Tasks

1. Which are the levels of the lingual hierarchy? Define each of them.
Lingual hierarchy consists of 6 levels:
1. phonemic: it consists of phonemes. A phoneme is a minimal meaningless unit
of language. It has distinctive function.
2.Morphemic: it consists of morphemes. morpheme is a minimal meaningful
unit of a language, it consists of phonemes.
3.Lexemic: It consist of words. A word is the smallest nominative unit of
language.
4.phrasemic level. It consists of phrases.
5. Proprosemic level - which consists of sentences.
6.Supra-proprosemic or dictemic- consist of group of sentences.

2. Define a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, a sentence.

Phoneme is a minimal meaningless unit of a language. It has distinctive
function.
morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit of a language, it consists of
phonemes.
word is the smallest nominative unit of language.
sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech build up of words
according to a define syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually
relevant communicative purpose.
3. Speak about “polar phenomena” and “intermediary phenomena”.
There are two sets of lingual phenomena: polar and intermediary.
Polar phenomena are the most clearly identifiable, they stand to one another
in an utterly unambiguous opposition.
Intermediary phenomena are located in the system in between the polar
phenomena and making up a gradation of transition or the so-called ,,continuum.’’

4. Single out different groups of morphemes according to different bases. Give

examples.
1. On the basis of self-dependence morphemes can be classified as free and bound.
Ex:boy---s, read---er
Free; bound free; bound

2. On the basis of the formal presentation there are overt and covert morphemes.
Overt- builfing up words.
Covert-zero morhpemes
,,clocks’’ - 2 overt morphemes
,,clock’’ - 2 morphemes- root and grammatical suffix of the singular ,,o’’.

3. on the basis of segmental relation we have segmental and supra-segmental

morphemes.
Majority of morphemes- segmental;
Intonation, accent, stress-- supra-segmental.

4. On the basis on grammatical alternation we have additive and replacive

morphemes:
Boy-(s)- additive
Dr(i)ve- dr(o)ve- replacive.

5. On the basis of the linear characteristics, we have continues and discontiniues

morphemes.
Continues- smth. That is not stopped. ,,reading’’
Discontiniues- (is) read(ing)

5.Speak about a root morpheme. Speak about affixes.

In accord with the traditional classification, morphemes on the upper level are
devided into root morphemes and affixal morphemes. Root morphemes express the
concrete ,,material’’ part of the meaning, they have lexical meaning, while affixal
morphemes have word building function. Ex: singer sing -root ; er - affixial
meorpheme.
The affixal morphemes include prefixes, sufixes, inflexions. Affixal morphemes
together with the root form stem of the word. Root is obligatory for any word,
while affixes are not obligatory.

6.Which are the functional parts of speech? Which are the notional parts of
speech?
Functional parts of speech are: article, particle, conjunction, interjection,
preposition, modal word.
Notional parts of speech are : noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective numeral.

7.Define an article, a preposition, a particle, a modal word, a conjunction, a noun,

an adjective, an adverb.
The article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functions.
The preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependences of
substantive referents.
The conjunction expresses connections of phenomena.
The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning.
The modal word expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation
and its parts.
The noun as a part of speech has the categorial meaning of "substance" or
"thingness"

The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance.

The adverb is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or

property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs.

8 .How are the words classified according to Sweet, Jespersen, Smirnitsky?

H. Sweet divides all the words into two groups:
1) noun-words: nouns, noun-pronouns, noun-numerals, infinitive, gerund;
2) verbs: finite verbs, verbals (infinitive, gerund, participle)
Moreover he distinguishes Declinable and Indeclinable words.
Jespersen gives the following classification of words:
1. Substantives (including proper names)
2. Adjectives
3. Pronouns
4. Verbs
5. Particles
Smirnitsky identifies three criteria. The most important of them is the syntactic function,
next comes meaning and then morphological forms of words. He singles out the
following word-groups: Notional words and Function words.

9.Speak about the functions of the noun in the sentence.

IThe most characteristic substantive function of the noun is that of the subject in
the sentence, since the referent of the subject is the person or thing immediately
named. The function of the object in the sentence is also typical of the noun as the
substance word. Other syntactic functions, i.e. attribute, predicative and so on
performed by the noun with equal ease.

subject, direct object, indirect object, object complement, subject

complement, adjective, and appositive and predicative.

