From egg

to
day-old-chick
Table of contents

1 Embryology 5

2 Quality of hatching eggs 10

3 Storage of hatching eggs 12

4 Fundamental points of incubation 15

4.1 Temperature 15
4.2 Relative humidity 16
4.3 Ventilation 16
4.4 Position of the egg 16
4.5 Hygiene 17

5 Practical points of incubation 18

5.1 Relation between temperature, relative humidity and ventilation 18
5.2 Climate control 20
5.2.1 Temperature control 20
5.2.2 Relative humidity control 23
5.3 Hygiene 27
5.3.1 Cleaning of dirty eggs 29
5.3.2 Disinfection of hatching eggs 31
5.3.3 Hygienic zones 32
5.4 Candling of incubated eggs 32

6 Chick take-off and processing 35

6.1 Incubation time 35
6.2 Quality of day old chicks 36
6.3 Processing 38

7 Technical records and calculations 40

8 Analysis of hatchery results 43

8.1 Hatching failures 43
8.2 Trouble shooting and hatching egg break out 44

9 Appendix 46
9.1 Appendix A Hatching eggs of different species 46
9.2 Appendix B The Chinese rice husk incubation system 53
9.3 Appendix C A few suggestions on constructing a small incubator 55
9.4 Appendix D: Hatch Debris Report 58
9.5 Appendix E Trouble shooting guide to general problems 59
9.6 Appendix F Normal position and various malpositions of the chicken 64
9.7 Appendix G Hatching at altitude 65
I:\IO\Lesstof\Lesstof CD\Poultry Breeding Management and Incubation\From egg to doc ptc+.doc
1 Embryology
Embryology is the science which studies the development of a fertilized reproduction cell until
the young individual.
Ovulation is the process where the yolk is released from the ovary. The yolk enters the
oviduct in the infundibulum, where fertilization takes place maximum 15 minutes after
ovulation.
20 minutes after fertilization, the first cleavage (cell division) takes place, so we have 2 cells
now. At arrival in the uterus (shell gland) 8 cells are formed: blastoderm.
During further cleavings, more cells are formed. The resulting ball-form will get somewhat
flat, developing an upper layer, (towards the albumen) and a lower layer (towards the yolk).
These are called ectoderm and entoderm respectively. This "pancake" is rolling itself, into a
certain tube form. A third middle layer develops, mesoderm.

Figure 1: Fertilization and embryonic development during egg formation and the first day of incubation

The three membranes are the origin for later organs:

ECTODERM ENTODERM MESODERM
Spinal cord Inner surface of intestines Muscles
nerves lungs bones
brain parts of inner beak blood
eyes throat and cloaca other organs
skin and feathers
beak

Egg formation takes about 25 hours. The duration of egg formation influences the stage of
development. At the moment of lay the embryo has about 1000 cells. After lay, the
development stops as soon as the egg temperature is below 27 0C.

5 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

When the temperature is raised again in the incubation process, embryonic development
continues, as long as the embryo has not died yet, for example due to too long storage.
From this stage, 4 extra embryonal membranes develop, to supply the embryo with oxygen,
nutrients, water, and protect it from dehydration and shocks.

MEMBRANE FUNCTION
Amnion Prevention from shocks, dehydration.
Absorbtion of albumen
Chorion Respiration, (CO2/O2), Ca absorbtion
Yolk sac Nutient supply and position
Allantois Storage of excreta (ureic acid)

Figure 2: Development of extra-embryonic membranes in a chicken egg at 4 days of incubation.

The amnion is formed between 1.5 and 4 days. If the hatching eggs are not turned properly,
we see in some eggs that amnion development and closing of the amnion membrane is not
complete. The yolk is fully covered by the yolk sac at 4 days.
Blood is formed 26 to 29 hours after the start of the incubation. The heart starts beating at 40
hours.

The following list shows development of different organs during the incubation process.

Development of the embryo

Infertile: the blastoderm (nucleus) is white and small and has an irregular shape.

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Day 1 The first 24 hours of development are very complex, and take place in the ovary (in
the hen). A small circle can be seen on the nucleus. From now on we count time from
the start of the hatching proces.
25 hrs: blood circulation system is developing
Day 2 Blood veins appear in the yolk sac
Amnion formation starts
Heart start beating
Day 3 Amnion surrounds the whole embryo.
Nose, wings, legs and allantois are formed
Day 4 The eye gets pigmentation
Day 5 Crop and sexual organs are formed, sex can be deermined by microscope
Day 6 Feathers, egg-tooth, beak, first movements.
Day 7 Belly enlarges by development of organs
Day 8 Down
Day 9 Opening of the beak is visible, the embryo start to look like a bird
Day 10 Beak gets harder, feathers can be seen by the naked eye
Day 12 Toes are developed, down appears
Day 14 Head turns to the blunt end of the egg.
Day 15 Ileum is formed
Day 16 Albumen has almost disappeared, yolk is the main nutrient supplier. Nails and beak
are hard.
Day 17 Beak turns towards air space. Amnionic fluid is reduced.
Day 18 Growth is almost complete.
Day 19 Yolk gets absorbed in the body of the embryo. The embryo fills the whole egg, except
the air space.
Day 20 Yolk completely absorbed, air space is pipped and start lung respiration. Chorio-
allantois stops its function and dries out. (blood is resorbed) Chicks pip the shell
Day 21 Chicks hatch (in about 9 hours). They dry after cracking the shell, and rest.

The embryo position on different days is shown below.

Day 1-4 Bending: head and trunk (rest of the body) close to each other
5-9 Floating in amnion
9 Near blunt end of the egg, lying flat on the yolk.
13 - 14 Turning: to length axis of the egg
15 Head bends forward
17 Head turns right, feet touch the shell
19 Yolk sac absorbtion, chick upright in the egg
20 Internal pipping of the air sac, lung respiration develops, and takes over from
chorion respiration.

7 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

Embryonic development in chickens is split in 3 periods:
0 - 4 days Early embryonic development 30%
5 - 17 days Mid term embryonic development 10%
18 - 21 days Late embryonic development 60%

A normal ratio in embryonic mortality is given in the last column.

Mortality of embryo's is highest in the last period. Respiration change, position change and
pipping and hatching are causing this. Early mortality is caused by the complex start of
embryonic development, and partly due to storage or transport failures (figure 3).

Figure 3: Embryonic mortality before and during the incubation period.

Respiration of the embryo

On day 20 the embryo breaks the inner shell membrane at the air space, called internal
pipping. Later the shell is broken which is known as external pipping. It is clear that the right
position of the embryo in the egg is important to find the air space. The blunt end of an egg
should point upwards. In nature this is the case because the egg shape and the air space
make this happen, and eggs are put by the hen with the point to the middle of the nest, which
is the deepest point.
In incubators, we set the eggs in a setter tray with the sharp end down. If the small
incubator has no setter tray we lay the eggs on a flat floor. Gravity gives direction to the
position of the embryo, which should be near the blunt side of the egg.. Since the air space is
formed in the blunt egg, pipping can happen. Pipping allows the embryo to convert gradually
from chorion respiration to lung respiration. Furthermore, the air space contains more oxigen
than the chorion, since the barrier of the inner shell membrane is absent. The high CO2
content in the egg, and in the growing embryo is a sign or trigger for the embryo to start
pipping behaviour. After internal pipping, CO2 is reduced and a period of rest is observed.

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Experiments with high CO2 levels showed earlier pipping of relative immature embryo's, and
vice versa. Total time of the hatch is not affected, only the optimal timing, hatchability and
chick quality is disturbed. In practice CO2 levels are controlled by ventilation, which makes
pipping time a usefull check for the right ventilation level.

After a while another increase induces external pipping. This results in a respiration without
barriers, and the highest O2 levels, necessary for the final effort to hatch: cracking and
stretching the neck. Cracking is carried out by regular pecking of the shell, and turning around
in the shell - counterclockwise - by moving the legs. After external pipping there is another
resting period, in which chorion respiration stops and chorion blood is absorbed by the
embryo.

Figure 4: Oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production of the chicken embryo during incubation.

Heat production and water evaporation

Hatching eggs loose water during the hatching process by evaporation. This is a quite
constant amount per day during the hatching period, 12% in 18 days. After pipping, water
loss is increased. Also, the embryo's produce heat. The heat production is linear related to gas
exchange. Both increase strongly with development of the embryo.

