~1~

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRIULTURE AND

TECHNOLOGY
BSC.ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EEE B1
YEAR TWO SEMESTER ONE (MAY-AUGUST 2021)
PHYSICAL EELECTRONICS 1 EEE 2204
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 3 REPORT
27th JULY, 2021.

GROUP MEMBERS
NAME REG NO: SIGN
JACK GODFREY ENE211-0053/2019
KAMAU EDWIN NGATIA ENE211-0195/2019
DANSON NJOROGE ENE211-0141/2019
MAINA VICTOR NGATIA ENE211-0147/2019
NYAMWEA ALVIN MONDA ENE211-0149/2019
MUNYU EKIRA FAITH ENE211-0009/2019
KAGUAMBA EDWIN ENE211-0003/2019
MBURU
OMENYA SHARLYN ENE211-0259/2019
BOSIBORI
STEPHEN KINUTHIA ENE211-0015/2019
 ~2~

TITLE: ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIMS OF THE EXPERIMENT.
i) To measure the effects of forward and reverse biased on current in a
Zener diode.
ii) To determine and graph the voltampere characteristic of a Zener diode.
iii) To construct a Zener voltage regulator and experimentally determine the
range over which the Zener diode maintains a constant output voltage.

INTRODUCTION
The characteristics of a solid-state Zener diode depend on the semi-conductor
material from which the diode is constructed, on the nature and the external doping
of the material and also on the physical construction of the device.
The semiconductor diode studied in the conduction of semiconductors is operated
only in the forward bias current characteristic.
Zener diodes are so unique in a way that they can be operated both in the forward
and reverse bias current
Zener diodes are designed and fabricated to provide a specified breakdown voltage
(Zener Resistance) in the reverse breakdown region is very small.

THEORY
 ~3~

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current to flow in the forward
direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is
larger than the breakdown voltage known as Zener knee voltage (Zener voltage).
A conventional solid-state diode will not let significant current flow if it is reverse-
biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. By exceeding the reverse bias
breakdown voltage, a conventional diode is subject to high current flow due to
avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by external circuitry, the diode
will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current flow in the
direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in
voltage and internal resistance.
The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the
doping concentrations.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially
designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener
voltage. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to
tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the
n-type material. In the atomic model, this tunneling corresponds to the ionization
of covalent bonds.
The Zener effect was discovered by physicist Clarence Melvin Zener. A reverse-
biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and let the current flow to
keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode
with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if
reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. However, the
current is not unlimited, so the Zener diode is typically used to generate a reference
voltage for an amplifier stage, or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current
applications.

The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process.
Tolerances to within 0.05% are available though the most widely used tolerances
are 5% and 10%.
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the
avalanche diode. The two types of diodes are in fact constructed the same way and
both effects are present in diodes of this type.
 ~4~

In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant effect
and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the
avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature
coefficient.

In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients
neatly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in
temperature critical applications.
Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than
5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are
encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10
times the coefficient of a 12 V diode.
All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the
umbrella term of 'Zener diode'.

When a reverse-bias voltage is increasingly applied to a diode, at a certain voltage

called the breakdown voltage, the junction breaks down and the reverse bias
current increases rapidly.
 ~5~

MATERIALS REQUIRED
i. Power supply, variable regulator dc source
ii. Digital multimeter
iii. VOM milliammeter
iv. A voltmeter
v. Connecting wires
vi. Circuit board
vii. Resistors i.e., 3300Ω and 680Ω
viii. Semiconductors or any Zener diode (we were given the 10v Zener diode)
ix. Miscellaneous SPST switch.
 ~6~

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE.

Voltampere characteristic-Reverse bias

a) We connected the circuit as shown in figure 1.1 below, we then switched S
open. VAA is a regulated power supply set at 0V. M is a 20000Ω/V VOM set
on the lowest current range.

b) We closed S and measured the diode current I, if any with VAA set at 0V. We
recorded the results in table 1.1 below.
c) We set the output of VAA so that the voltage VAB measured across the diode
was 2.0V. We measured the diode current I, and recorded the results in table
1.1
 ~7~

d) We repeated step 3 for each value of VAB shown in table 1.1. changing the
range of M as required. We then calculated the resistance RZ of the diode
(RZ-VAB/I) and recorded the results in table 1.1
We set the output of VAA so that the diode current I measured 2mA. We then
measured voltage VAB across the diode and recorded in table 1.1
e) We repeated step 5 for every value of current shown and record the
corresponding values of VAB and RZ in table 1.1

Tampere characteristics-forward bias

f) We opened S disconnecting power from the circuit. We then set the output
of the power supply at 0V. reverse the diode in the circuit.
g) We closed S, we then measured and record in table 1.2 the forward current
of the diode at each level of voltage VAB shown in the table. We then
computed the forward resistance RF = VAB/I. we recorded the results in table
1.2
h) from the tables 1.1 and 1.2, on regular graph paper, draw a graph of:
I. Diode current (vertical axis) versus diode voltage
II. Draw an expanded graph of diode current versus diode voltage in the
Zener region
III. Draw a separate graph of diode resistance versus voltage for the reverse
and forward-bias arrangements.

Table 1.1 (REVERSE BIAS)

steps VAB I(mA) RZ Step VAB I(mA) RZ VAA IAA
(kΩ) (kΩ)
1 0.0 0 ∞ 6 9.65 5 1.93 13.4 0.01

2 2.0 0 ∞ 6 9.7 10 0.97 17.1 0.01

3 6.0 0 ∞ 6 10 20 0.5 24.8 0.02

4 7.0 0 ∞ 6 - 30 - - -
 ~8~

5 8.0 0 ∞ 6 - 40 - - -

6 9.6 2.0 4.8 6 - 50 - - -

Table 1.2 forward bias

Step VAB 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

8
I(mA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
)
RF ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 0.23
(kΩ)
VAA 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 3.2
IAA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Zener diode as a voltage Regulator

 ~9~

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 1.2 below, switch S to open,
the output of the power supply VAB is 0V. M is a milliammeter set on 0-
100mA range.

