Formation Evaluation

Using Well Logs

PE 3813

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COVID-19 Safety Rules for the Class & Attendance
1. You won’t be penalized for missing the class, if you fall into any of the
following categories: a) You feel sick, b) You have any symptoms of sickness, c)
You are in quarantine, d) Family member in the same household/roommate falls
sick or has symptoms of sickness, and e) Have contacted people with symptoms
or sickness.
Doctor’s note is not required, but please send an email to instructor and TA to
explain the situation prior to the class.

2. OU-approved mask is encouraged in the classroom.

3. Practice 6-ft apart social distancing always in the classroom.

4. No gathering around faculty after class; write email to setup meeting instead.

5. If any student/instructor falls sick, class will go online via Zoom for the
immediate two weeks.

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Course: PE 3813 Formation Evaluation Using Well Logs – Spring 2021

Instructor: Chandra S. Rai (crai@ou.edu)

Office: SEC 1252; Tel. (405)-219-1933

Office hours: By appointment

Teaching Assistant: Muhammad Abdullah

Class time: Tuesday and Thursday 1:30 to 2:45 SEC N202

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Textbooks: “Theory, Measurements, and Interpretation of Well Logs” by
Z. Bassiouni, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 4 .
“Basic Well Log Analysis” by George Asquisth and Daniel
Krygowski, AAPG Publication Series 16
“Essentials of Modern Open-Hole Log Interpretation” by
John Dewan, PennWell Publishing Company.
“Well Logging and Formation Evaluation” by T. Darling,
Gulf Publication.
“The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs” by M. Rider,
Rider French Publication Company.
“Geological Applications of Well Logs” ed. M. Lovell and N.
Parkinson, AAPG Methods in Exploration Series, No. 13

Resources: - www.slb.com
- www.spwla.org
- www.halliburton.com
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Course Description:

Comprehension of various methods of formation evaluation.

Application of tool responses to formation evaluation in conventional
and unconventional reservoirs. Using these principles to evaluate in-
place hydrocarbon volume and the selection of applicable techniques
as they evolve to the ever-changing exploration environment.

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Content:
• Measurement Environment
• Electrical Logging
• Radioactive logging
• Sonic Logging
• NMR Logging
• Geochemical Logging
• Formation Evaluation in conventional reservoirs
• Interpretation
• Formation Evaluation in unconventional reservoirs
• Commercial software

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Course Objectives:
On completion, you will be able to:

• Explain the physical principles, applications, and limitations

of open hole logs
• Apply standard petrophysical relationships to calculate
porosity, water saturation, and lithology
• Have an appreciation of the limitations of the basic
petrophysical relationships
• Identify potential reservoir intervals, productive zones, and
fluid contacts using logs
• Have basic understanding of formation evaluation in
unconventional reservoirs

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 Date CONTENT
Jan 17 Introduction, Reading logs, What is formation evaluation? Basic of logging
Jan19 Basics of logging, Well names, and environmental variable
Jan 24 Environmental variables
Jan 26 Review of basic equations (density, Archie, Sw), Invasion profile
Jan 31 Resistivity basics and tools
Feb 2 Resistivity basics and tools
Feb 7 Induction tools and how corrections are made
Feb 9 Class resistivity exercise
Feb 14 Spontaneous Potential logging
Feb 16 Spontaneous Potential logging and class exercise
Feb 21 FIRST EXAM
Feb 23 Review of exam, and introduction to radioactive logs
Feb 28 Radioactive logs
Mar 2 Gamma ray, FDC
Mar 7 FDC and PE logs and class exercise
Mar 9 Neutron logging
Mar 21 Elastic Properties
Mar 23 Elastic and sonic log
Mar 28 Sonic & NMR
Mar 30 ECS logs
Apr 4 Subject Review
Apr 6 SECOND EXAM
Apr 11 Review of exam, Intro to interpretational techniques
Apr 13 Quicklook and other methods
Apr 18 Lithology cross-plots
Apr 20 Lithology cross-plots
Apr 25 Lithology cross-plots, Hingle & Pickett plots, class exercise
Apr 27 Shale and gas effects on logs
May 2 Formation evaluation in Unconventional Reservoirs
May 4 Formation evaluation in Unconventional Reservoirs

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Grade: Attendance, class exercises, homework & quizzes ----------10%
Three exams including final exam --------------- 30%, 30%, 30%

Grade distribution: > 90% A

80 – 90 B
70 - 80 C
<70% D
The instructor reserves the right to deviate
from this distribution at his discretion.

