Computational Methods II

MEng Module CIVE50003

Lecture 5

Dr Adam Jan Sadowski

Spring Term 2023

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 1

 1D beam elements
 We have so far looked only at 1D bar elements

 These had only axial degrees of freedom (dofs), meaning that they
can only resist axial loads by axial compression/stretching action

 We devised a nifty transformation to allow the element to analyse

2D truss structures – this is fine in principle because truss
structures by definition carry loads by axial action only (very
efficient mechanism) so bar elements require no other dofs

 But many structures undergo transverse bending too (beams,

frames, columns etc.), and we must be able to model this

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 2

The Euler-Bernoulli beam: governing equation
1D elastic beam with uniform E, A and ω Equilibrium of a Δx slice
[F.L-1]
x=0 x=L ω(x+½Δx) Convention for V(x)
y, v ω [F]
shown is CLOCKWISE +
V(x) [F.L]
x, u E, A M(x) M(x+Δx)
z θ Convention for M(x)
[F.L] V(x+Δx)

{
shown is SAGGING +
Δx

{
[F]
Δx

 Consider equilibrium of a small Δx slice

Transverse forces
∑ : V ( x ) + ω ( x + 1
2 ∆x ) =
∆x V ( x + ∆x )

∑ ↵ : M ( x ) + V ( x + ∆x )=
∆x M ( x + ∆x ) + ω ( x + 1 2 ∆x ) 1 2 ( ∆x )
2
Moment about LHS

 Using same arguments as in Lecture 1 (slide 13) as Δx → 0...

dV ( x ) dM ( x )
= ω= V ( x )
dx dx
 These are our new global equilibrium relations

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 3

 The Euler-Bernoulli beam: governing equation
 A beam problem is often visually shown as:
 The ‘line’ of the beam is the line passing
through NA at every location x along the beam:

du In the 1D bar, u is what we

 The axial strain is known to be ε =
dx were solving for. Here, we
dv d 2v are solving for v so we
 But u = − yθ = −y hence ε = − y 2 need to relate u to v. This
dx dx
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5
is our kinematic relation. 4
The Euler-Bernoulli beam: governing equation
1D elastic beam with uniform E, A and ω
dV ( x ) dM ( x ) Equilibrium

x=0 x=L EQ #1
= a: ω= & V ( x) relations
y, v ω dx dx (global)

z θ
x, u E, A EQ # 2 : σ ( x, y ) = Eε ( x, y ) Constitutive
relation

d 2v ( x )

{
EQ #3 : ε ( x, y ) = − y Kinematic

We need one more thing... dx 2 relation


... an internal equilibrium relation linking M & V (external stress
resultants) to σ (internal axial stress) ‒σ (x) max

 Elastic section modulus derivation y dF(x,y)

M ( x)
= ydF ( x, y ) ∫ yσ ( x, y ) dA
∫= d
NA
M(x)

y
σ ( x, y ) = − σ max ( x )
d /2 +σmax(x) .
σ max ( x ) 2 σ max ( x ) I
M ( x) = − ∫ y dA ≡ − More generally, though:
d / 2  d /2 I
Equilibrium

M ( x ) = −σ ( x, y )
relation
I
(internal)
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 y 5
The Euler-Bernoulli beam: governing equation
dV ( x ) dM ( x )
EQ #1
=a: ω= & V ( x) Equilibrium
1D elastic beam with uniform E, A and ω dx dx relations

I (global and
y, v
x=0
ω
x=L
EQ #1b : M ( x ) = −σ ( x, y ) internal)

x, u E, A
y
z θ
EQ # 2 : σ ( x, y ) = Eε ( x, y ) Constitutive
relation

d 2v ( x )
EQ #3 : ε ( x, y ) = − y
Kinematic

Putting everything together:

relation
 dx 2

d 4v ( x )
EI 4
−ω =
0 Strong form!
dx
 This is our governing equation for the transverse displacements v(x).
 It is a 4th – order non-homogeneous ODE:
 x is the independent variable
 v(x) is the dependent field variable
 E, I and ω are constant coefficients
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 6
 1D bar vs beam element
 Bars
 Carry axial loads (F) by in-plane axial deformation (u) only
 Property governing stiffness: EA and h
Nodal dofs Nodal forces
Pj Pj +1
Bar EA EA
element uj uj +1
xj xj +1 xj xj +1 y, v
Vj V j +1
vj v j +1 x, u
Beam EI EI z θ
element θj θj +1 Mj Mj +1
xj xj +1 xj xj +1
. Element size

