Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.

),
 Center of Origin

• The peanut commonly, known as

groundnut, earthnut, monkey nut (UK),
• both an oil seed crop and a food grain
legume.

• Peanuts appear to have originated in the

south Bolivia/northwest Argentina region
Atypically among legume crop plants, peanut pods develop underground (geocarpy)
rather than above ground. With this characteristic in mind, the botanist
Carl
Linnaeus named the species hypogaea, which means
"under the earth“
Like most other legumes,
peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules.
This capacity to fix nitrogen means peanuts require less nitrogen-containing fertilizer
and also improve soil fertility, making them valuable in crop rotations.

Subspecies A. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their

growth habit and have shorter crop cycles.

Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types spread more on the ground

and have longer crop cycles.
Peanuts are grown on an estimated 19 million
ha in 82 countries for use as food, oil, and a
high-protein meal.

• Peanut seeds contain ~25 - 30%

protein and ~ 50% oil.
• 70% of the world peanut production
occurs in the semiarid tropics.

• World annual production of shelled peanuts was 44

million tonnes in 2016, led by China with 38% of the
world total
Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.9–7.

Their capacity to fix nitrogen means that, providing they nodulate properly, peanuts
benefit little or not at all from N-containing fertilizer,[and they improve soil fertility.
Therefore, they are valuable in crop rotations.

Adequate levels of P, K, Ca, Mg, and micronutrients are also necessary for good
yields

Depending on growing conditions and the cultivar of peanut, harvest is

usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspecies A. h. fastigiata types,

and 120 to 150 days after planting for subspecies A. h. hypogaea types.

Peanut plants continue to produce flowers when pods are developing; therefore
even when they are ready for harvest, some pods are immature. In order to
maximize yield, the timing of harvest is important. If it is too early, too many pods
will be unripe; if too late, the pods will snap off at the stalk, and will remain in the
soil.
it is important that peanuts are dried properly and stored in dry conditions. If they
are too high in moisture, or if storage conditions are poor, they may become
infected by the mold fungus Aspergillus flavus.

Many strains of this fungus release toxic and highly carcinogenic substances
called aflatoxins.

There are many peanut cultivars grown around the world. The market classes
grown in the United States are Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia
Peanut pods develop underground, an unusual feature
known as geocarpy.

After fertilization, a short stalk at the base of the ovary

(termed a pedicel) elongates to form a thread-like
structure known as a "peg". This peg grows down into
the soil, and the tip, which contains the ovary,
develops into a mature peanut pod.

Pods are normally containing 1-4 seeds

U.S. peanuts fall into four basic types: Runner, Virginia, Spanish, Valencia

Within each four basic types of peanuts, there are several "varieties" for
seed and production purposes. Each variety contains distinct characteristics
which allows a producer to select the peanut that is best suited for its region
and market.
Runner Peanuts have become the dominant type due to the introduction
in the early 1970's of a new runner variety, the Florunner, which was
responsible for a spectacular increase in peanut yields.

Runners have rapidly gained wide acceptance because of the attractive,

uniform kernel size. 45% of the runners grown are used for peanut butter.
Virginia Peanut have the largest kernels and account for most of the peanuts
roasted and processed in-the-shell. When shelled, the larger kernels are sold as
snack peanuts
Valencia Peanuts
usually have three or more small kernels to
a pod and are covered in a bright-red skin.

They are very sweet peanuts and are

usually roasted and sold in-the-shell.

They are also excellent for fresh use as

boiled peanuts.
have smaller kernels covered with a reddish-brown skin.
used predominantly in peanut candies, with significant
quantities used for snack nuts and peanut butter.
have a higher oil content than the other types of peanuts
An allergic response to peanuts usually occurs within
minutes after exposure. Peanut allergy signs and
symptoms can include: Runny nose. Skin reactions, such
as hives, redness or swelling. Itching or tingling in or
around the mouth and throat
 Aflatoxins are a family of toxins produced by certain fungi that are found on agricultural
crops such as maize, peanuts, cottonseed, and tree nuts. The main fungi that produce
aflatoxins are Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which are abundant
in warm and humid regions of the world

Aflatoxins are mycotoxins that are produced by strains from the Aspergillus family
(molds).
They are found as contaminants in human and animal food as a result of fungal
contamination during growing, and usually to a larger extent, post-harvest storage.