The evaporation from the hatching egg has a cooling effect (see chapter 5.1). At day 12, the
heating effect and evaporative cooling effect of embryo's are about in balance, they hatch
themselves. Heating is still necessary, because the incubator looses heat through the walls,
and ventilation is needed to control the CO2 level.

9 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

2 Quality of hatching eggs
Selection of good eggs for hatching is important to achieve good results. The required quality
characteristics for hatching eggs are:
• external: shell clean, not broken and smooth;
size normal (compared with other eggs of same flock);
shape normal (oval).

• internal: fertile;
fresh (and stored under good conditions);
fixed aircell at broad end of the egg.
Besides this the eggs should be free of diseases (vertical transmission), transfer a know
maternal immunity to the offspring, contain enough nutrients for the developing embryo and
the parentstock should have the desired genetical characteristics.

There are many factors affecting the quality of the hatching eggs. Once an egg is laid its
hatching potential can at best be maintained, not improved. If mishandled, hatching potential
will quickly deteriorate.

Nests should be kept well filled with clean litter material to avoid broken and dirty eggs.
Flooreggs should be collected and packed separately from nest eggs, because they are
suspected to be infected. Even when they look clean, they have more bacteria present on the
shell than a eggs layed in a clean nest. If they are to be incubated they should be treated
separately and rotten eggs should be found and removed before they explode. It is better to
avoid flooreggs all together, for example by the availability of enough laying nests which are
well situated in the house and which are attractive.

Egg gathering should take place frequently to minimize breakage and cross contamination
from egg to egg. By doing so also preincubation is prevented as much as possible. Egg
temperatures within the nests particularly during warm days may be similar to those in an
incubator. The embryo starts growing and may die later after cooling down to storage
temperature.
Eggs should be handled with care at all times. It is better not to use buckets or wire baskets
for egg collection, because this easily leads to hair cracks. But if you do so, do not fill them
more than two-thirds full. A good method is using pulptrays, whereby it is very important to
put the small end of the eggs down. Overstacking of trays should be avoided.

It may not be forgotten that in case of hatching egg production the cocks play an important
role. Make sure that the number of cocks is enough and cull limping or inactive cocks.

Other important factors influencing quality of hatching eggs are: egg storage, the way dirty
eggs are cleaned, genetic make-up of parentstock and the circumstances of the parentstock
(housing, health, feeding etc.).

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Assignment
Which of the following factors do have a negative effect on the quality of the hatching eggs
produced in the BPS-house?
If a factor has a negative effect formulate an advice that will lead to improvement.

factor effect advice

breed

age of flock

male/female ratio

performance

floor litter

% slatted floor

climate

nests

broody hens

feed

water

health

egg collection

grading

cleaning/fumigation

egg storage

11 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

3 Storage of hatching eggs
One of the required quality characteristics for hatching eggs is freshness.
In a lot of cases it cannot be avoided to store the eggs a few days before putting them in the
incubator. It is therefore important to know how eggs best can be stored.

During storage of hatching eggs two main processes have to be prevented as much as
possible:
1. development of the embryo;
2. evaporation of water out of the eggs.
By doing so also the interior quality, such as Haugh Units and strongness of the yolk, is kept.
This aim can be achieved by a proper temperature and humidity control.

Temperature
After laying the egg gradually cools down from 41 °C (the hens' bodytemperature) to house
temperature. As long as the egg temperature is higher than 27 °C the embryonic development
continues.
The embryos have the highest chances to survive a storage period if the eggs are cooled down
below 27 °C within five to six hours after laying.

When hatching eggs have to be kept for a few days to even two or three weeks it will be
necessary to lower the temperature of the eggs. A relationship exists between the length of
time eggs are stored and the optimum temperature for best hatchability.

Figure 5: Optimum temperature range for egg storage.

So the longer the storage period, the lower the storage temperature should be.

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It is important to realize that storing of eggs at low temperatures can lead to condensation of
moist from the air on the shell when they suddenly are taken from the storage room to a
room with a higher temperature. This phenomenon is called "sweating". Sweating of eggs in
undesirable because micro-organisms that are present on the egg shell get the chance to
enter the egg via the pores due to the moisture on the shell surface (see also chapter 5.3.1).
Is therefore advised to increase temperature in the storage room ½ day before the hatching
eggs are to be removed (e.g. prewarming before transportation or setting).

Relative humidity
A high relative humidity during storage prevents a high loss of weight due to evaporation. The
optimum relative humidity is 80-85%. If you discover mould on your eggs humidity is too
high!
A high humidity can be achieved by placing dishes of water on the floor of the storage room.

Position of the egg

The traditional way to store hatching eggs is with the small end pointed downwards. In case of
a storage period longer than seven days it is advisable to turn the eggs once per day over an
angle of 90° or 180°. In research a positive effect was proven with eggs stored for more than
seven days with the broad end down. In this position the eggs cannot be transported, since
this will result to a high number of loose airsacs.

Effects of storing hatching eggs

The main effects of storing hatching eggs are:
1. Storage prolongs incubation time. On average one day's storage beyond 2 days adds one
hour to incubation time.
2. Hatchability is depressed by storage. In literature is found a loss of hatchability of 0.5-1%
per day after the first period of seven days. Probably due to the decline in egg shell
quality (more evaporation) eggs of older hens cannot keep their breeding potential as long
as those from young hens (see figure 6).
3. Broiler weights can be depressed in chicks from eggs which have been stored for 14 days
or more.

Finally can be concluded to store eggs as short as possible, preferably no longer than 7 days,
under good conditions (temperature, relative humidity, position of the eggs).

13 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

Figure 6: The effect of storage of hatching eggs from young and old parentstock on hatchability

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 4 Fundamental points of incubation
In an incubator the conditions in a nest of a broody hen are imitated as good as possible.
Besides hatching eggs of good quality the following factors are of major importance to achieve
good results:
• temperature;
• humidity;
• ventilation;
• position of the egg;
• hygiene.

4.1 Temperature
The optimum temperature for the development of the avian embryo varies in relationship to
the type of incubator. We must make a destination between incubators with a fan and without
a fan.

The optimum temperatures are as follows:

Days of incubation Incubator without fan Incubator with fan
0 - 18 100 - 1030F/37.8 - 39.2oC 99.5 - 1000/37.5 - 37.80C
18 - 21 99 - 100oF/37.2 - 37.80C 97 - 990F/36.1 - 37.20C

0
Conversion C to 0F : (n0C x 9/5) + 32 = ...... 0F
0
F to 0C : (n0F - 32) x 5/9 = ...... 0C

It is very important to keep the temperature as stable as possible, whereby special attention
has to be paid to an equal distribution of temperature in the incubator. For this reason a lot of
incubators are equipped with a fan. Also good insulation of the incubator is important.
Depending on the duration and level of undercooling or overheating the effect on the
developing embryo will be more or less harmful. In general can be said that eggs are more
sensitive to overheating than to undercooling. This is quite natural because normally a broody
hen leaves the nest several times during the day for feeding.
As is said before embryos are generating heat after the 12th day of incubation. Especially
when the external temperature is high it could be necessary to cool the inside of the incubator
in stead of heating.
If cooling is not possible it means that incubation during periods of high temperatures is
impossible, unless you can find a room in which the temperature can be kept low (for example
by opening the door at night and closing during the day).

15 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

4.2 Relative humidity
The first 18 to 19 days the relative humidity should be between 50 and 60% for eggs of
normal shell quality and maximum altitude of 1500 metres (see also appendix G). As soon as
1/3 of the eggs is pipped the relative humidity should be increased to 75-80%. This is done
for 3 reasons:
1. to avoid the down of the chicks sticks to the membranes;
2. to make it more easy for the chicks to break the membranes;
3. to avoid dehydration of the chicks.
A few hours before chick take-off the humidity should be around 55% again to dry the down
of the chicks.

4.3 Ventilation
Developing embryos depend heavily upon the availability of oxygen and exchange of carbon
dioxide during incubation. The average hatching egg requires about 5 litres of oxygen for the
complete development of its embryo, while approximately 3 litres of carbondioxide is
produced. From the first to the 21st day the demand for oxygen will be increased 100 times.
Under normal conditions incubation environment should contain no more than 0.1 to 0.4%
carbon dioxide in the setter and only 0,5% in the hatcher. Practically this means the
ventilation has to be increased gradually during incubation period. It is good to realize that too
much ventilation only means that you need more energy to keep the temperature at the
required level, but too little ventilation has for sure a negative effect on the hatching results.