 Beams h j x j +1 − x j
=
 Carry transverse loads (V) and bending moments (M)…
 … by a combination of transverse deformation (v) and rotation (θ)
 Property governing stiffness: EI (flexural rigidity) and h

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 7

Weak form using MWR and FE derivation
x j +1
d 4v ( x )
I= ∑ I=
j els
j 0 where I =
j ∫ w ⋅ R ⋅ dx =
and R EI
dx 4
−ω assuming E, I and ω
constant w.r.t x
xj

 We dive right in by formulating the weak form of this ODE using

the Galerkin Method of Weighted Residuals (Lectures 1 & 2)

d 4v ( x )
x j +1 x j +1

 To begin, expand the

= integral: I j EI ∫w 4
dx − ω ∫ wdx
xj
dx xj

dg df
 First integration by parts : ∫f dx
dx = f ⋅ g − ∫ g dx
dx

df dw dg d 4 v d 3v d 3v
f =w ⇒ = and = 4
⇒ g= also V = EI 3
dx dx dx dx dx 3 dx

 Thus: x j +1 3 x j +1
dw d v Vj V j +1
[ w ⋅V ]x − EI
x j +1
Ij =
j ∫
xj
dx dx 3
dx − ω ∫ wdx
xj Mj
EI
Mj +1
xj xj +1
.
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 8
Weak form using MWR and FE derivation
x j +1 x j +1
dw d 3v
[ w ⋅V ]x − EI
x j +1
Ij =
j ∫
xj
dx dx 3
dx − ω ∫ wdx
xj

 First integration revealed V but we also want M (to be able to

specify natural BCs on the moment)

 Second integration by parts: ∫f

dg df
dx = f ⋅ g − ∫ g dx
dx dx

dw df d 2 w dg d 3v d 2v d 2v
f = ⇒ = and = ⇒ g= also M = EI 2
dx dx dx 2 dx dx 3
dx 2 dx
 Thus:
xj x j +1 2 2 x j +1
 dw  d wd v Vj V j +1
[ w ⋅ V ]x
x j +1
Ij =
j
+  ⋅ M  + EI
 dx  x j +1
∫
xj
2
dx dx 2
dx − ω ∫ wdx
xj
EI
Mj Mj +1
xj xj +1
.
‘Boundary’ terms allowing natural BCs on V and M

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 9

 Continuity!
 Recall that for the 1D bar element, our kinematic relation was:
du  uj 
ε= where u =  N j ,1 ( x ) N ( x ) j ,2   
dx   u j +1
 
 Since we required only the 1st derivative of u, our shape functions
Nj,1 and Nj,2 only needed be differentiable up to the 1st derivative –
for this reason they only had to be linear

 For the 2D beam element, our kinematic relation is now:  vj 

2 θ 
d v  j 
ε = −y 2 where v =  j ,1 ( )
 N x N j ,2 ( )
x N j ,3 ( )
x N j ,4 ( )  
x 
v

dx  j +1 
θ j +1 
 We now require the 2 derivative of v, so our shape functions
nd

Nj,1 to Nj,4 must also be differentiable up to the 2nd derivative – they

must be at least quadratic, we choose cubics (why?)
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 10
 Hermite cubic shape functions w.r.t. x

