes and placed in industrial tote bags for
transport.

01: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

02: High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
03: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
04: Low-density polyethylene (PE-LD)
05: Polypropylene (PP)
06: Polystyrene (PS)
07: Other (O)

Wood—30%: Wood is a predominant material for waste streams in North

America, and is highly useful in a wide variety of industrial processes including
manufacturing of high recycled content products. Wood is a valuable
commodity and merits diversion. Wood waste can also be processed to make
feedstock for biomass and combined heat and power plants.

Concrete—5%: Concrete is crushed, and embedded metals removed for

recycling. Rock and cement pieces are crushed, screened and separated to
produce useful aggregates of various dimensions. It is advisable to characterize
painted concrete and concrete which has been contaminated with wastes before
recycling.

Industrial Waste Stabilizer (IWS)—25%: IWS is a form of diversion or

disposal in some parts of North America whereby materials with no economic
value between 0.75 to 8 inches dimension are disposed in industrial waste
landfills, to promote physical stabilization of the landfill.

Gravel, aggregate and fines—20%: Gravel, small stones, concrete chips and
similar materials can be diverted from disposal with trommel screens positioned
before the inclined chain belt, or debris roll screens positioned at the end of the
sortline belt.

Disposal as refuse—5%: Refuse passes off the end of the sortline belt.
Generally the proportion of refuse should be less than 10%.

Window glass—0.15%: Window glass is a nuisance material with a nominal

value as a recyclable commodity. Its relatively high weight per volume is a
factor in restricting economical transport. Window glass usually ends up in a
landfill unless a recycler is located in the vicinity of the diversion facility.

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Carpeting—0.85%: Diversion of carpet from the landfill is very significant in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with manufacture of new carpet.
Carpeting is a nuisance material in the picking and sorting process,
complicating the efficient recovery of materials with higher values. Carpeting is
generally picked from stockpiles on the receiving floor, and deposited in
containers for transport to manufacturers who can make use of the fiber
materials to make new products.

Drywall—3%: Drywall is 100% recyclable. Gypsum is a nuisance material in

picking and sorting operations, producing dust which discomforts labor, and
reduces the value of recyclable materials through contamination. Gypsum may
be incorporated into new drywall, or used as a soil amendment.

Asphalt roofing—5%: Asphalt roofing shingles may be ground, sized and

graded for re-melting in asphalt paving applications, road base, new roofing,
and fuel oil. Asphalt shingles consist of felt saturated with asphalt, and with
mineral stabilizers and rock granules added. Asphalt constitutes 20 to 35% of
the product weight. Contaminants including metal items and any wood waste
must be removed.

Usually destined for other facilities: Appliances, equipment, tires, electronics,

plumbing fixtures, asphalt, non-ferrous materials including copper, brass and
stainless steel, landclearing debris. These materials may have value in
secondary markets when one is available, or require special handling and
management such as is the case with tires and appliances. Tires must be
shredded in order to reduce the likelihood of being disposed of in unmanaged
tire landfills. Appliances may contain refrigerants and other materials which
pose environmental hazards.

Usually destined for reuse: Doors, windows, hardware: these materials often
have value in a secondary market when one is available.

Nuisance materials: Sheet plastic, carpeting, drywall each require specific

handling procedures to promote efficient handling of the rest of the waste
stream. When commingled with other construction and demolition waste, these
materials are generally picked with hydraulic excavating equipment or grapples
—a costly and time-consuming process - before the bulk of waste is loaded onto
a chain belt and passed across a manual sort line.

1. Waste Management Planning

Waste management should be an integral part of a project's development. Each

of the principal project participants—the Owner, their Architectural and
Engineering (A/E) services (or Construction Management consultant), the
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Contractor, and Subcontractors—will engage in waste management to some
degree throughout the project. Initially, the Owner and their A/E must establish
waste reduction goals and define what levels of diversion are achievable and
reasonable under the project's conditions and as required by:

 State and local regulations

 U.S. EPA
 State statutes or
 Green Building Rating program requirements.