4.4 Position of the egg

Eggs should be turned regularly at least two times per day, starting 24 hours after setting
until the 18th day. There are two reasons for turning:
1. to prevent the embryo sticks in one position;
2. equal temperature distribution.

It is important to avoid shocking and jolting when turning. The angle of turning should be at
least 900.

The best hatching results are achieved if the blunt side of the egg lies a little bit higher than
the sharp end. In bigger incubators where turning is done automatically it is very important
that the sharp ends are pointing downwards. If the eggs are put in the incubator upside down
the hatchability will be decreased by more than 15%!

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4.5 Hygiene
Just as temperature, relative humidity, ventilation and position of the egg hygiene is a
fundamental point of incubation. This can easily be understood if we realize that the
conditions in the hatchery or in an incubator are optimal for bacterial growth. Everything is
available: water, high temperature and plenty of food (e.g. eggs).

If infected eggs are set bacterial growth will increase, thus leading to increased embryonic
mortality. Some types of bacteria like Pseudomonas may produce gas (SO2). The pressure in
the egg will be built up to such a level that the egg contents is pressed out of the pores. It is
important to remove this eggs before they explode to avoid that other eggs are infected.
Besides this it is good to know that the produced SO2 gas is also harmful for the developing
embryos in the other eggs in the same incubator. Last but certainly not least it may not be
forgotten that hatching under unhygienic conditions leads not only to lower hatchability due to
embryonic mortality but also to infected day old chicks. These chicks have a higher chance of
mortality especially during the first week and they can cause an outbreak of a disease at the
receiving farm.

17 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 5 Practical points of incubation

5.1 Relation between temperature, relative humidity and ventilation

In order to obtain a good hatching result, it is necessary to "manage the climate".
Temperature, humidity and ventilation should be at the correct values and controlled to
remain so. Since these factors are related, it is important to understand how they influence
each other. The Mollier diagram (figure 7) can help us in that.

The Mollier diagram shows on the vertical axis the air temperature, expressed as Dry Bulb
Temperature (in 0C). The horizontal axis shows the water vapour content of air, or absolute
humidity expressed as g water/kg air, which equals in normal conditions g water/m3 air. The
combination gives the maximum humidity line, as a physical fact. This line is called the 100%
humidity line. The maximum amount of water in air depends on the air temperature.
Every condition of air can be described by one point in the Mollier diagram, above or left of
this 100% line. If air condition touches this line, condensation occurs. Compare this with dew
on grass in the morning. The temperature at which dew (condensation) occurs, is called
dewpoint.
Humidity is expressed as:
• Relative humidity (%)
• Absolute humidity (g water/kg air)
• Wet bulb temperature (0C or 0F)

Example:
1. Take a point in the graph describing 25 ΕC, and 60 % relative humidity.
What is the absolute humidity?

What is the wet bulb temperature?

2. Imagine this is the actual climate in your incubator, before setting eggs. How can you bring
it to the desired levels?

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Figure 7: Mollier diagram

19 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 Temperature can be increased by heating

Temperature can be decreased by:

• cooling with a closed cooling system;
• evaporation of water (also results in more humidity);
• ventilation (also results in less humidity).

Absolute humidity can be increased by evaporation (also cooling).

Absolute humidity can be decreased by ventilation (also cooling).

When you are heating, at a constant absolute humidity, what will happen to relative humidity?

Ventilation decreases temperature, humidity and CO2 level, but increases heating cost. An
exception has to be made for extreme climates, where humidity or temperature are above the
desired value in the incubator.
Bringing the incubator at the right temperature and humidity is not enough.
Hatching eggs with living embryo's influence their climate too. Control is necessary to
compensate for water evaporation and heat production of the embryo's. Furthermore, a
certain level of ventilation is necessary to keep CO2 levels in line.

5.2 Climate control

The climate in the incubator is of major importance for a optimum hatching process. Therefore
a lot of attention has to be paid to climate control. The more frequent and adequate the
climate (esp. temperature and relative humidity) is controlled, the earlier you notice a
deviation, after which corrective action can be taken.
The shorter the period of deviation and the smaller the deviation, the better the final hatching
result will be.

5.2.1 Temperature control

For the temperature control a reliable and easy readable thermometer is needed. The best is
to make use of thermometers which are meant to use in an incubator. These thermometers
range for example from 32 to 42oC and can be read more precisely than a thermometer which
ranges from 0 to 500C (38,80C instead of + 380C).
The position of thermometer is important. The best is to place the bulb of the thermometer at
exactly the same level as the eggs. If you are in doubt about an equal temperature
distribution it is recommended to make use of more than one thermometer and to place them
at different positions. For example one close to the heat source and one close to the wall. In
case of big differences in temperature the incubator should be changed if possible (for
example improve insulation or partly covering of heat source). Another possibility is to change
position of the eggs in the incubator each time when the eggs are turned (for example
exchange eggs in the centre with the eggs at the side). Since regular temperature control is

20  PTC+
advised it is important that the thermometer can be read from the outside without disturbing
the climate in the incubator.

With a thermometer you can only check if the temperature is at the right level. To keep the
temperature stable a thermostat is needed. A thermostat will stop the heat from entering the
incubator if the inside temperature has reached a certain maximum temperature (Tmax). At a
certain minimum temperature (Tmin) it will allow heat to enter again.
Most thermostats can be adjusted to a required level of temperature (Trequired).

T max

T required

T min

In a good thermostat the difference between Tmax and Tmin is as small as possible. This can
be checked by careful observation of the thermometer during + 1 hour.

There are different types of thermostats. If the source of energy for the incubator is electricity
is the best to make use of and electronical thermostat. In general in this type of thermostat
the difference between Tmax and Tmin is small and they work very accurate.
Another possibility is to use contact thermometers. The mercury in these thermometers
function as a switch. One thermometer will switch off the electricity if temperature has
reached Tmax and the other will switch on the electricity again if Tmin is reached. It is even
possible to use a bimetal switch, which can eventually be home made.

Figure 8: Bimetal switch

The two layers of metal have different expansion-coefficients, this resulting in bending of the
bimetal. This bending is used to switch on and off electricity.

21 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

If the source of energy for the incubator is kerosene or gas an ether-capsule thermostat can
be used. It works as follows.

Figure 9: Working principle of ether-capsule thermostat

The source of heat is outside the box. The temperature of the air inside the incubator is
regulated by the raising or lowering of a lid. The lid is connected with a thermostat: two
hollow plates filled with ether.
When the temperature in the incubator rises the ether expands. Consequently the plates are
pushed apart as a result of which the lower arm of the frame moves downwards. A vertical
connecting rod operates the lever above the incubator, thus opening the lid on top of the
burner. The warm air does not enter the incubator, but escapes via the lid. When the
temperature drops, the plates are drawn together and the lid will be closed, so that the
temperature rises again. The temperature limits at which the lid opens and closes can be
adjusted by means of an adjusting nut.

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5.2.2 Relative humidity control
The effect of a fluctuation in relative humidity is less harmful than a fluctuation in
temperature, but still we can talk about optimum relative humidity. The relative humidity of
the air around the eggs influences the water loss from the eggs. Research has shown that for
optimal hatching results (incl. quality of chicks) the egg must lose 12-14% of its initial weight
during incubation. Factors which may influence the degree of moisture weight loss during
incubation are:
• relative humidity in the incubator or incubator room;
• shell quality;
• altitude.
The optimum loss of weight will be achieved with a relative humidity of 50 to 60% during the
first 18 days of incubation for eggs of normal shell quality and maximum altitude of 1500
metres.

During incubation there are 4 ways to control the relative humidity or the loss of weight:
1. Hygrometer
A very simple way is to make use of a hygrometer. Unfortunately these are very sensitive
instruments and dust will affect their accuracy. After the shells are pipped a lot of dust
comes free. Therefore is very recommendable to check regularly if the hygrometer
functions well. This can be done by placing it in a weth cloth. After minimum 30 minutes
its reading should be 95-100%.
If this is not the case the hygrometer can be adjusted with a small screwdriver. For a
good checking procedure it is good to use more hygrometers at the same time to make
comparison possible.

23 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

2. Wet bulb thermometer
The bulb is the reservoir of mercury or alcohol at the bottom end of a thermometer. This
bulb can be covered with a cotton wick, whereby the other end is located in a reservoir of
clean (preferably distilled) water which keeps the wick wet.