Nj ,1 (x) Nj ,3 (x)  x − xj 
2
 x − xj 
3

1 N j ,1 ( x ) =
1 − 3  + 2  
 h
 j   hj 
2
 x − xj 
( x x j ) 1 − h
N j ,2 ( x ) =− 
 j 
Nj ,2 (x) 2 3
 x − xj   x − xj 
N j ,3 ( x ) 3 
=  − 2  
1  h
0  j   hj 
1
xj xj +1  x − x 2
 x − xj 
Nj ,4 (x) ( j )   h
N j ,4 ( x ) =x − x  j
 −
hj


 j  
 Specialised shape functions that give v(x) a Element size

cubic variation on the beam element w.r.t x h j x j +1 − x j

=

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 11

 Weak form using MWR and FE derivation
xj x j +1 x j +1
 dw  d 2 w d 2v
[ w ⋅ V ]x
x j +1
Ij =
j
+  ⋅ M  + EI
 dx  x j +1
∫
xj
2
dx dx 2
dx − ω ∫ wdx
xj

 Because each element has four dofs, it must provide four

equations to eventually solve for them

 That means 4 Galerkin statements per element, with {Ij} above

specialised with 4 unique weights (the 4 shape functions)
dv dv dv dv
=w
= j ,1 N
= j ,1 w
= j ,2 N
= j ,2 w =
j ,3 N
= j ,3 w =
j ,4 N j ,4
dv j dθ j dv j +1 dθ j +1

 Note how to compute derivatives of v(x):  vj 

θ 
d ( )v
n
 j 
=  N (j ,1) N (j ,2) N (j ,3) N (j ,4)  
n n n n

dx (
n)   v j +1 
 
θ j +1 
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 12
Weak form using MWR and FE derivation
xj x j +1 x j +1
x j +1  dN j ,i  d 2 N j ,i d 2 v
I j ,i =  N j ,i ⋅ V  + ⋅ M  + EI ∫ 2 2
dx − ω ∫N j ,i dx for i ∈ [1..4]
 dx dx dx
xj
 x j +1 xj xj

 It is left as an exercise for you to show that the above becomes:

0  1  0  0 
0  0  1  0 
{I j }4×1 = 1V j +1 − 0V j + 0 M j − 0 M j +1 + ...
     
       
0  0  0  1 
 N ′′j ,1   vj   N j ,1 
x j +1 
N ′′  θ  x j +1 
N 
 j ,2   j   j ,2 
EI ∫    N ′′j ,1 N ′′j ,2 N ′′j ,3 N ′′j ,4  dx   −ω ∫   dx
N ′′ v N
xj  j ,3   j +1  xj  j ,3 

 N ′′j ,4  θ j +1   N j ,4 

 And, in turn, with further substitutions and integrations...

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 13
Weak form using MWR and FE derivation
Vj V j +1
EI
Mj Mj +1
xj xj +1
.
 We obtain j-th beam element’s contribution to the global integral
 1 
 2 
 12 6h j −12 6h j   v j   −V j 
 6h 2      hj 
EI  j 4h j −6h j 2h j   θ j   M j 
2
 12 
{I }
j 4×1 
h3j −12 −6h j 12 −6h j   v j +1   V j +1 
+
   − ω h j 
1

 2 
 2 
 6h j 2h j −6h j 4h j  θ j +1  − M j +1 
2
 
  h
− j 
 k j 
4×4
{d j }4×1   12

{ }4×1
− fj

 Which is in the form

= {I j }4×1 k j  4×4 {d j }4×1 − { f j }4×1 Element size
h j x j +1 − x j
=

 You are welcome to do the intermittent algebra and calculus!

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 14
 Sign convention change
 The clockwise + shear and sagging + moment convention is
extremely awkward to generalise
 The final step is therefore to change convention so as to make
every node structurally identical
Nodal dofs Nodal loads Nodal loads Old sign New sign
Pj Pj +1 Pj Pj +1 convention convention
Bar EA EA EA
element uj uj +1  Vj   Vj 
xj xj +1 xj xj +1 xj xj +1  M   −M 
Vj V j +1 Vj V j +1  j   j
vj v j +1  →
  
Beam EI EI EI V −V
 j +1   j +1 
element θj θj +1 Mj Mj +1 Mj Mj +1  M j +1   M j +1 
xj xj +1 xj xj +1 xj xj +1
. .
y, v
 In this way, the + directions of nodal loads V and M are the
x, u
same as the + directions of nodal dofs v and θ z θ