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General Information: - You are expected to be on time for classes.
- No use of cell phone or text messaging during class.
- Expect several Pop Quizzes.
- Several homework assignments will be given and randomly
collected.
- If grades are in dispute, get it resolved within a week after
receiving grades.
- Make-up exams will be allowed only in extreme circumstances;
arrangement should be made prior to the exam. Will require doctor’s
note for medical excuse
- No make-up for missed quizzes.
- It is the policy of the University to excuse the absences of
students that result from religious observances and to provide
without penalty for the rescheduling of examinations and
additional required class work that may fall on religious
holidays. Let the instructor know immediately.
- Bring a non-programmable calculator, straight edge and a color
pencil to every class. No sharing allowed.
- Receiving a grade of “D” or less in this course will stop your
progression through the Petroleum Engineering curriculum. You will not be allowed to take
advanced PE courses until satisfying the requirement of passing with at least a “C.” Be aware
that this can add up to a year to your projected graduation date.

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Exam Policy:

MPGE has zero tolerance for academic dishonesty. This applies to all work in
all courses.

- No programmable calculators allowed during examinations. Accepted –

TI-30.
- No talking during examinations.
- No use of cell phones/smart watches/similar devices. They should be
turned off and placed in your bag.
- Baseball caps not allowed during exam.
- Exams will be handed out face down. Do not start until you are instructed to
do so.
- At the completion of time, instructor will announce 'pencils down'. At this
point students must stop writing and turn in the exam.
- No talking or walking around until all the exams sheets have all been
collected.
- Any violation of the OU/MPGE Academic Integrity Policy will be
reported to the University’s Academic Integrity Office.

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 Is there any hydrocarbon?
Anomaly
If yes, how much?

Background trend
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Hydrocarbon in place, HIP (OOIP):

HIP = CAh (1 − S w )

where:
HIP is hydrocarbon in place, bbl for oil & cu.ft for gas
C is constant, 7758 for oil, and 43560 for gas
A is area in acres
h is reservoir thickness in feet
 is fraction porosity
SW is fractional water saturation

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Number of times we want to calculate hydrocarbon
volume at surface conditions (stock tank)

To get this, HIP is divided by formation volume factor B

B0 > 1 and Bg < 1

Also, instead of just reservoir thickness h, concept of

net to gross is used.

Also, to get realistic value of how much hydrocarbon can

be recovered from the sub-surface, HIP is multiplied by
recovery factor; always <1

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 Oil @$50/bbl, RF- 0.2
~$6 million

Gas @$2.25/Mcf, RF- 0.7

~$4.5 million

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Formation Evaluation & Logging:
The primary objective of formation evaluation is to determine the size of
a reservoir, the quantity of hydrocarbons in place, and the reservoir’s
producing capabilities. It covers a large variety of measurements and
analytical techniques. Logging is just one of tool available to us for the
purpose of formation evaluation:

- Satellite imagery (106 m) Mega

- Basin geologic studies
- Seismic, and other exploration techniques
- Well logging
- Production testing
- Whole core and side wall core studies
- Micro-focused logs and core plug analysis
- Cutting analysis
- Thin section studies
- SEM studies (10-9 m)
Nano

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Why Formation Evaluation?

The Drilling Engineer:

• What is the hole volume for cementing?
• Are there any severe dog-legs in the well?
• Where can you get a good packer seat for testing?
• Where is the best place to set a whipstock?

The Reservoir Engineer:

• How thick is the pay zone?
• How homogeneous is the section?
• What is the volume of the hydrocarbon?
• Will the well pay-out?
• How long will it take?