Figure 10: Dry bulb/wet bulb thermometer

Due to the evaporation of water from the wick it cools down the bulb of the
thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer will show a lower temperature than the dry
bulb thermometer which hangs next to it. If the air in the incubator is saturated there
will be no evaporation and consequently no difference in temperature between the wet
and the dry bulb thermometer. The lower the relative humidity, the bigger the
difference in temperature will be. The Mollier diagram can be used to find the relative
humidity for each combination of wet and dry bulb temperature.

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 Since the dry bulb temperature in incubation is more or less constant it is easier to
make use of a table.
Difference between wet Relative humidity
and dry bulb temperature
0.00C 100%
0
0.5 C 96%
1.00C 93%
0
1.5 C 90%
0
2.0 C 87%
0
2.5 C 84%
0
3.0 C 82%
3.50C 79%
0
4.0 C 76%
0
4.5 C 73%
0
5.0 C 70%
0
5.5 C 68%
6.00C 65%
0
6.5 C 63%
0
7.0 C 60%
0
7.5 C 58%
0
8.0 C 56%
8.50C 53%
0
9.0 C 50%
0
9.5 C 48%
0
10.0 C 46%
10.50C 44%
0
11.0 C 42%

Table: Relation between difference wet- and dry bulb temperature and relative
humidity.
Warning: Only use this table if dry bulb temperature is between 36 and 380C!!!

It needs to be emphasized that the water and wick have to be changed regularly to
maintain the accuracy of this system. Because only the water will evaporate the
concentration of minerals (such as calcium) in the water and wick will increase, so that
the wick becomes hard and not allows a proper evaporation.
This method can only be applied in incubator with a ventilator. The humid air around
the wick should be replaced by the "average incubator air".

25 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

3. Regular weighing of eggs
The most accurate way to determine the humidity is to weigh a sample of eggs prior to
setting, and to follow these eggs through incubation with subsequent weighing. It is
important to weigh every time the same sample of eggs whereby cracks should be
avoided.
Doing so the percentage loss of weight can be calculated. The optimum loss of weight
during the first 18 days of incubation is 11% of the initial weight. This is for chicken eggs
equal to 0.6% day.

Assignment:
Calculate the percentage loss of weight using the following information:
tray weight 0.2 kg
egg and tray weight day 0 9.2 kg
egg and tray weight day 15 8.2 kg

What is your conclusion?

Can you give 2 possible explanations?

What do you advice to change?

4. Size of aircell
Logically there is a strong correlation between the loss of weight and the size of the
aircell. By candling the aircell can be made visible and gives a rough indication about the
level of relative humidity.

Figure 11: Normal size of aircell at various stages of incubation

26  PTC+
 As a result of one of this methods control it can be decided to increase relative humidity.
Especially in case of eggs with poor shell quality (old parentstock, hot climate, etc.) this can
be necessary.
By reducing the ventilation the relative humidity will increase, but this should be done with
care to avoid insufficient air supply. Another method is to increase the surface of the water,
thus allowing more evaporation.

5.3 Hygiene
In a hatchery good hygiene is very important. Bacteria, viruses, mycoplasmas and fungi cause
different problems:
• lower hatchability;
• rotten eggs and exploders;
• transmitting of diseases (Salmonella, CRD, coli, streptococci, staphylococci) via the
hatchery to other farms;
• yolk sac infections which leads to higher mortality in the first week.

The figure below gives a good insight of possible infection routes in the hatchery.

Figure 12: Infection routes in the hatchery

27 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

With the help of this figure it is easier to find answer on the question: "What can be done for
good hatchery sanitation?"
Therefore this question can be split in 2 other questions.

Assignment I: Answer these questions as complete as possible.

1. What measures can be taken to prevent germs from entering the hatchery?

2. What measures can be taken to minimize transport and further development of germs in
the hatchery?

Assignment II
1. What measures do we take in our hatchery to prevent germs from entering the hatchery?

2. What measures do we take to minimize transport and further development of germs in our
hatchery?

3. What suggestions for improvement do you have?

28  PTC+
5.3.1 Cleaning of dirty eggs
Hatching eggs are supposed to be clean. Dirty eggs have large numbers of micro-organisms
on their surface and chances are high that several have passed through the pores into the
egg.

Normally an egg is very well protected against bacterial penetration. The barriers a bacteria
has to pass are: cuticle, egg shell, shell membrane, egg membrane and finally the albumen in
which lysozyme is found. Only with the aid of water bacteria are able to pass the pores.
Therefore we should suspect eggs produced in wet and damp litter (dirty nests, floor eggs) or
eggs with other moisty dirt, like faeces, on the shell.
Bacterial penetration is boosted by the cooling down effect of eggs. After an egg is produced it
cools down from the body temperature of the hen (410C) to house temperature. As a result of
this the egg contents shrinks and causes under pressure in the egg. Moisture on the surface of
the egg is then sucked in through the pores together with bacteria and eventually fungi. The
quicker the eggs cool down, the more pronounced this effect is (floor eggs!). Now the process
of deterioration starts.

It has to be emphasized that cleaning of dirty eggs only reduces the number of micro
organisms on he surface. Micro-organisms who are found in the pores or in the egg itself are
not affected by any cleaning operation. Instead of spending a lot of time, energy and money
in cleaning of eggs it is recommended to concentrate all the efforts on producing clean eggs.
Always the risk remains for exploding eggs and a lower hatchability.

Sandpaper or steel wool can be used to clean eggs without using water but it also damages
the protective cuticula and thus dirt (micro-organism) is rubbed into the pores.
By washing dirty eggs the lost quality is partially regained. However, it is very important to
pay serious attention to following guidelines since not doing so gives immediate poor hatching
results. Egg breakage should be prevented as much as possible but can not be avoided 100%.
The best egg washers are those in which the eggs are put on trays. In this way they cannot
bump on each other.

1. Time of washing
The longer you wait before washing dirty eggs, the greater the chances of bacteria
penetrating the shell. This is why eggs should be collected several times a day and the
dirty ones should be washed straight away.

2. Water quality
The presence of iron or magnesium in the water may increase the bacterial problem.
Large concentrations of iron, magnesium and calcium in the water can lower the
effectiveness of the detergent. So tap water is good enough but new water must be used
after each batch of 150 eggs or the water should be chlorinated.

3. Temperature of the washing water

If the water is too cold, the contents of the egg will shrink and suck in dirty washing water
through the pores. On the other hand, if it is too hot, the germ may not survive and

29 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 hatchability will be lowered. The optimal temperature for washing water is 42-450C, which
is a few degrees higher than the egg temperature.

4. Duration of washing
Good egg washing should not take longer than 3 or 4 minutes. Eggs which are not clean
after this are unsuitable for use as hatching eggs. Removing dirt with a cloth is wrong
because it spreads the bacteria over the surface of the egg and when the egg cools down,
the bacteria are sucked in through the pores. The longer washing takes, the greater the
chances of eggs breaking.

5. Choice of detergent
Every detergent which has a similar composition as those used in dishwashers is suitable
for the washing of eggs. Recommended concentrations are 0.5 to 1.0% i.e. five to ten
grams per litre of water. Some people use caustic soda to clean eggs. Theoretically
speaking this would be alright because it cleans as well as disinfects. However, there is no
literature on what the effects of washing with caustic soda are on bacteria on the egg shell
and shell membranes or on hatchability.

6. Rinsing
Egg which have been washed should be rinsed to remove the dirty washing water. Rinsing
water should be "sterile" and should be warmer than the washing water to prevent it from
being sucked into the egg together with the washing water still on the egg. If desired,
0,3% Halamid can be added to rinsing water. The temperature of the rinsing water should
be 45-480C.

7. Drying washed eggs

Egg which have been washed should be cooled and dried in a room with a temperature of
220C. If the eggs were not washed on trays, they are not to be put on trays before they
are dry because of possible recontamination. The room should be clean and dust free.

8. Keeping washed eggs separate

As is indicated before by setting dirty hatching eggs, even after they have been cleaned,
always the risk remains for exploders. If washed eggs are set separately they can be
checked regular by doing so rotten eggs can be removed before they can do any harm to
the rest of the eggs.