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 15

The matrix system for an E-B beam element
Nodal dofs Nodal loads Element loads
Vj V j +1 ω y, v
vj v j +1
x, u
θj θj +1 Mj Mj +1 z θ
xj xj +1 xj xj +1
.
 The final form, with the system written for just one element is:
Element loads
resolved into
Directly equivalent nodal
applied loads (if any)
nodal loads
(if any)  1 
 2 
 12 6h j −12 6h j   v j  V
 j 
 2   M   hj 
EI  6h j 4h j −6h j 2h j   θ j 
2
 j   12 
=
    + ω h j  
3
hj − 12 −6 h j 12 −6 h  v
j  j +1  V
 j +1  1
 2 
 2 
   M j +1   
j  θ j +1 
2
 6 h 2 h −6 h 4 h
j j
 
j
h
− j 
 k j 
4×4
{d j }4×1    12
 Element size
Stiffness
matrix
Nodal dof { f j }4×1 h j x j +1 − x j
=
vector
Nodal load
vector
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 16
 Some standard results for equivalent nodal loads from
element loading (note load direction and signs)
ω [F.L-1 ] W [F]
 1/ 2  b 2 ( 3a + b )  Vj
  a b  
 h j / 12  Mj
2
W  h j ab 

{
{
−ω h j   − 3 2 
 1/ 2  h j a ( a + 3b )  V j +1
M Mj+1 M Mj+1
j − h j / 12  j  − h j a 2b  M j +1
V Vj+1 V V  
j j j+ 1

{
{
hj = xj+1 ‒ x hj = xj+1 ‒ x
j . j .
a
 6 ( 2h3j − 2a 2 h j + a 3 )  M [F.L]
{

ω [F.L-1 ]  6ab  Vj
  a b  
ω a h j a ( 6h j − 8ah j + 3a )  M  h j b ( 2a − b )  M j
2 2

{
{
− − 3 
3   6 ab
M Mj+1 12 h j  6a ( 2h j − a )
2
 Mj
h
Mj+1 j 
−  V j +1
j h j a ( a − 2b )  M j +1
 V
 − h j a ( 4h j − 3a )  j
V Vj+1 2 Vj+1
j

{
{

hj = xj+1 ‒ x hj = xj+1 ‒ x
j . j .

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 17

 Example: 2-element cantilever beam
 Very simple cantilever under a point load [F] acting ‘downwards’
with magnitude W (negative!) at 0.6L from the left support
0.6L WB
y, v

{
E = 200 GPa
System diagram I = 8.25×107 mm4
x A B C WB = 50 kN
z θ

{
L = 10 m .
L
WB

Free-body diagram
RA MA

v1 v2 v3
θ1 θ2 θ3 v1 & θ1 dofs are ‘restrained’ due
FE discretisation to the clamped BC
e1 e2
(2 equal-size elements) n1 n2 n3 All other dofs are ‘free’
We must end up solving a 4×4

{
{
matrix system
L/2 L/2 .

 Always do a free-body diagram to know what reactions to include

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 18

 Formulate matrix system for element 1
Nodal dofs Nodal loads Actual loads
V1 V2 RA
v1 v2

θ1 θ2 M1 M2 MA
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 .
 Here:
x j = x1 = 0 x j +1 = x2 = 0.5 L h j = x j +1 − x j = 0.5 L
V=j V=
1 RA V j += 1 V=
2 0
M=j M
= 1 MA M= j +1 M= 2 0  12 6h j −12 6h j   v j   V j 
 6h 2    
EI  j 4h j −6h j 2h j   θ j   M j 
2

 = 
h3j −12 −6h j 12 −6h j   v j +1   V j +1 
 Thus the 1st element’s contribution is: 


6h j 2h 2j −6h j 4h 2j  θ j +1   M j +1 
  
 k j 
4×4
{d j }4×1 { f j }4×1
 12 3L −12 3L   v1   RA  0 

8 EI  3L L2 −3L 0.5 L2  θ1  
M A 
  
0 
=     +  
L3  −12 −3L 12 −3L   v2   0  0 
Local view
 
 3L 0.5 L
2
−3L L2  θ 2   0  0 
 
Directly applied Eqv. element
nodal loads nodal loads

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 19

 Formulate matrix system for element 2
Nodal dofs Nodal loads Actual loads
V2 V3 0.1L W
v2 v3 B