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The Production Engineering:
• Where should the well be completed?
• What kind of production rates can be expected?
• Will there be any water production?
• How should the well be completed?

The Geoscientist:
• Are the tops where seismic predicted?
• What does the synthetic seismic section show?
• Are the potential zones porous as assumed in seismic?
• Is the environment suitable for accumulation of hydrocarbons?
• What depth are the formation tops?
• What are the reserves?
• Could the formation be commercial in an offset well?

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Log measurements when properly calibrated, can give a good
indication of the following parameters:
- porosity
- water saturation and hydrocarbon movability
- hydrocarbon type
- lithology
- formation dip and strike
- sedimentary environment
- elastic properties of formations

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In producing wells, logging can provide measurements of:
- flow rates
- fluid types
- pressure
- residual oil saturation

Logging, when properly applied, can answer a great many

questions for a wide spectrum of E&P topics ranging
from geology to economics. Equally important however, is the
fact that logging by itself cannot provide answers to all the
formation evaluation questions. Coring, core analysis, and
formation testing are integral parts of any formation evaluation
effort.

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Mud logging:

During the drilling of a well there will typically be a mud-logging

unit on the rig. All the measurements are made on the surface
from examination of cuttings, mud, and gases.

The unit has two main responsibilities:

- To monitor the drilling parameters and gas/liquid/solids returns

from the well for safety reasons and optimization of the
drilling process
- To provide/collect information that can be used for formation
evaluation purposes

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Actions performed to accomplish the objectives:

•Collecting drill cuttings.

•Describing the cuttings (type of minerals present).
•Interpreting the described cuttings (lithology).
•Estimating properties such as porosity and permeability of the
drilled formation.
•Maintaining and monitoring drilling-related and safety-related
sensing equipment.
•Estimating the pore pressure of the drilled formation.
•Collecting, monitoring, and evaluating hydrocarbons released
from the drilled formations.
•Assessing the producibility of hydrocarbon-bearing formations.
•Maintaining a record of drilling parameters.

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Typically, the mud-logging unit will produce a daily ‘mud logs’
which is transmitted to the oil company office daily.

Items that will be included are:

- Gas readings as measured by gas detector/chromatograph

- A check for absence of poisonous gases (H2S, SO2)

- A report of cuttings received over the shale shaker, with full

lithological descriptions and relative percentages

- ROP

- Hydrocarbon indications in samples

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USES:

- Identification of lithology and formation type being drilled

- Identification of porous and permeable formations
- Picking of coring, casing, or final drilling depths
- Confirmation of hydrocarbons being encountered
- Detecting presence of poisonous gases

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Mega-Combo Tool Length

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Wireline Cable

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 (3500-6000 lb)

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Common Logging tools:
Formation Fluid content Indicators:
- Induction
- Laterolog
- Micro-focused and micro-resistivity devices
- Dielectric
- Pulsed Neutron
- Inelastic gamma
Porosity- Lithology Indicators:
- Acoustic
- Density and lithologic density
- Neutron
- Natural gamma ray
- Spectral gamma ray
- Geochemical log
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Reservoir geometry Indicators:
- Dipmeter
- Borehole gravimeter
- Ultra-long -spacing electric
- Ultra-long spacing sonic

Auxiliary tools:
- Spontaneous potential
- Caliper

Specialty Tools:
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
- Dipole
- Geochemical Tools
- MWD
- Acoustic Televiewer
- Formation microscanner
- Resistivity microscanner

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Common Logging Speeds

Tool ft/min Remarks

Resistivity log 100
Resistivity+GR log 60 GR for calibration
Radiation log 30
Sonic log 60 Slower if noisy
Dipmeter 60
Microresistivity 40

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Overall Quality of logging data:

- equipment malfunction
- rugose borehole
- sticking tools
- logging engineer’s errors
- tool rotation
- excess logging speed
- deviated wells
- tool eccentricity
- formation alteration

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Logging Contracts:

Typically, an oil company will set up logging contracts with several service
companies. Usually, some tendering process is used to ensure
competitive bidding. Common elements that exist in contracts include:

- Depth charge, (relates to deepest depth that a tool will be run)

- Survey charge, (interval over which a tool is run)
- Station charge, (pressure measurement, sidewall coring)
- Tool rental
- Logging unit rental charge
- Base rental, (for a pool of tools available for the client)
- Engineer charge
- In-hole charge, (for LWD, how many hours the tool stay in the hole)
- Lost-tool-charge
- Cable splice charge (if cable has to be cut due to stuck tool)
- Processing charges
- Data charges, (additional copies of log, data storage)
- Real-time data transmission charges

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 Additional items specified in a contract:

- Pre- and post-run tool calibration procedures

- Sampling increments
- Repeat sections to be performed
- Data items and format to be included in the log header
- Procedures for numbering and splicing different runs in a hole
- Scales to be used in the presentation of logs
- Format and media required for digital data
- Requirements for reporting of time breakdown of logging operations,
personnel on site, serial numbers of tools used, inventory of explosives,
and radioactive sources
- Specific safety procedures to be followed
- Provision for backup tools
- Fishing equipment to be provided

“All interpretation are opinions based on inferences from electrical or other measurements and we cannot
and do not guarantee the accuracy or correctness of any interpretation, and we shall not, except in the case
of gross or willful negligence on our part, be liable or responsible for any loss, costs, damages or expenses
incurred or sustained by anyone resulting from any interpretations made by any of our officers….”

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Measurement Environment: (Chapter 4, pp 60-91)
Knowledge is needed for choosing tools, judging log quality, and quantitative
evaluation of logs.
Parameters of interest are:
- Borehole size and shape
- Properties of drilling mud
- Borehole and formation temperature
- Formation pressure
Borehole size and shape:
Controlled by:
- Lithology
- Mud type
- Formation Properties
- In-situ stresses
Borehole size is determined using caliper tool.
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Caliper log:
Microresistivity (two arms pad device) - the pads ride over the mudcake so in
permeable zone the log reading is the hole drilled minus twice the mudcake
thickness

Density and neutron tools - one arm is pushed against the wall and it scrapes the
mudcake so the log reading is the hole drilled minus the mudcake thickness

Sonic tool - three arms device

Dipmeter - four arms device

Two arm device generally ends up measuring the long axis of the borehole and
the three arm device the short axis.

Freshwater-based mud causes more caving than saltwater-based muds. Caving

is usually absent for oil-based muds.

Hard well consolidated and impermeable formation- borehole dia = drill bit size
Unconsolidated formation - borehole diameter > drill bit size
Permeable formation- borehole diameter < drill bit size
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Both qualitative and quantitative information can be extracted from the
caliper reading. The borehole diameter or mudcake thickness is needed
when a correction for the effects of drilling fluids on log measurements is
warranted.

The presence of mudcake itself is proof of presence of permeable zone.

Mudcake buildup, borehole enlargement, and borehole rugosity can be used

with other log data to mark changes in lithology.

Proper evaluation of pad-type tools (density or sidewall neutron) is enhanced

by knowledge of the extent of the borehole rugosity.

In well-completion operations, the caliper log can help estimate required

cement volumes. It also help in selection of optimum location for packer
seats. The caliper log is indispensable in dipmeter interpretation.

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dh = 2hmc+ Cr dh = hmc+ Cr

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Zone A

10550

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Washout
Bit size = 6 ¾ inches
Zone A
Mudcake
Zone A
dh = 2hmc+ Cr
10550
6 ¾ = 2hmc + 6
hmc = 3/8 inches

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 Minimum

Maximum

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 sh

2023 Brie, et al 1998 63

Mud, Mud-filtrate, and Mudcake properties:

- Remove cuttings
- Prevent formation fluids to flow into the wellbore
- Prevent borehole wall collapse
- Key to electrical logging

In addition to the properties of the formation, log response is

affected by the properties of the mud, mudcake and mud filtrate.
Drilling mud data pertinent to logging operations are type,
density, viscosity, pH, fluid loss, and electrical resistivities of mud
(Rm), mudcake (Rmc), and mud-filtrate (Rmf).