30  PTC+
5.3.2 Disinfection of hatching eggs
There are different ways of hatching egg disinfection (dipping, spraying, fumigation) and
different disinfectants can be used (glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, chlorine, iodophors,
quaternary ammonium, ozone etc.). Only the most common method i.e. fumigation with
formalin gas will be described.

For a good result of fumigation with formalin gas attention should be given to the following:

1. Disinfection chamber and climate

It is important for disinfection to take place in a clean fumigation chamber because
organic material affects the effectiveness of the disinfectant. The fumigation chamber
should have smooth walls and should not leak. During fumigation, a circulation fan should
be turned on to keep the formaldehyde from precipitating on hatching eggs, walls, trays,
containers, etc.
It is important to expel the formaldehyde gas quickly after disinfection. This can be done
with an extractor fan. The air used for the ventilation of the disinfection chamber should
come from a clean and hygienic room.
The climatic conditions during disinfection also play an important role. The temperature in
the fumigation chamber should be minimal 200C and the required relative humidity is 60-
80%.
If you want to disinfect eggs that have been stored at low temperatures, make sure they
are back to room temperature before putting them in the fumigation chamber because the
low temperature of the egg could lead to higher concentrations of formaldehyde on the
egg, possibly killing the embryo.

2. Formaldehyde concentration
The amount of paraformaldehyde chips which should be used per cubic meter of
disinfection chamber is 7 g. Use a pan for heating the chips and be sure to clean it
properly afterwards. Make sure the heating device used for heating the pan has sufficient
capacity.
Formalin 40% can be mixed with potassium permanganate to produce formalin gas. Mix
30 ml of formalin with 20 g of potassium permanganate per cubic meter of disinfection
chamber. The mixing should be done in a container which does not react with the solution,
preferably a glass or porcelain bassin. The order in which formalin and potassium
permanganate are mixed is important. The formalin should be added to the potassium
permanganate. If the order is reserved, the solution may splash into your eyes, causing
damage.

3. Duration of fumigation
Fumigation should take 20-25 minutes, after which an extractor fan should be turned on
for at least 40 minutes. If required, the formalin mixture may be neutralized using 40%
ammonia (40 cc ammonia/m3) after disinfection.

4. Moments of fumigation
Just like washing of eggs fumigation has only effect on micro-organisms present on the

31 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 surface of the egg. Therefore it can be said that the best moment for disinfection is as
soon as possible after the eggs have been collected or in other words before they are
cooled down. It is a good practice to disinfect eggs prior to setting, especially in case the
hatchery receives eggs from different farms or in case recontamination has taken place
after the first fumigation on the breeder farm. It is even possible to fumigate the eggs in
the incubator during the hatching process, but care should be taken that this not done
during the first 4 days of incubation. This results in increased embryonic mortality. A
common practice is to fumigate the eggs after transfer because recontamination might
have taken place during handling.

5.3.3 Hygienic zones

It is possible to do the whole hatching process in one machine. This machine is then called
"incubator". In commercial hatcheries it is nowadays a common practice to use a "setter" for
the first 18 days. After that the eggs are transferred to a "hatcher" where they stay for the
last 3 days. In the hatcher the eggs are no more turned and the relative humidity will be
higher.

From hygienic point of view a hatchery can be split into 3 zones.

1. Egg arrival area

Especially when the hatching eggs are not disinfected at the supplying breeding farms this
will be an area where a lot of different micro organisms are collected. Also a lot of people
are walking in and out without taking hygienic measures.

2. Setter room
This is supposed to be the cleanest part of the hatchery. Therefore eggs have to be
disinfected before entering and personnel and visitors should at least wash their hands
and change shoes before coming in.

3. Hatcher- and chick processing room

In this room a high concentration of dust and bacteria is found. For this reason it is highly
recommended to make use of a setter and a hatcher in a different room instead of an
incubator. Of course transport of dust and bacteria to the other rooms should be
prevented. One of the ways to achieve this is underpressure in the hatcher room and
overpressure in the setterroom to force the air to go in one direction only.

5.4 Candling of incubated eggs

After 5 - 6 days of incubation it is possible to differentiate between unfertile and fertile eggs.
It is also possible to identify embryos which are alive or dead at the same time. Most
hatcheries candle their eggs at 18 - 19 days when they are being transferred from the setter
to the hatcher. Unfertile eggs and eggs with dead embryos are removed. There are several
reasons for candling:
• early detection of problems on PS-farms;
• detection of hatchery problems;
• the temperature in the incubator is more stable after candling because cold eggs have
been removed from the machine;

32  PTC+
• prevention of exploders;
• possibility to sell infertile eggs for consumption;
• estimation of humidity (size of the aircell).

Assignment
Indicate in the table some characteristics which are visible during candling of eggs with living
embryos, eggs with dead embryos or unfertile eggs.

Embryo alive Embryo dead Unfertile

Air cell

Blood
vessels

Embryo

Yolk

33 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

34  PTC+
 6 Chick take-off and processing

6.1 Incubation time

Unfortunately chicks do not all hatch at the same time. The graph below shows a difference of
40 hours between the first and last hatched chicks. Dehydration occurs from the moment the
chick emerges from the egg until it begins to drink, so it can be understood that for a good
chick quality the smallest possible variation in incubation time should be pursued.

Figure 13: Variation in incubation time

Besides temperature incubation time is influenced by the duration of storage and the size of
the eggs. Eggs of 50 grams which have been stored for 4 days take under normal conditions
21 days and 6 hours to incubate. For each 2.5 grs above 50 grs add 30 minutes to incubation
time (rule: larger eggs take longer to incubate).

35 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 For each extra day storage incubation is extended by one hour (rule: stored eggs take longer
to incubate).

This is a guide only. The incubation time is also influenced by preincubation in the nests, a
warm or a cold start of the incubation process, preheating or not before setting, breed etc.
etc.

Assignment:
Predict the incubation time for eggs of 65 grams which have been stored for 10 days.

In order to realize a minimum variation in incubation time it is recommended to set eggs

separate according to storage time and flock age (e.g. egg size).
This separate setting can be in different setters, but also setting at different times is a
possibility. In this case the above mentioned correction should be used.

Chicks are ready to be taken off when most of them are dry and fluffed up, with a few (about
5%) still having some moisture on the back of the necks. Avoid waiting for the last chick to be
hatched, in the meantime the rest of the chicks suffer from dehydration.

6.2 Quality of day old chicks

At take-off chicks have to be separated from their debris, and graded into first quality and
culls. The reason for separating poor quality chicks from good quality ones are:
• to avoid high mortality rates especially during the first three to five days;
• weak chicks are more susceptible to diseases and could contaminate the other birds as
well;
• poor quality chicks perform less well.

36  PTC+
The characteristics which should be taken into consideration are listed in the table.
Quality characteristics of day old chicks
Good quality d.o.c. Bad quality d.o.c.
• active and lively, normal behaviour • weak and not lively, twisted neck
• normal size (torticollis), stargazers

• straight feet and toes • too small

• two bright eyes • curled feet and toes (indicated by red

hocks)
• straight, closed beak
• abnormal eyes, blind
• good, dry feathers
• cross beak, open or dirty beak
• normal colour
• sticky and wet feathers, clubbed down
• supple belly
• too pale (mostly not the only problem)
• completely healed navel
• hard and swollen belly (remains of yolk
• normal cloaca
are too large)
• unhealed and/or navel (rough), thick
navel cord
• closed cloaca

All of the characteristics mentioned in the table are external and thus visible. Some invisible
but not less important quality characteristics are:
• genetic potential;
• maternal immunity;
• health status;
• reserve of nutrients (e.g. vitamins).

A lot of hatcheries evaporate a small amount of formalin in the hatcher while the chicks are
hatching. This results in a lower number of yolk sac and navel infections, but it will give more
respiratory problems. Due to the formalin the chicks have a more pronounced yellow colour,
which is often associated with healthier chicks.

37 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

6.3 Processing
Depending on the wishes of the receiver of the day old chicks, the type of day old chicks
(layer, broiler, parentstock) and eventual national regulations additional operations are carried
out. During processing chicks must be held in an environment of + 240C and + 75% relative
humidity.

Sexing
There are 3 sexing methods that can be used for poultry:
1. sexing colour: A simple method that doesn't require special skills but only possible
with brown hybrid layers and a few other hybrids and breeds.
2. feather sexing: Needs little bit more skill, but not to difficult to learn. It only applies
with a few hybrids. This method is best carried out when chicks are not
too fresh (about six hours old). Hold the chick in one hand, legs
downward. Take the small wing and waver it out to observe the
following.