Carcinogenic effects of aflatoxins to humans are no longer doubted and legal

limits for aflatoxins in foodstuff are very low.

Aflatoxins are most commonly associated with groundnuts, dried fruit, tree nuts
(such as almonds, pecans, walnuts, pistachio and brazil nuts), crude vegetable oils
as peanut oil, coconut oil), cocoa beans and a range of agricultural products, the
most important being maize, rice, cottonseed

The aflatoxins that may appear in oil seeds and vegetable oils are aflatoxin B1, G1,
B2 and G2 of which B1 and G1 are the most common.
 Climate and Soil Requirements

• The limits of present commercial production

are between latitudes 40ºN and 40ºS, where
rainfall during the growing season exceeds 500
mm.

• Peanuts perform well in the dry temperature

~24 and 33ºC but can survive up to 45ºC if
adequate moisture is maintained
 Water requirements
• 500 to 600 mm of water, can produce satisfactory peanut
yields

• Daily water use by plants is low during the early growth

stages and increases with increasing leaf canopy.

• The maximum daily water use rate ranged from 5 to 6

mm/day.

• In US, irrigation to obtain high peanut yields is becoming

popular. It was reported that in Georgia, 45% of the allotted
peanut acreage was under irrigation
Harvesting
 The Suitable soil for Peanut production are the well-
drained, light sandy loams with an ample supply of Ca and
moderate OM.
Yield was highly correlated with exchangeable Ca.

Peanuts are one of the most acid-tolerant crops, with a

critical pH range of 5 to 5.5.

Peanuts are considered moderately susceptible to soil

salinity, and a salinity threshold of 3.2 dS/m has been
reported.

Peanuts are highly susceptible to water logging, and

harvesting can be a problem in heavily-textured soils.
 Growth and development

• self-pollinated, annual, herbaceous legume

and belong to the family Papilionaceae.

• The plant is erect or prostrate, sparsely

hairy, and 15 to 60 cm high or higher.

• The special feature of the peanut plant is that

the fruit begins as a fertilized flower above
ground, but pod and seed mature in the
ground.
 Subspecies

• Arachis hypogaea consists of two

subspecies, hypogaea and fastigiata,
which differ in branching habit and seed
dormancy.

• Hypogaea have alternate branching, a

spreading of bunching habit, and a long
maturation period.
 After fertilization
• After fertilization, an intercalary meristem at
the base of the ovary generates a stalk-like
structure, the peg, which soon becomes
positively geotropic and may extend to as
much as 20 cm.
• The ovary matures underground into a pod
of the common unshelled peanut.

• Flowers first appear 30-40 days after sowing

and the plant may continue to produce
flowers throughout much of its remaining
growth.
 Leaf Area Index (LAI)
• LAI varies with:
1. environmental condition
2. cultural practices, and
3. stage of crop growth.

The LAI should be related to growth stage when

comparing different crop species or cultivars within
species.

• Maximum LAI values ranging from 3.3 to 7.0 have

been reported in the literature for peanuts.

• HI is the ratio of the weight of kernels to total dry

matter above ground at harvest in peanuts varies
from 0.35 to 0.50
 Yield Components
• In the peanut crop, kernel yield ? per unit is the
product of pod number, number of grains per pod,
and weight of individual kernels.
• Kernels per pod vary from 2 to 6,
• pods per plant vary from 50 to 104,
• and 100-kernel weight varies from 28 to 62 g.

• All three yield components are most sensitive to

environmental stress during the flowering and
kernel-filling growth stages
 Nutrient Requirements

• Adequate levels of P, K, Ca, and Mg are

essential to high yields.

• Peanuts can fix N, but small amounts of N

should be applied as starter fertilizer.

• Peanuts are nodulated by a large group of

Rhizobium strains classified as the cowpea
miscellany
Pests
 Nutrient Concentration and Uptake

• Sahrawat et al. ? studied concentration changes in

peanut leaves with time. Concentrations of N, P,
K, Cu, Mn, and Zn in the leaves of the cultivar
RMV2 generally decreased with increasing age.

• The concentrations of Ca increased markedly with

leaf age, and Mg concentrations tended to
increase.