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Type: basically, two types: water based, and oil based. Oil
based muds are nonconductive and limit the use of resistivity
logs to induction type devices.

Density: also called as mud weight. Field units are pounds per
gallon. Sometime also expressed as gradient psi/ft. Mud
density affects the filtration process and also the
severity of mud-filtrate invasion. Gamma ray response depends
heavily on the mud density. (1 ppg = .12 gm/cc) (psi/ft =0.052
* ppg)

pH: stands for potential hydrogen ion and reflects the acidity or
alkalinity of the mud. Water is 7, value less than 7 indicates
acidity and values greater than 7 indicates alkalinity.

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Fluid loss: is a measure of relative amount of filtrate lost during filtration and
indicates the severity of mud-filtrate invasion into a permeable formation. Measured
by the amount of filtrate recovered by pressing mud in a cell under a pressure of 100
psi.
Mud, mud-filtrate, and mudcake resistivities: represented as Rm, Rmf, and Rmc.

It is best to measure Rm and Rmf directly using a bridge and applying the temperature
correction. Rmc can be measured on the sample recovered from the filter loss
measurements cell. MWD and microlog can provide in-situ Rm value. In such a case
Rmf for lignosulfate free mud is determined by using empirical correlation.

Rmf = K m (Rm )1.07

Rmc = 0.69Rmf (Rm / Rmf )2.65
where Km is a coefficient which varies with the mud weight. Temperature correction
is applied using Arp’s equation:
T + 6.77
R2 = R1 1
T2 + 6.77
where R1 and R2 are resistivity of solution at T1 and T2(0F)
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For freshwater muds the following correlation has been proposed:

log(Rmf / Rm ) = 0.396 − 0.0475 m

where m is the density of the mud in pounds/gal (ppg).

Other statistical correlation, for low weight NaCl muds

are:

Rmf = 0.75Rm and

Rmc = 1.5Rm

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Formation Temperature:

Temperature generally increases with depth. Heat flow

follows a simple conduction law:

Q = - K dT/dZ

where K is the thermal conductivity. Typical values:

Rock Water
4-10 1-1.5 cal/sec*cm*oC

When heat can not be dissipated efficiently by conduction,

processes such as convection can dominate. Convection
involves the transfer of heat and movement of fluids.

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Normal Temperature Gradients
The thermal gradient is often referred to as the Geothermal gradient.

The average Geothermal gradient for crustal rocks is:

dT/dZ = 1.43 oF/100 ft

Temperatures affect fluid properties much more than rock properties.

Locally gradient will vary depending on the thermal conductivity of the
rocks.

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Temperatures and Gradients:
Since the heat flux is a constant, the local gradients reflect
lithological and fluid variations.

Shales typically have higher geothermal gradients

(1.65- 1.9 oF/100 ft)
than sands
( 1.2 oF/100 ft).

Our average crustal value (1.43 oF/100 ft = 26 oC/km)

was calculated from average crustal abundances:
( 45% shales; 35% sands; 20% limestones).

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Geothermal gradient g = [(Tbh -Ts)/D]100

Temperature at depth D is = Ts + g(D/100)

Assuming that temperature buildup is similar to pressure buildup

allows mud temperature vs. time to be expressed as

t
Tm ( t) = Tf − Clog
t +t

Where t is mud circulation time

t is time elapsed since circulation stopped
Tm is the mud temperature at time t
C is a constant

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Formation Pressure: is a function of depth and the density of the
formation fluid.
dP =  g dZ

thus dPp/dZ = 0.433 psi/ft (fresh water)

dPp/dZ = 0.465 psi/ft (Gulf Coast brine)
dPc/dZ ~ 1.0 psi/ft

Lithostatic

Formation

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 API Numbering:

American Petroleum Institute (API) set up a methodology for

giving every well in the United States a unique ID number. An
API number is made up of five sets of numbers (14 digits) that
corresponds to a well’s attributes (state drilled, county, well
number, sidetrack and event sequence). The API number is
commonly listed as the first 10 numbers because a vertical well
will have zeros for the last four numbers.