Figure 14: Feather sexing

Female Male (type 1) Male (type II)

The bottom row of Both rows of The bottom row of
feathers is always feathers have the feathers is shorter
longer than the top row same length than the top row

3. Cloaca sexing: This method needs special trained staff and is not easy to learn.
Experience is very important. This method can be used for all hybrids
and breeds. The essence of cloaca sexing is that the sex of a chick is
established by protruding the cloaca in such a way that the sexual
parts of the chick can be recognized. These are even smaller than the
head of a sewing pin.

Vaccination
In the hatchery IB, NCD and Marek vaccination can be applied.

Dewinging/dubbing/detoeiing/beak trimming/cutting membrane between toes

For all these additional operations it is very important to use good and thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected equipment.

38  PTC+
Packing
Adjust numbers of chicks per box and ventilation opening to the climatic conditions. Observe
chicks regularly when packed - a loud cheeping or huddling in the boxes indicates that they
are too cold and panting shows that they are becoming heat stressed. Transport chicks as
quick as possible to receiver, especially when eggs of young parent stock were used. These
chicks have less reserves compared with chicks from old parentstock.
When chicks have to be transported over a long distance a subcutaneous injection with saline
solution can be considered to avoid dehydration. Saline solution is a solution of 0.9% NaCl in
water. Eventual minerals, vitamins, amino-acids, sugar and antibiotics can be added.

39 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

7 Technical records and calculations
Technical records assist in daily management decisions. In case of a disappointing hatching
result it is important to have at least an idea about the possible cause, so that some
corrective actions can be taken.

Assignment
Setting date Origin No. of eggs set No. of chicks
hatched

23/9/93 G4 59 26
23/9/93 G5 39 17

1. Which result is better, G4 or G5?

What is your opinion about the achieved result?

Give a few possible causes for the achieved result?

What information do you want to have more in order to make a better analysis possible?

2. Put all the information you have now in a surveyable table.

40  PTC+
3. Give a few possible causes now for the achieved results for both G4 and G5.
Possible causes
G4 G5

4. Still comparing is difficult. Therefore calculate.

G4 G5
hatchability

fertility

mortality early

mortality middle

mortality late

transferring %

% second class
chicks

41 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

5. What corrective actions do you propose for both G4 and G5.
Proposed corrective actions
G4 G5

42  PTC+
 8 Analysis of hatchery results
In day to day operation of a hatchery results are judged on hatchability and candling %.
Records are kept of incubator temperature and humidity to act immediately if the values
deviate from the set value. Mostly this information is enough for the hatchery manager.
Sometimes more detailed information is needed especially if the hatchery results are
disappointing.

In that case answer should be found on the following questions:

• What are possible reasons for the disappointing results?
• Is there any room for improvement?

Therefore it is necessary to have a careful look at the hatched chicks (chapter 8.1 hatching
failures), to open candled eggs and eggs that failed to hatch (chapter 8.2 hatching egg break
out) and to relate this information to possible reasons (troubleshooting).

8.1 Hatching failures

As stated before, important hatching criteria are temperature, humidity, ventilation, turning
and hygiëne.

In general, low hatchability (high embryonic mortality) can be caused by various factors.
Some factors however have a specific effect on chicks at the moment of hatch. It is possible
to recognise deviations from the optimal value by specific problems:

• Temperature too high:

- chicks hatch too early;
- chicks are small, some with a knob on the navel;
- egg shell sticks to chicks;
- closed eyes (temperature too high on day 20 and 21);
- curled toes.

• Temperature too low:

- chicks hatch too late and irregular;
- large, but weak and dead chicks in the trays;
- rough navels or navels have barely shut (low temperature day 20 and 21).

• Humidity too high:

- full belly
- badly healed navel
- chicks are covered with egg contents; sticky chicks;
- full grown chicks dead in shell, or pipped and suffocated;
- egg content very watery, albumen not fully absorbed.

43 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 • Humidity too low:
- small chicks;
- full grown dead chicks in uncracked egg;
- egg shell sticks to chicks;
- closed eyes (too low on day 20 and 21);

• Insufficient turning:
- early embryonic mortality (due to amnion which is not closed or underdeveloped);
- chicks or yolk sticks to shell (also old egg);
- malformed chicks.

• Insufficient or improper ventilation:

- slow and irregular hatching;
- chicks are too small;
- cracked eggs with dead chicks inside the shell;
- weak chicks with rapid difficult respiration.

8.2 Trouble shooting and hatching egg break out

Keeping good records is necessary in order to be able to determine the causes of a bad hatch.
Hatching problems may be caused by the parent stock farm and the hatchery itself, so records
should be kept from both. Besides this it is very usefull to break the eggs which are candled
and failed to hatch. It is possible to obtain a lot of information from this waste material, which
can help to improve following hatches.
It is difficult to find the exact age at which an embryo died. On the other hand, it is not
necessary to know the exact age to relate it to certain causes of problems. As a compromise,
we distinguish stages in embryonic development: infertile, membrane (0 - 1,5 days), blood
ring (1,5 - 4 days), dark eye (4 - 7 days), feathers (7 - 17 days) and yolk sac absorbtion
(starting day 18). Another more rough indication is early (0 - 4), mid-term (5 - 17) and late
(18 - 21) embryonic mortality.

The first step is to check the number of dead embryo's in each group. We do this with a hatch
debris report (appendix D).

The following step is to compare this with a standard, and to conclude if it is a normal hatch
or a hatch with increased embryonic mortality in one or more periods. Additional information
can be chick abnormalities, and general impressions about the hatch. If you analyse some
good hatches, you get experienced, and develop a standard for your own situation (breed,
hatchery, climate etc)

The next step is to find causes for the deviation form the standard (appendix E). This is a
matter of excluding possible causes, till a limited number of causes is left. They are given a
priority, according to time, cost and influence you have on that factor.
Action on the resulting causes should improve the next hatches, and increase your experience
in hatching egg breakout.

44  PTC+
45 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK
 9 Appendix

9.1 Appendix A Hatching eggs of different species

QUAIL
Egg handling
Egg weight 11-17 gr.
Storage At 13-150C and 75% RH for 10 days
Positioning Air cell upwards

Setter
Temperature 37.5-37.80C (99.5-1000F) Prevent fluctuations in temperature
Humidity max. weight loss during incubation 21.5% of initial weight
Ventilation Max. CO2 level 0.5% vol. Fresh air supply 60-180m3 per 10,000 eggs
Turning 450 vice versa. Once every 3 hours is enough. Common practice is one
per hour
Candling not done
Transfer After 14 days

Hatcher
Temperature 37-37.40C (89.6-99.30F)
Humidity 30-33.30C WB (86-920F WB)
Hatching time 16-18 days

Chick treatment Keep the very susceptible birds during the first 3 days of their life at
35-400C and decrease it then slowly to 240C at the end of the second
week

46  PTC+
 QUINEA FOWL
Egg handling
Egg weight 50-55 gr
Storage Max. storage time 7 days at 12 - 150C and 75-80% RH, Ventilation
rates 2 - 3m3 per 1000 eggs per day
Positioning Air cell upwards

Setter
Temperature Optimum 37.7-37.80C (99.8-1000F)
Humidity 28.8-29.40C WB (84-850F WB)
Ventilation Max. CO2 level 0.5% vol. 2-5m3 per 1,000 eggs/hours
Turning 450 vice versa. At least 5 times a day. Common practice is once per
hour.
Candling At day 12 or at transfer
Transfer After 24-25 days

Hatcher
Temperature During the first 6 hours 37.20C (990F), later towards hatch 36.80C
(98.240F).
Humidity First 6 hourst 29.4-300C WB, and later gradually up to 32.2-33.30C WB
(90-920F WB).
Hatching time 27 days, 8 hour - 28 days

Chick treatment Keep the susceptible chicks at 22-230C (RH + 60%) during the first
days of their life.

47 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 TURKEY
Egg handling
Egg weight 70-120 gr.
Storage 3-4 days 21-240C (69.8-75.20F)
5-9 days 13-150C (55.4-59.00F)
> 10 days 10-130C (50-55.40F)
80% RH at all time. Preheating of eggs prior to setting.
Positioning Air cell upwards.

