England

BY: Marijana Stojchevska

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to it’s
west and Scotland to it’s north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest.
It is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to
the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North
Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
Outside the British Isles, England is often erroneously considered synonymous with the island of
Great Britain and even with the entire United Kingdom.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic
period, but takes it’s name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe deriving it’s name from the Anglia
peninsula, who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries.
England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had a significant cultural and legal
impact on the wider world since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century.
The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law
legal systems of many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the
country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.
The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the
world's first industrialised nation.
One of the fundamental English characteristics is diversity within a small compass. No place in
England is more than 75 miles (120 km) from the sea, and even the farthest points in the country
are no more than a day’s journey by road or rail from London.
England itself does not have a formal government or constitution, and a specifically English role
in contemporary government and politics is hard to identify in any formal sense, for these
operate on a nationwide British basis. Historically, the English may be credited with the
evolution of Parliament, which, in its medieval form, was related to the Anglo-Saxon practice of
regular gatherings of notables. The English may also be credited with the glory of the Revolution
of 1688, which affirmed the rule of law, parliamentary control of taxation and of the army,
freedom of speech, and religious toleration.
History

1. Prehistory and antiquity.

The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of
Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to
have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were
only established within the last 6,000 years. The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC,
introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay. It was during this time that major
Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin
and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and
later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better
ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of
more effective weapons.
The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently
conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia
province. The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led
by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's
suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street. The author of one study of Roman
Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between
100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000.
This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman
architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor
Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently
proclaimed emperor a century later.
There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century,
probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at
the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and
Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church.
 2. Middle Ages

When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters and
many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities
and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic
culture flourished under the Anglo-Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf and
sophisticated metalwork. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a
network of monasteries and convents were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries
England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades, eventually
establishing Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and promoting the growth of an English
identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a Danish seizure of power at the start of the
11th century, it can also be argued that by the 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state
with a strong military and successful economy..
The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon
elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters. William the Conqueror and his
successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the
population through a network of castles. The new rulers introduced a feudal approach to
governing England, eradicating the practice of slavery, but creating a much wider body of unfree
labourers called serfs. The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land and
lordship shifted. England's population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries,
fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade, helped by warmer temperatures across
Northern Europe.
The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death, catastrophic events that
killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos, and undermining
the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, while the
changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry, and the nobility
began to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism. Nearly 1,500 villages were
deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns
and cities. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne, resulting
in the Hundred Years' War. At times England enjoyed huge military success, but by 1450 the
country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social
unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses, fought between rival factions of the English
nobility. Henry VII's victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the Middle Ages in
England and the start of the Early Modern period.
 3. Early modern period

Early modern Britain is the history of the island of Great Britain roughly corresponding to the
16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Major historical events in early modern British history include
numerous wars, especially with France, along with the English Renaissance, the English
Reformation and Scottish Reformation, the English Civil War, the Restoration of Charles II, the
Glorious Revolution, the Treaty of Union, the Scottish Enlightenment and the formation and the
collapse of the First British Empire.
During this period Henry VII and his son Henry VIII greatly increased the power of the English
monarchy. A similar pattern was unfolding on the continent as new technologies, such as
gunpowder, and social and ideological changes undermined the power of the feudal nobility and
enhanced that of the sovereign. Henry VIII also made use of the Protestant Reformation to seize
the power of the Roman Catholic Church, confiscating the property of the monasteries and
declaring himself the head of the new Anglican Church. Under the Tudors, the English state was
centralized and rationalized as a bureaucracy built up and the government became run and
managed by educated functionaries. The most notable new institution was the Star Chamber. The
new power of the monarch was given a basis by the notion of the divine right of kings to rule
over their subjects. James I was a major proponent of this idea and wrote extensively on it. The
Elizabethan Era is the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and is known to be a golden age
in English history. It was the height of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of English
literature and poetry. This was also the time during which Elizabethan theatre was famous and
William Shakespeare, among others, composed plays that broke away from England's past style
of plays and theatre. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad, while at home the
Protestant Reformation became entrenched in the national mindset. England during this period
had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government, largely a result of the reforms of
Henry VII and Henry VIII. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era
of trans-Atlantic trade. In 1666
the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards with
many significant buildings designed by Christopher Wren. In Parliament two factions had
emerged – the Tories and Whigs. Under the Stuart dynasty England expanded in trade, finance
and prosperity. Britain developed Europe's largest merchant fleet. After the parliaments of
England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom
of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national
churches of each remained separate.
 4. Late modern period and contemporary

Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other
English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science
and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal
Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the
Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions
of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well
as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and
development. The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the
canal age in Britain. In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger
railway – the Stockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public.
During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and
expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Birmingham and
Manchester, dubbed "Workshop of the World" and "Warehouse City" respectively. Manchester
was the world's first industrial city.
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the
Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military
and navy – was prestigious. Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to
the United Kingdom's power and prosperity. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the
Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.
Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English
soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies. Two decades later, in World
War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies.
Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from
other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian
subcontinent. Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an
increasing emphasis on the service industry. As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a
common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the
European Union. Now, England does not belong to the European Union.
British royal family