{
{
θ2 θ3 M2 M3
x2 x3 x2 x3 x2 0.4L x3 .
 Here:x j = x2 = 0.5L
x j +1 = x3 = L h j = x j +1 − x j = 0.5 L
= a 0.1
= L b 0.4 L
Vj = −0.896WB
V2 = V j +1 = V3 = −0.104WB
 12 6h −12 6h   v  j j j b 2 ( 3a + b ) 
Mj = −0.064WB L M j +1 =
M2 = M3 = 0.016WB L EI  6h 4h −6h 2h   θ  = − W

j
2
j j
2
j j

B 
h j ab 2 

   
h −12 −6h j 12 −6h j   v j +1 
3
j h3j a 2 ( a + 3b ) 
 
Thus the 2nd element’s contribution is: −6h j 4h 2j  θ j +1   − h j a 2b 
2
  6h j 2h j
     
 k j 
4×4
{d j }4×1 { f j }4×1
 12 3L −12 3L   v2  0   0.896 

8 EI  3L L2 −3L 0.5 L2  θ 2  0 
 
 0.064 L 
 
=     − WB  
L3  −12 −3L 12 −3L   v3  0   0.104 
Local view
 
 3L 0.5 L
2
−3L L2  θ3  
0  
−0.016 L 

Directly applied Eqv. element
nodal loads nodal loads

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 20

 Assembly
 Assembly consists of ‘expanding’ the two matrix equations to
full system size by padding them with zeros, then simple
algebraic summation
 12 3L −12 3L 0 0   v1   RA   0 
 3L L2 −3L 0.5 L2 0 0  θ  M   0 
  1   A  
8 EI  −12 −3L 12 + 12 −3L + 3L −12 3L   v2   0   0.896 
 =    − WB  
L3  3L 0.5 L2 −3L + 3L L2 + L2 −3L 0.5 L2  θ 2  0
   0.064 L 
 0 0 −12 −3L 12 −3L   v3   0   0.104 
      
 0 0 3L 0.5 L2 −3L L2  θ3   0   −0.016L 
or [ k ]6×6 {d }6×1 = { f }6×1 Global view

We obtain a 6×6 matrix sparse system with a

Element 1 in red
 Element 2 in blue

septadiagonal structure (7 diagonals)

 Although each element provides 4 equations, the dofs
overlap and we end up with 6 global equations rather than 8
 Not done yet, [k]6×6 is singular and we need to enforce BCs
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 21
 Partitioning
 The complete [k]{d} = {f} system is then (with dof type identified):
Restrained  12 3L −12 3L 0 0   v1   RA   0 
dofs
 3L L2 −3L 0.5 L2 0 0  θ1  M   0 
    A   
8 EI  −12 −3L 24 0 −12 3L   v2   0   0.896 
 =
2    − WB  
Free L3  3L 0.5 L2 0 2 L2 −3L 0.5 L  θ 2   0   0.064 L 
dofs  0 0 −12 −3L 12 −3L   v3   0   0.104 
      
 0 0 3L 0.5 L2 −3L L2  θ3   0   −0 .016 L 
 Just like before, you must divide & rearrange your system accordingly:
 24 0 −12 3L −12 −3L   v2   0   0.896 
Free  0 2 L2 −3L 0.5 L2 3L 0.5 L2  θ 2   0   0.064 L 
      
dofs 8 EI  −12 −3L 12 −3L 0 0   v3   0   0.104 
 =
    − WB  
L3  3L 0.5 L2 −3L L2 0 0  θ3   0   −0 . 016 L 
Restrained  −12 3L 0 0 12 3L   v1   RA   0 
      