Setter
Temperature 37.4-37.50C (99.32-99.50F) Prevent fluctuation of temperature
Humidity Max. weight loss during 25 days of incubation 11-12%
(30-28.30C/86-830F WB)
Ventilation CO2 level 0.35 - 0.5% vol.
Turning 450 vice versa. Once every hour (the minimum is 3-5 times a day)
Candling Day 10-12 or/and at transfer
Transfer At 25 days

Hatcher
Temperature 37.2-36.90C (99-98.50F)
Humidity 30-33.30C WB (86-920F WB). Humidity will rise gradually when pipping
starts
Hatching time Time to hath 27 days + 12-18 hours

Chick treatment Take the hatch chicks from the hatcher as soon they are dry.

48  PTC+
 PEKING DUCK

Egg handling Keep the eggs clean by collecting them as soon they have been laid.
Its better not to wash them. Disinfect the eggs before incubation.
Egg weight 70-90 gr.
Storage Max. storage time 10 days at 13-150C and 70-80% RH. Turning during
storage
(3-4 times a day). Preheat the eggs prior to setting.
Positioning Small end down

Setter
Temperature 37.2-37.50C (99-99.50F)
Once a day as from day 9, the eggs have to be taken out of the setter
for 10 to 25 minutes to cool down
Humidity 30-310 C WB (86-880F WB) During the cooling down procedure the
eggs have to be sprayed with lukewarm water.
Ventilation Max. CO2 level 0.5% vol. Fresh air supply 180 m3 per 10,000 eggs/day
Turning 450 vice versa. Once every hour. Common practice is once per hour
Candling Day 10 and at transfer
Transfer At day 25

Hatcher
Temperature Max. 37-37.20C (98.6-990F) Egg cooling and spraying is not necessary
anymore
Humidity 31-350C WB (88-950F WB)
Hatching time 28 days

Chick treatment Take the young ducklings out of the hatcher when they are almost dry
and keep them at 300C. Provide water and food as soon as possible.

49 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 MUSCOVY DUCK

Egg handling Keep the eggs clean by collecting them as soon as they have been laid.
Disinfect the eggs by washing them in water with a soluble detergent
before incubation.
Egg weight 70-90 gr
Storage Max. storage time 10 days at 13-150C and + 75-80% RH. Turning
necessary when stored more than 7 days. Preheating prior to setting.
Positioning Air cell upwards or lying

Setter
Temperature 37.2-37.40C (99.0-99.30F). Once a day, as from day 9, the eggs have
to be taken out of the setter for 10-25 minutes to cool down.
Humidity 30-310C WB (86-880F WB)
During cooling down period the eggs must be sprayed with lukewarm
water.
Ventilation Max. CO2 level 0.5% vol.
Fresh air supply 180 m3 per 1,000 eggs/hour
Turning 450 vice versa. Every hour.
Candling At day 12 and at transfer
Transfer At 32 days

Hatcher
Temperature 37-37.20C (98.6-99.00F)
Humidity 31-350C WB (88-950F WB)
Hatching time 34-35 days

Chick treatment Take the young ducklings out of the hatcher when they are dry and
keep them at 300C.

50  PTC+
 GOOSE

Egg handling Collect the eggs as soon they have been laid. Avoid high temperature
(> 250C)
Egg weight 70-90 gr
Storage Max. storage time 10 days at 13-150C and + 70-80% RH. Turning
necessary when stored more than 7 days (3-4 times daily)
Positioning Lying

Setter
Temperature 37.5-37.60C (99.5-99.750F)
Humidity Max. weight loss during incubation at a wet bulb temperature of 28-
290C should be 13% of the initial weight. The eggs must be sprayed
daily during the cooling down period with lukewarm water.
Ventilation Max. CO2 level 0.5% vol.
Fresh air supply 60-180m3 per 10,000 eggs/hour
Turning 450 vice versa. Once every hour
Candling Day 9-10 and at transfer
Transfer At 27 days

Hatcher
Temperature 37.2-37.30C (99-99.20F)
Humidity When 20-25% of the goslings have been hatched the wet bulb
temperature should be increased to 32-350C (89.6-950F WB)
Hatching time 30-33 days

Chick treatment The d.o.g.'s demand additional heating during the first 2 weeks of their
life; 29.4-32.20C at start to 21.00C at the end.

51 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

 OSTRICH

Egg handling Use only clean eggs and sanitise eggs prior to storage and setting in
incubator
Egg weight 1,500-1,900 gr
Storage 7 days at 150C (60F0) and 75% RH. Egg turning is beneficial and
should be done 2-3 times each day through 1800.
Positioning top down

Setter
Temperature Up to 35 days in a multi-stage machine: 36.0-36.50C (96.8-97.7F0).
Single-stage incubation requires a temperature profile which changes
with developmental time. Room temperature should be around 250C
and less than 25% RH
Humidity 20-25% (RH) depending upon weight loss from eggs, measured every
7 days, and aiming to lose 15% of initial egg mass to pipping on day
40.
Ventilation Room: 8.5 m3 per hour for 40 ostrich eggs where the machine should
take in around 3.5 m3/hour
Turning Automatic + 450 every hour. Manual + 1800 4-5 times a day.
Candling every 7 days
Transfer at 35 days

Hatcher
Temperature 0.5 below setter temperature. Room temperature around 250C (77 F0)
and 60% RH
Humidity 70-75%
Ventilation Room should receive 12 cubic feet per minute for 40 ostrich eggs
where the machine should take in around 8 cfm.
Turning none
Candling Every day to check progress
Hatching time 42 + 2 days. Unassisted pipping and hatching. Chick to be dry when
removed from the hatcher.

Chick treatment Provide water when chicks removed from hatcher. Keep the
temperature at 350C (95 F0) for one day but thereafter gradually
reduce temperature to 250C (77 F0) on day 7 but with acces to 350C
(95 F0) zone.

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9.2 Appendix B The Chinese rice husk incubation system
This interesting method of incubation is commonly used throughout Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan
and China to produce ducklings for sale. Because the system uses no electricity and requires
only the occasional use of a small kerosene stove, it can be used in villages lacking electric
power.

The system makes it possible to hatch hundreds of duck eggs at one time. It works because a
fertilized duck egg that is at least 10 days incubated will produce enough heat to warm itself
and other eggs. It is of great importance that the eggs are placed in a well insulated container
to avoid loss of heat. The containers are cilinders made of painted bamboo mats. Those
cilinders are placed in a big container which is filled with dry and clean rice husk.

The cilinders will be filled with bundles of 50-90 eggs tied together in a cloth. Those bundles
will be placed on top of a bag of rice husk and they are covered with another bag of rice husk.
This creates a "sandwich" of eggs between two bags of husk. Of course the last layer must be
a bag of husk.

Before placing eggs and rice husk in the cilinders they are warmed up to 100-1020F. The sun
can be used for this purpose, but on cloudy days you need a small kerosene stove. This
operation has to be repeated when the eggs have cooled down to much (below 980F). After
every 5 days new eggs are added to the system after being heated.

They are mixed with the older eggs. In this way the heat produced by the older eggs is used
to warm the newly placed eggs.
After a while the system is self supporting; additional heating of eggs and rice husk is no
longer necessary and sometimes even bags of rice husk should be removed to prevent
overheating of the eggs. Of course this depends heavily on the environmental temperature
and the rate of insulation (eg. rice husk). After 17 days of incubation the eggs are transferred
to a so called "incubation-bed" where they are covered with rice husk again. On the 25th day
of incubation the eggs should begin to hatch.

53 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

The Chinese rice husk incubation system is a very labour intensive process, but its requires
hardly inputs (eg. energy). Quite some experience is needed to get good results with this
system. Probably the most you can expect as a beginner is a hatchability of 50%.

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9.3 Appendix C A few suggestions on constructing a small incubator
The most easy to operate and also to construct is an electric heated incubator, though it may
be quite expensive due to the cost of electric parts like bulbs, wire fittings and a thermostat.
The figure below gives you an idea how to construct one.

A good suggestion where electricity is not available or reliable is a kerosene heated incubator.
The one described is a so called "warm-water-incubator". This incubator can be completely
home made requiring only some tools and a little skill.
The oil-burner heats the water in a standard 10 litre container. Part of the bottom of the
incubator is formed by the container and the burner should be placed under the water
container. The four sides and the top of the container are inside the incubator. A flanel (or
other thick) cloth placed just above the container in the incubator spreads the heat evenly
over the total surface under the egg tray.