31 – 007 – 14059 – 00 - 00

State County Well number Event sequence

Sidetrack

http://www.wellidentification.org/dl/US_API_Bulliten_1979.pdf
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State Code:
The first two digits of the API number represents the state where the well
was drilled. If the bottom of a deviated well is in another state or county, only
the state and county where drilling started, or spudded is listed. The state
codes correspond to the alphabetic listing of the 48 contiguous states plus
the District of Columbia (08). Alaska (50) and Hawaii (51) are the only
two states that do not follow the convention.

States Code:
Texas:42
Oklahoma:35
Louisiana:17
Kansas:15
Colorado:05
US Offshore
Alaska: 55
Pacific Coast: 56
North GOM: 60

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County Code:

The third through fifth digits (121 in the example) of

the API number represent the county where the surface
location of the well is located. The "pseudo-states" like
Atlantic Coast Offshore have "pseudo-counties.
County codes are commonly odd-numbered, but some
even numbered counties codes do exist. This was
designed to accommodate the formation of new counties
or counties having more than 100,000 well. For example,
in Kern county, CA 029 is used for the first 99,999 wells
and 030 for additional wells.

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Well Number: The sixth through tenth digits of the API number
represent the unique and sequential number of wells drilled in
the county. In some states, the well number is based on the
permit number or record number.
There are four types of unique well identifiers, and these are
called historical, current, reserved and exempt.
Historical: for well drilled prior to 1967 – 00001 to 20000
Current: set by regulatory body – 20001 to 60000. Exceptions
are federal waters offshore TX and LA – 40001
Reserved: assigned by Petroleum Institute to wells drilled after
1967 but not assigned by regulatory body – 60001 to 95000
e.g. core test, water supply, water disposal, water/gas
injection, sulfur wells, underground storage, geothermal and
prospect wells.
Exempt: confidential wells – 95001 – 99999.

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Sidetrack code:
The eleventh and twelfth digits of API number represent
the sidetrack code and typically corresponds to the
number of sidetracks in the well. Sidetracks off other
sidetracks are given numbers as well as sidetracks off the
master borehole.

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Event code:
The thirteenth and fourteenth digits (00 in the example) are to
distinguish between separate operations in a single bore hole. In
1995, the API Subcommittee on Well Data Retrieval Systems
proposed adding the event sequence code to deal with re-entries,
recompletions, and hole deepening. However, because of industry
conditions (low oil prices), the subcommittee was disbanded
before the recommendations were published and adopted later by
API.
IHS Energy, the successor to Petroleum Information, adopted
these unpublished recommendations in January 1999. However,
this event sequence code is assigned by IHS Energy, and is not
found in most oil and gas databases

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Two wells with two sidetracks off the main borehole. Note The well on the left was deepened and one of the sidetracks
that the sidetracks are numbered in order they are drilled. was plugged back, whereas the well’s main borehole on the
right was plugged back.

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Vertical Scale:
• Always linear
• Common scales are 1, 2, or 5 inches per 100 ft.
• 1- and 2-inch scales have 10ft, 50ft and 100ft lines.
10 and 50ft are light and 100ft dark.
• There are 10 divisions per 100ft.
• Logs on this scale are usually used for correlation purpose.
2-inch scale is used to correlate one or two nearby wells, while
the 1-inch scale is used to construct cross-sections over mile
range.
• 5-inch scale has 50 divisions, so the smallest division
corresponds to 2 ft. With care, one can easily read depth to
6 inches.

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5 inches to
100 ft scale

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2 inches to
100 ft scale

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Read the values
at five different
depths.

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Subsurface Thickness:

The calculated thickness of an interval measured in a well log

is called measured log thickness, MLT. In flat lying strata and
vertical wells, this is equal the true stratigraphic thickness, TST,
but in dipping strata the MLT is larger than the TST (unless
the well is deviated and perpendicular to the unit).
True vertical thickness, TVT is the vertical thickness of an
interval and the true vertical depth thickness,TVDT is the
vertical thickness between the borehole entry and where it
existed the interval.