10.Combinability of the noun.

the noun is characterised by some special types of combinability. In particular,
typical of the noun is the prepositional combinability with another noun, a verb, an
adjective, an adverb. As a part of speech the noun is also characterised by a set of
formal features determining its specific status in the lexical paradigm of
nomination. It has its word-building distinctions, including typical suffixes,
conversation patterns, compound stem models.

11.What is a grammatical category?

grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalised grammatical meaning
by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms.
12.Speak about grammatical categories of the noun.
The noun discriminates the grammatical categories of gender, number, case,
article determination.

13.What is "The cannon ball problem"?

The lexico-grammatical status of such combinations has presented a big problem
for many scholars, who were uncertain as to the linguistic heading under which to
treat them: 50 either as one separate word, or a word-group.* In the history of
linguistics the controversy about the lexico-grammatical status of the constructions
in question has received the half-facetious name "The cannon ball problem".

14. Give the examples of "repetition plural", "descriptive uncountable plural" and
"multitude plural".
The first type of reduction, consisting in the use of the absolute plural with
countable nouns in the singular form, concerns collective nouns, which are thereby
changed into "nouns of multitude". Cf.: The family were gathered round the table.
The government are unanimous in disapproving the move of the opposition. This
form of the absolute plural may be called "multitude plural".The second type of the
described oppositional reduction, consisting in the use of the absolute plural with
uncountable nouns in the plural form, concerns cases of stylistic marking of nouns.
Thus, the oppositional reduction results in expressive transposition. Cf.: the sands
of the desert; the snows of the Arctic: the waters of the ocean; the fruits of the toil;
etc. This variety of the absolute plural may be called "descriptive uncountable
plural". The third type of oppositional reduction concerns common countable
nouns used in repetition groups. Cf.: There were trees and trees all around us. I lit
cigarette after cigarette. This variety of the absolute plural may be called
"repetition plural".
15.Speak about the functions of an adjective in the sentence.
In the sentence the adjective performs the function of an attribute and a
predicative. Of the two, the more specific function of the adjective is that of an
attribute, since the function of a predicative can be performed by the noun as well.

16.Combinability of an adjective.
Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with nouns, which they
modify, by a combinability with link-verbs, both functional and notional; by a
combinability with modifying adverbs.

17.Speak about relative and qualitative adjectives.

In the English language we have two types of adjective qualitative and relative.
Relative adjectives express relational connection of substance to another substance:
wood — a wooden hut; history — a historical event.
Qualitative feature express various qualities of a substance which admit to a
quantitative estimination: an awkward situation — a very awkward situation; a
difficult task — too difficult a task

18.Degrees of comparison of adjectives. What is the elative superlative?

three forms of degrees of comparison; the basic form (positive degree), having no features of
comparison; the comparative degree form, having the feature of restricted superiority (which
limits the comparison to two elements only); the superlative degree form, having the feature of
unrestricted superiority.
The elative evaluations is the most-combination with the indefinite article. This combination is a
common means of expressing elative evaluations of substance properties. The function of a
elative most- construction is distinction to the function of the superlative. for example: The
speaker launched a most significant personal attack on the Prime Minister.
The
function of the elative most-construction in distinction to the function of the superlative most
construction will be seen from the following examples:
The speaker launched a most significant personal attack on the Prime Minister. The most
significant of the arguments in a dispute is not necessarily the most spectacular one.

19.Combinability of adverbs. Discuss simple and derived adverbs.

In accord with their categorial meaning, adverbs are characterised by a
combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature.
The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different
adverbial modifiers. Adverbs can also refer to whole situations - in this function
they are considered under the heading of situation "determinants". Adverbs can
also combine with nouns acquiring in such cases a very peculiar
adverbialattributive function, essentially in post position, but in some cases also in
pre-position.
In accord with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple and derived.
Simple adverbs are rather few, and nearly all of them display functional semantics,
mostly of pronominal character: here, there, now, then, so, quite, why, how, where,
when.
The typical adverbial affixes in affixal derivation are, first and foremost, the basic
and only productive adverbial suffix -ly (slowly, tiredly, rightly, firstly), and then a
couple of others of limited distribution, such as -ways (sideways, crossways), -wise
(clockwise), -ward(s) (homewards, seawards, afterwards). The characteristic
adverbial prefix is a- (away, ahead, apart, across).