The Royal family are the close relatives of The King, and form the line of succession to the
British throne. Members of the Royal Family have belonged, by birth or marriage, to the House
of Windsor since 1917, under the reign of George V. Now, The British royal family comprises
King Charles III and his close relations.
The monarch's children and grandchildren (if they are children of the monarch's sons), and the
children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales are automatically entitled to be known as prince
or princess with the style His or Her Royal Highness. Peerages, often dukedoms, are bestowed
upon most princes prior to marriage. By tradition, wives of male members of the royal family
share their husbands' title and style. Princesses by marriage do not have the title prefixed to their
own name but to their husband's; for example, the wife of Prince Michael of Kent is Princess
Michael of Kent. Sons of monarchs are customarily given dukedoms upon marriage, and these
peerage titles pass to their eldest sons.
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, official duties were undertaken on her behalf by her
children and their spouses, grandchildren and their spouses, and cousins and their spouses.
Among her cousins, only the children of King George V's sons carry out royal engagements. The
family supported the Queen in her state and national duties, with the exception of constitutional
functions. Members of the royal family are politically and commercially independent, avoiding
conflict of interest with their public roles. The royal family are considered British cultural icons,
with young adults from abroad naming the family among a group of people who they most
associated with British culture. Members of the royal family are patrons for approximately 3,000
charities, and have also started their own nonprofit organisations.
The most famous ruler and member of the Roual family is The Queen Elizabeth II. She was
Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her
death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime, and was head of
state of 15 realms at the time of her death. Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of
any British monarch and the longest verified reign of any female monarch in history. Her state
funeral was the first to be held in the United Kingdom since that of Winston Churchill in 1965.
LONDON

London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of
just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a 50-mile
estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for two millennia. The City of
London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and
retains its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has
for centuries hosted the national government and parliament. Since the 19th century, the name
"London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between the
counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which largely comprises Greater
London, governed by the Greater London Authority.
London has four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the combined
Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and also the historic
settlement in Greenwich, where the Royal Observatory, Greenwich defines the prime meridian
and Greenwich Mean Time. Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye,
Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, and Trafalgar Square. London has many
museums, galleries, libraries and cultural venues, including the British Museum, National
Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library, and numerous West End
theatres. Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final (held annually at
Wembley Stadium), Wimbledon Tennis Championships and the London Marathon. In 2012,
London became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games.
10 of the UK's strangest traditions

1. Cheese rolling in the Cotswolds - This odd tradition is well known and takes place
every year at Cooper's Hill in the Cotswolds. Competitors chase a 9lb round Double
Gloucester cheese as it rolls down the incredibly steep hill, which reaches speeds of up to
70mph! So this one is not for the faint-hearted. The winner gets to take home the giant
cheese wheel.
2. Bog snorkelling - Bog snorkelling sounds a little gross, but the tradition has been going
since 1976, when it began in Llanwrtyd Wells, Wales. The World Bog Snorkelling
Championship has been held there since 1985. To join in the race, competitors must wear
snorkels and flippers, and swim without using conventional swimming strokes.
3. Dancing around the maypole - Most people will have heard of dancing around the
maypole, a tradition that celebrates May Day. When the activity first began, dancers
would skip around a decorated tree, whereas now they dance around a pole with ribbons.
4. World Hen Racing Championship - If you like the idea of watching a bunch of hens
racing each other, then head on down to the World Hen Racing Championship, which
takes place annually at the Barley Mow Inn in Bonsall, Derbyshire. Some hen owners
now even train their hens for the traditional race, which dates back over 100 years.
5. Weighing in the mayor - Weighing in the mayor sounds a little odd, but it's a tradition
that does exactly what it says on the tin. In High Wycombe, it is tradition to literally
weigh the mayor on a large set of scales at the start and end of their term. It is believed
the ritual started to ensure that the mayor didn't live off the fat of the land.
6. Nettle eating contest - Hosted by the Bottle Inn pub in Marshwood, Dorset every year,
this 20-year-old nettle eating contest sees dozens of competitors take part in eating as
many nettle stalks as possible within one hour. Winners normally eat around 70ft of
nettle stalks! The nettles are said to cause a tingling feeling in the mouth.
7. Whittlesea Straw Bear Festival - Every January, The Whittlesea Straw Bear Festival
takes place, which dates back more than 200 years. The strange festival consists of a
performer wearing a five-stone metal and straw bear costume, while parading through the
town streets with a troupe of Appalachian and Morris dancers.
8. Wife carrying race - If you think your husband is strong enough to carry you in a race,
then you may be in with a chance of winning this odd tradition, held in Dorking, Surrey
every March. The sport actually originates from the Viking invasion of 793AD. The
tradition wasn't revived in the UK until 2008, but now comes with a friendlier feel. The
winner receives £100 and a barrel of ale, while the carrier of the heaviest wife is given a
pound of sausage.
9. World Gurning Championships - Gurning is a British word meaning to pull a funny
facial expression. The World Gurning Championships sets out to crown a contestant who
can pull the strangest face of all. The contest takes place every year in Egremont,
Cumbria, as part of the town's Crab Fair, which dates back to 1267.
10. Tar Barl Festival - Carrying barrels of burning tar is the premise behind the Tar Barl
Festival, which is a New Year celebration held in Allendale, Northumberland. The
tradition is 160 years' old and attracts tourists and locals alike. At the end of the parade,
the barrels are thrown on to a waiting bonfire.