Only for vertical wells and non dipping beds the MLT, TST,
TVT, and TVDT are all equal.

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An illustration of three wells, one vertical (A) and two deviated (B and C), that penetrate a dipping unit
with a constant thickness. See the map view in the middle for well locations. Each well has the same
TST, but different MLTs, TVDTs, and TVTs. 2023 88
Setchell’s equation can be used to calculate the TVT regardless
of the borehole direction or deviation, and the dip of the strata.

Variables needed are MLT, dip angle and azimuth direction

of the borehole, and the dip angle and direction of the strata.

TVT = MLT[cos( b ) − (sin( b )cos( w − t ) tan( a ))]

TST = TVT cos( a )
TVDT = MLT cos( b )
b = borehole dip (measured from vertical)
w = azimuth borehole direction (measured from north)
a = apparent horizon dip (measured from horizontal)
t = azimuth horizon dip (measured from north)

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Exercises

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 Read the logs
and fill in the table.

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Fill in the API numbers for the wells. Note there
is more than one correct answer.

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Calculate TVT, TST and TVDT using the data provided.

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 Rm - resistivity of the mud
Rmc - resistivity of the mud cake
Rxo - resistivity of invaded zone
Sxo - water saturation of invaded
zone
Rmf - resistivity of the mud
filtrate
Rt - resistivity of the uninvaded
zone
Rw - resistivity of water in
uninvaded zone
Sw - water saturation in the
uninvaded zone
Rs - resistivity of the adjacent
bed
hmc – mudcake thickness
di – diameter of invasion

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Invasion Profile: mud filtrate volume that invades a formation depends on the
fluid loss property, differential pressure between formation and borehole, mudcake
permeability, formation permeability and the length of time that the formation has
been exposed to the mud. The formation porosity usually determines the depth of
invasion. Lower the porosity deeper is the invasion.
(HC bearing formations)
Rmf > Rw

Close to the borehole most of the original formation water and some of the HCs may
be flushed away by the filtrate. This zone is referred to as the flushed zone. It contains,
if flushing is complete, only the mud filtrate; if the formation was originally HC
bearing , only residual hydrocarbons. Further out, the displacement of the formation
fluid is less complete, resulting in a transition from mud filtrate saturation to original
formation fluid saturation. This zone is called
2023
as the transition zone. 96
 DIL-SFL Water bearing zones

SFL

SP

ILD

ILM

Rmf>Rw
ILD – measures Rt , reads low as Rw < Rmf
ILM – measures resistivity of the invaded zone; in between Rw & Rmf
SFL – measures Rxo; highest as Rmf >Rw
2023 97
 LLS-LLD-MSFL Water bearing zone

Rmf~Rw
All three curves read similar values as the zone is water saturated and
Rmf ~ Rw
2023 98
 DIL-SFL
Hydrocarbon bearing formation

Rmf>3Rw
SFL- reads the highest as it senses Rxo and Rmf>>Rw
ILD – reads Rt ( mixture of HC and brine)
ILM – reads resistivity of invaded zone containing
2023
HC, mud filtrate and brine 99
DLL-MSFL Hydrocarbon bearing zone

Rmf~Rw

LLD- measures Rt LLS – measures Ri SFL- measures Rxo

2023 100
2023 101
 Phase Activity Formation Evaluation Method

Exploration Define structure Seismic, gravity etc.

Drilling Drill well Mud logging, coring, MWD

Logging Log well Openhole logs

Primary Eva. Log anly. & testing Sidewall cores, VSP, Form. Testing etc.

Laboratory studies
Analysis Core analysis
Log calibration via core analysis &
Feedback Refinement of models
seismic calibration from log analysis
HC production Material balance analysis
Exploitation
Sec. & Tert. Injection and Production log analysis, flood
Recovery production logging efficiency analysis
Abandonment Economic Decisions

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Interrelationship among formation evaluation methods.

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 Berea

s
2023 Winkler, 1996 104