2. Facility Design

The Contractor is responsible for the means, methods, techniques, sequences,

and procedures of construction, which include waste disposal methods.
However, the A/E's design team can contribute to waste reduction in several
ways. These include:

1. Observe Value Engineering principals. Perform multiple functions with

one material rather than requiring multiple materials to perform one
function. Design to optimize systems' and components' use. Avoid
extraneous materials that do not contribute to function.
2. Be efficient in area and volume. If less material is required by the design,
less waste is generated at the jobsite.
3. Observe standard material and product dimensions. Locate features "on
module" to the extent possible to reduce cutting and special fitting, which
creates scrap.
4. Where possible, select construction systems that do not require temporary
support, shoring, construction aids, or other materials that will be
disposed of as debris during the project.
5. Where possible, select materials that do not rely on adhesives, which
require containers and create residue and packaging waste. Furthermore,
adhesives inhibit salvage and recycling at the end of the component's or
building's life.
6. Where possible, reduce requirements for applied finishes, laminates,
coatings, adhesives, and the associated scrap, packaging, and waste.
Select materials with integral finishes.

Where possible, avoid materials which are sensitive to damage, contamination,

environmental exposure, or spoilage on-site, which increase the potential for
jobsite waste.

Construction method

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This shows that construction cost has the highest index value (3.86) that falls
between 3 and 4 (that is more important and important) levels of waste
generation. Construction time and developer's requirement have relative
importance index value of 3.67 and 3.30 respectively that are between more
important and important levels of waste generation. While familiarity with the
construction technology (2.28) and labour dependence (2.23) have relative
important index values as depicted that fall between important and fairly
important levels of waste generation. Waste reduction index value (1.87) falls
between fairly important and not important levels of waste generation on
construction sites.

Waste control measures

This shows that 9.10% of the respondents used prefabricated elements

while 90.90% of the respondents did not use it. This indicates that 14.29% of
the respondents carried out sorting on waste generated while 85.71% do not
carry out sorting exercise. This indicates that 70.5% of the respondent
carried out open dumping, 16% carried out open burning and 13.5% carried
out composting disposal method. The interview conducted revealed that due
to congested and limited site areas in most building sites in the study area,
site space is the most prominent factor affecting the choice of on-site sorting.
The site visits and personal interviews conducted showed that most sites did
not carry out sorting out of streams of waste generated during construction
process and there was unplanned deposition of waste on sites.

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3.0 CHARPTER THREE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Management placed emphasis on materials that have significant

impact on the project cost. The study showed that most of the respondents
did not use prefabricated elements during construction processes; instead,
wet-trade process was used on most of the construction sites. This has led
to the generation of enormous amount of waste. The survey showed that
project managers of the respondents’ firms did not calculate waste index
because they were not aware of the importance of waste index calculation
on the past projects they executed relative to present and future projects.
The calculation of waste index could have helped them have a prior
understanding of the volume of waste to be generated, develop good
planning of resources, and control the waste that may be generated by
taking similar projects earlier handled as points of reference. Based on the
results and findings of this study, the following recommendations are
made to foster effective waste management practice of construction
projects in Nigeria:
1. The contractors should ensure effective control of materials from
design to construction stage so as to adequately reduce processes that can
lead to wastages in construction.
2. Contracting firms need to evolve better means and facilities in
which building materials could be well-stored with pallets at the base or
as may be applicable to prevent undue damage which may lead to
wastages.
3. There is need to ensure that when wet trades are used, sorting
exercise is adequately carried out on site.

4. The use of prefabricated elements must be encouraged amongst

contracting firms so as to reduce the amount of waste that may be
generated.
5. There is need for a policy that would mandate contracting firms to
carry out the calculation of waste indices to determine the amount of
waste that will be generated so that proper measures will be in place to
control the waste.
6. The designer should co-ordinate dimensions between materials
specified during design and those procured for use at sites so as to guide

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 site personnel on how to prevent avoidable waste in the use of various
types of materials during execution of construction projects.
7. There is need for a policy that would mandate contracting firms to
incorporate Waste Management Plan (WMP) into one of the documents
dearly expected to be submitted by contracting firms during tendering
process.

REFERENCES

Ajanlekoko AS (2001). Sustainable housing development in Nigeria: The

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Building Construction Industry Directory (2003). A publication of The

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Bossink BAG, Brouwers HJH (1996). Construction waste: quantification and

source evaluation; J. Construction Eng. Manage.

Craven DJ, Okraglik HM, Eilenberg JM (1994). Construction waste and a

new design methodology, in Kilbert CJ, (ed).Sustainable Construction,
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Enshassi A (1996). Materials control and waste on building sites. Building

Res. Info. Ferguson J, Kermode N, Nash CL,

Sketch WAJ, Huxford RP (1995). Managing and minimizing construction

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Idoro GI (2007). A Comparative Study of Direct Labour and Design-

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Ilesanmi O (1986). Materials Management as a Tool for Enhancing

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