dofs  −3L 0.5 L
2
0 0 3L L2  θ1   M A   0 
[ k FF ] {d F } { f r , F } { f a , F }
[ kFR ] =
    + 
 This is simply:
[ k RF ] [ RR ]  R  { f r ,R } { f a ,R }
k { d }
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 22
 Example: 2-element cantilever beam
[ k FF ]4×4 [ k FR ]4×2  {d F }4×1  { f r , F }  { f a , F } 
4×1 4×1
  =    + 
[ RF ]2×4 [ RR ]2×2  6×6 { R }2×1 6×1 { f r , R }2×1 6×1 { f a , R }2×1 6×1
k k d
 Here we again split the nodal force vector {f} into {fr} and {fa}:
 {fr} holds the nodal loads originating from reactions only – {fr,F} is a 4×1
zero vector but {fr,R} is a 2×1 unknown vector that must be solved for
 {fa} holds the nodal loads the we load directly – all known
 Matrix equation 1 lets you solve for {df}:
[ k FF ]4×4 {d F }4×1 + [ kFR ]4×2 {d R }2×1 = { f r ,F }4×1 + { f a ,F }4×1
{d F }4×1 [ k FF ]4×4 {{ f r ,F }4×1 + { f a ,F }4×1 − [ k FR ]4×2 {d R }2×1}
−1
⇒=
 Matrix equation 2 lets you solve for {fr,R}: Here is the 4×4 matrix inversion!

d R }2×1 { f r , R }2×1 + { f a , R }2×1

[ kRF ]2×4 {d F }4×1 + [ kRR ]2×2 {=
⇒ { f r , R }2×1 [ k RF ]2×4 {d F }4×1 + [ k RR ]2×2 {d R }2×1 − { f a , R }2×1
=
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 23
 Example: 2-element cantilever beam
 Doing the math we get:
 v1   0  mm y, v
0.6L WB
v2

{
θ   0  rads System diagram
x A B C θ2
 1  
z θ
v3

{
L
 v2  −164.1414  mm
{d=
}6×1 =   
WB

θ
 2  −0.0530  rads
Free-body diagram
RA MA θ3
 v3  −436.3636  mm .

   
θ3   − 0.0545  rads E = 200 GPa
I = 8.25×107 mm4
 RA   50  kN
{ f r=
, R }2×1 =
M
 
300

WB = 50 kN
L = 10 m
 B   kNm
 Check: Exact solution (from strong form):
13 WB L3 18 WB L3
R=
A W=
B 50 kN Yes!
v2 =
−
240 EI
=−164.1414 mm v3 =
−
125 EI
=−436.3636 mm

7 WB L2 9 WB L2
M A 0.6
= = WB L 300 kNm θ2 =
−
40 EI
−0.0530 rads
= θ3 =
−
50 EI
−0.0545 rads
=

Yes!
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 24
 Example: 2-element cantilever beam
 The solution is great! Exact, in fact. Why?
 If you were to solve the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation (strong form!)
directly for this load case, you would get v(x) to be the following
(downwards positive): W L3  3  x  2 1  x 3 
Cubic 
B
   −    for 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.6 L
 EI 10  L  6  L  
v( x) = 
 WB L3  9  x  9 
Linear  EI  50  L  − 250  for 0.6 L ≤ x ≤ L
    
 The 1st part is cubic and the 2nd part is linear, so the cubic
interpolation field is of the same order as the analytical result.
 This means that our ‘approximate’ FE solution happens to contain
the ‘exact’ solution, and thus solves exactly for the dofs
 This usually happens only for very simple problems, but here there is
no point in adding further elements.

CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 25

 Are beam elements ‘exact’?
 No. This isn’t always the case.
 Propped cantilever deflection:
4 
x 
4 3 2
ωL x x
v( x) =  −2   + 5   − 3   
48 EI   L  L  L  
 A quartic! The peak is at x = 0.5785L:
ω L4
vmax
= ( 0.5785L ) 0.005416
= 16.412 mm
EI
 A 1-element FEA gives:
v1-element FEA = 8.905 mm
 A 2-element FEA (with middle node at x = 0.5785L) gives:
v2−element FEA = 16.413 mm
 Cubic interpolations functions do not ‘contain’ a quartic, so the
result is now truly approximate and requires more elements
CIVE50003 Computational Methods II – Lecture 5 26