2. Close S. slowly increase the supply voltage VAA until the current IZ in the
diode measures 20mA. Measure the values of supply voltage VAA and the
voltage VAB across the load. Record the values of your results in the table
1.3 then measure the total current IT within this range. Record the results
in table 1.3
3. Determine and record the range and the variation of the voltage VAA over
which VAB remains constant within ±0.1V of its value in the step 11.
Measure the variation of IZ and IT within this range, and record your
results in the table 1.3
 ~ 10 ~

Step VAB IZ (mA) IT (mA) VAA IAA

11 VAB 10 20 22.2 25.0 0.02

12 VAB + 0.1 10.1 22 24.4 26.5 0.03

12 VAB - 0.1 9.9 18 20.5 23.7 0.02

DISCUSSION
1. Compare the biasing of a junction diode with that of a Zener diode in a
normal application
The major difference between PN junction and the Zener diode is that the PN
junction diode allows current to pass only in the forward direction, whereas the
Zener diode allows the current to flow both in the forward and the reversed
direction.
The other differences between the PN-junction and Zener diode are shown in the
comparison chart.
The PN junction diode is used for rectification purpose because it allows the
current to flow only in one direction. It is a type of switch which only allows the
forward current to pass through it. On the other hand, the Zener diode allows both
the forward and reverse current to pass through it. The Zener diode is used as a
voltage regulator in the electronic circuit because it provides the constant voltage
from the supply to the load whose voltage vary over sufficient range.

2. Compare the volt-ampere characteristic of the Zener diode graph of

procedural step in 9a in this experiment with the standard Zener diode
characteristic curve. Explain any differences.
 ~ 11 ~

In the experimental graph of the Zener diode it was observed that the Zener diode
peak inverse voltage (9.6V) was lower than the standard Zener diode peak inverse
voltage (10V) for the specific Zener diode provided .i.e premature breakdown of
the Zener diode was observed.
This was due to the Zener diode provided being subjected to high reverse voltage
over a long period of time.
3.What portion of the zener-diode characteristic is most useful for voltage
regulator application? Why?

When the Zener diode is given reverse bias feedback, there is a small leakage
current until it attains the breakdown voltage or a constant voltage. At this point,
the current begins flowing seamlessly without any change in voltage. Therefore,
the constant voltage helps Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
4.a What is the significance of the graph of procedural step 9b? How can
procedural step 9b be used in the design of a regulator employing a 10V Zener
diode?
A Zener diode works in such a way that the current can flow in both forward and reverse biased
conditions.
In forward bias , there is a certain point after which the current increases steeply with voltage.
This point is marked as ‘b’ and is known as knee voltage. Till this point (from a to b), current
increases very slowly with voltage and after this point, it starts behaving like a conductor and the
current increases with much higher rate.
In reverse bias (as shown in the part of graph), there is a certain point in the graph after which
current starts increasing with much more rate. This point is called Zener voltage (or reverse
breakdown voltage). Till this point, the current is negligible and after this point, current changes
with a huge rate without much change in voltage.
In fact, the difference between forward and reverse biased conditions is that in forward biased
conditions, the current increases with a relatively greater rate of order milli-ampere and in
reverse biased conditions, it increases with (micro-ampere) as shown in the graph.
Zener diode is used to regulate voltage i.e. with any amount of increase in current, the voltage
change is negligible.

Note: Zener diode is operated in reverse biased conditions. It’s work is to stop the
increase in voltage with the increase in current. When it is connected in forward
biased conditions, it just allows almost all the current
 ~ 12 ~

5.Refer to table 1.3 explain how voltage regulatory circuit works

he Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a
silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode
positive with respect to its Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode
passing the rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself
when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as
soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins
to conduct in the reverse direction.

6.Will the regulatory circuit in the figure 1.2 compensate for both changes in
input voltage VAA and changes in the load current IL? Explain
Yes since it has a zener diode which helps to maintain the voltage changes. Zener
diode is a voltage regulator

SOURCES OF ERRORS

1. Errors came up due to instrumental defect where some apparatus might were
defective
2. Another source of error was due to human mistakes in observations and
reading of values

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. When reading values, the circuit operators should avoid human-induced errors such as
parallax error.
2. The apparatus should be defect free being starting the experiment
 ~ 13 ~

3. Loose connections should be avoided in order to obtain stable sinusoidal waves from the
oscilloscope

CONCLUSION

1. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode
has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative
voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
2. ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to
regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The
fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the zener diode as it
can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator applications
3. When we apply a reverse voltage to a Zener diode, a negligible amount of
current flows through the circuit. When a voltage higher than Zener
breakdown voltage is applied, Zener breakdown occurs.
4. Depending on our requirement, we choose the suitable Zener diode with a
Zener breakdown voltage near to the voltage we require across the load. We
connect the Zener diode in reverse bias condition

REFERENCE

1. Witherspoon, B. (2008). Voltage regulation using zener diodes.  Michigan State University:
College of Engineering, Michigan.
2. Rosdianto, H. (2019, April). Zener diode vs rectifier diode: The comparation of Gaussian
probability distribution charts from full-wave rectifier circuits. In  Journal of Physics:
Conference Series  (Vol. 1204, No. 1, p. 012003). IOP Publishing.
3. Hegge, Frederick W. "A simple zener diode voltage regulator."  Journal of the experimental
analysis of behavior  8, no. 1 (1965): 69.