20. Define the verb; Grammatical categories of the verb.

It is notional part of speech. Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of
speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the
predicative functions of the sentence. It shows a process developing in general.
Grammatical categories of verb are: tense, aspect, mood voice.
21. Speak about different types of verb stems.
The verb stems may be simple, sound-replacive, stress-replacive, expanded,
composite, and
Phrasal.
Simple- go, take, read…
The sound-replacive type of derivation and the stress-replacive type of derivation
are unproductive. Cf.: food — to feed, blood — to bleed; 'import — to im'port,
'transport — to
trans'port.
Expanded- in this case different suffixes and prefixes are used to create
expended verb forms--ate (cultivate), -en (broaden), -ifу (clarify), -ise(-ize)
(normalise). The composite (compound) verb stems correspond to the composite
non-verb stems from which they are etymologically derived. Here belong the
compounds of the conversion type (blackmail n. — blackmail v.) and of the
reduction type (proof-reader n.—proof-read v.)
phrasal verbs has two particular constructions: The first is combination of the
head- veb have, give, take and occasionally some others with a noun.
The combination has as its equivalent an ordinary verb. to have a smoke- to
smoke, to give a smile - to smile. And second includes a combination of head -
verb with a prepositions: go on, be off, put up.

22. Speak about "predicators" - auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, semi-notional

verbid introducer verbs and link-verbs.
23. Actional verbs; Statal verbs;
Verbs may can show the action or a state. And for these reason we have
acrional and statal verbs. Actional: swim, play… such types of verbs shows a
process or action. statal verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is not
changing or likely to change. statal verbs characterise the noun.

24. Category of tense;

Tense is one of the typical functions of the finite verb. It is a category that
express time reference.The grammatical category of tense usually expresses the
grammatical time, the time of the action.

25. The relative expression of time; The factual expression of time;

in case of Relative expression of time we have relation between two or more
actions or events. we have such words and Phrases- after that, before that, at
different imes, some time late. in case of factual expression of time we have
direct events. for ex , during the time of the First World War…

26. The aspective category of development; The category of retrospective

coordination (retrospect);
Aspective- in this case we have grammatical rule which presents the opposition
between continues and non-continues forms. Continues forms present the
strong member of the opposition . continues forms are marked because these
formula to be …ing.
Retrospective- in this case we have opposition between 2 forms perfect and
non-perfect. Perfect is strong form because grammatical marker have..ed/es
formula.
27. Active, passive, medial, "reflexive" and "reciprocal" voices;
Active-express ,,non-positivity’’- the subject of sentence performs the action.
we know by whom action was done. Ex: Nick builts a lot of houses.
Passive-the sign making passive form is the combination of the auxilary be with
the past participle of the conjugated verb. The subject, the object undergose the
action from another person or from another subject.ex: building are built by
Nick, the object building is effected by somebody. So, here subject receives the
action.
In case of medial voice it has similar form to the active voice, however the
meaning is passive. Ex:the door opened.(it couldn’t open itself.)
We have also reflexive voice. Reflexives are used when the subject acts upon
itself.ex: I washed myself…(himself, yourself)
Also we have reciprocals which are used when members of a group perform the
same action relative to one another. Ex: Nick and Marry divorced a week ago.
(such other, one another)

28. Define verbids; Write about infinitive, gerund and participle;

Verbids are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-
grammatical features
between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech.

The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of
the verb with
those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process.

The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb which, like the infinitive, combines
the properties of the verb with those of the noun. Similar to the infinitive, the
gerund serves as the verbal name of a process, but its substantive quality is more
strongly pronounced than that of the infinitive.
Namely, as different from the infinitive, and similar to the noun, the gerund can be
modified by a noun in the possessive case or its pronominal equivalents
(expressing the subject of the verbal
process), and it can be used with prepositions.

participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the
verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual
name.

29. The theme and the rheme;

The theme expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. it denotes an
object or a
phenomenon about which something is reported. The rheme expresses the basic
informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant centre.

30. Two main types of the connection of clauses in a composite sentence are:

31. Define a simple sentence.