55 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

The warm water in the container acts like a heat buffer, because the temperature of the water
changes very slow. Therefore the temperature in the incubator does not fluctuate to much.
With this incubator a thermostat is not necessary if the outside air doesnot fluctuate to much
and the incubator is well insulated. The temperature in the incubator can be regulated with
the size of the flame and with the distance of the burner to the bottom of the water container.

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There are a few important aspects concerning the container:
1. There should be no air in the container after filling with water. Air in the container
insulates as you can see in the figure.

2. When you have filled the container and heated it, the water expands. To avoid pressure
from rising in the container, solder a small nozzle in a hole in the container and attach a
transparent tube of about 40 cm to the nozzle. When you hang the tube on the side of the
incubator you can see that the water level rises int he tube when heating the container.
Make sure that the water level in the tube is high enough to prevent air from entering the
container. Fill the tube with water if the water level drops too low.

3. The water in the container is heated by a burner which produces gasses. Take care that
these gasses do not enter the incubator. Use fire-proof material like clay to fill all the
chincks between the container and the support table.

57 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

9.4 Appendix D: Hatch Debris Report

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9.5 Appendix E Trouble shooting guide to general problems
General problem
1. Eggs candle clear; broken
out eggs show small white dot
germinal disc; no blood;
infertile.
59 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK
Possible causes
• Males immature. Males may need to be
photostimulated two weeks earlier than the females.
• Males with abnormal sperm; females with abnormal
egg (germinal disc). Occurs most often in very young
or very old breeders.
• Too few males, resulting in infrequent mating; too
many males, resulting in fighting or interference.
Ratios of 1:12-15 for light breeds and 1:10-12 for
heavy breeds are suggested.
• Extreme weather conditions.
• Old breeders. Spiking with young males may help if
the problem is with the male.
• Breeder flock disease. Often indicated by rough,
misshapen, or thin shelled eggs.
• Excess body weight (over 4,800 g, 10.6 lb),
especially in broiler breeder males.
• Nutritional deficiencies or excesses; severe feed
restriction.
• Feet and leg problems, especially in heavy breed
males.
• Certain drugs, perticides, chemicals, toxins,
mycotoxins.
• Parasites such as mites.
• Inadequate floor space.
• Decreased mating frequency, or no mating, is
common with many of the above conditions and may
often be the direct cause of infertility.
• In adequate lighting (intensity or daylength).
• Improper artifical insemination procedures (if AI is
used).
 General problem
2. Eggs candle clear; broken
out eggs show enlarged
germinal disc; no blood.
Fertile. Some are termed
"blastoderm without embryo".
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Possible causes
• Eggs stored too long - should be less than seven
days.
• Eggs held under poor conditions, temperature too
high or too low. Fluctuating temperatures.
Temperature should be 60-650F (15.6-18.30C).
• Incorrect fumigation - too severe or done between
12 and 96 hours of incubation. Incorrect spraying or
foaming with disinfectant.
• Eggs damaged during handling and transportation by
jarring, temperature shock (temperature decreased
or increased too rapidly).
• Egg shell sealed - respiration inhibited.
• High temperature in early incubation.
• Very young or very old breeders.
• Heredity, inbreeding, chromosome abnormalities,
parthenogenesis (that is, infertile egg undergoing
early embryonic development).
• Breeder flock diseases.
• Failure of a basic organ system to develop normally.
• Egg wash temperature too high.
• Egg borne infections.
• Drugs, toxins, pesticides, etc.
• Infrequent or incomplete egg collection.
 General problem
3. Eggs candle clear; broken
out eggs show blood ring or
small embryo which died
before three days of
incubation; no dark eye visible
61 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK
Possible causes
• Eggs stored too long or at incorrect temperature.
• Incorrect fumigations - too sever or done between 12
and 96 hours of incubation.
• High temperature in early incubation.
• Low temperature in early incubation.
• Eggs damaged during transportation by jarring.
• Breeder flock diseases.
• Old breeders.
• Embryological development accidents.
• Inbreeding, chromosome abnormalities.
• Severe nutritional deficiencies, e.g. biotin, vitamin A,
copper, vitamin E, boron, pantothenic acid.
• Frequently associated with a high incidence of
infertility.
• Drugs, toxins, pesticides.
• Contamination.
• Embryos less developed at oviposition, i.e. pre-
endoderm or very early endoderm formation.
 General problem
4. Dead embryos; 3-6 days of
incubation; yolk sac circulatory
system present, embryo on left
side, no egg tooth.
5. Dead embryos; 7-17 days of
incubation; with egg tooth, toe
nails, feather follicles (8 days)
feathers (11 days).
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Possible causes
• See causes above.
• Lack of ventilation, or sealed shells, over 1% carbon
dioxide.
• Improper turning - less than once per hour or more
than six times per hour; improper turning angle.
• Vitamin deficiencies - vitamin E, riboflavin, biotin,
pantothenic acid and linoleic acid deficiency.
• Improper incubator temperature, humidity, turning,
ventilation. Low humidity increases abnormalities of
aortic arches (13 days).
• Contamination.
• Nutritional deficiencies - riboflavin, vitamin B12,
biotin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid,
phosphorus, boron, linoleic acid.
• Lethal genes (more than 30 have been described).
 General problem Possible causes
6. Dead embryos; over 18 days • Improper incubator temperature, humidity,
of incubation. turning, ventilation.
• Improper hatcher temperature and humidity.
• Contamination, especially moulds (e.g.
aspergillus).
• Fumigation too severe or too prolonged.
• Eggs chilled in transfer, or transferred too late.
• Broken shell - pre-set, during incubation, at
transfer.
• Nutritional deficiencies - vitamin D, vitamins A,
folic acid, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, vitamin E,
selenium, vitamin K, biotin, thiamin, vitamin B12,
calcium, phosphorus, manganese, linoleic acid.
• Embryonic malposition; embryo fails to get into
proper hatching position.
• Embryological development accident. Failure to
change lung respiration and all intra-embryonic
circulation, and/or to retract the intestinal loops
and yolk sac.
• Heredity - lethal genes, chromosome
abnormalities.
• Twinning.
• Hatcher opened too much during pipping and
hatching.

63 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

9.6 Appendix F Normal position and various malpositions of the chicken

Fig 14. The normal position of the chicken embryo at the time of hatching. (After Romanoff, original,
unpublished) A: prior to the breaking of membranes (amnion, allantois and egg membrane); B: after the
breaking of membranes; C: at the time of making a hole in the shell.

Various forms of malpositions of the chicken embryo observed prior to hatching. Positions of the embryo:
1. normal except that beak lies above instead of under the right wing; 2. head turned to the left instead of
under the right wing; 3. head normal, but embryo rotated so that the beak is turned away from the air
cell; 4. leg over the head; 5. head at the small end; 6. head between the thighs.

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9.7 Appendix G Hatching at altitude

In several countries poultry are produced at relatively high altitudes. Hatcheries operated at
altitude experience reduced hatchability, with much greater effects above 2000m.

Effects of altitude on hatchability

Barometric pressure declines with altitude, as do partial pressure of oxygen and absolute
humidity. Fresh ventilating air will tend to be colder and drier than at sea level. Incubators
with poor temperature or humidity control systems will be less able to cope with these
conditions. Hatchability problems at altitude are due to:
1. Reduced availability of oxygen in the air.
2. Increased moisture loss from the eggs.

Oxygen availability
The oxygen percentage of the air is always 21% but the reduced partial pressure at altitude
provides less oxygen from a given volume of air. This pressure reduction results in lower
blood oxygen level and lower availability to the tissues. Oxygen pressure could be increased
by injection into the setter and hatcher. Incubator ventilation rate would need to be reduced
to avoid using excessive amounts of gas. The main drawbacks of using oxygen are cost and
safety. Its use may, therefore, be limited to hatching parent stock.

65 FROM EGG TO DAY-OLD-CHICK

Water loss
Water loss from an egg during incubation is greater at altitude because water vapour diffuses
through the shell more rapidly. Setters will need to be adjusted to ensure that the weight loss
of the egg is 12% during incubation. The conductance of the egg shell becomes extremely
important at altitude. The table shows the incubator relative humidities (RH%) to obtain 12%
weight loss from eggs with different shell conductances at various altitudes.

Altitude (metres)
0 1000 2000 3000
Egg shell conductance
Low 4 14 24 33
Medium 52 57 62 67
High 76 79 81 83
(RH %)

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