UNIT 2

Syllabus

2.1 Environmental determinants of agriculture – role of rainfall, humidity,

wind, topography and edaphic factors in crop selection.

2.2 Animal husbandry – Dairy and poultry – role of transboundary species of

cattle in Indian scenario.

2.3 Pisiculture – Environmental effects of intensive pisiculture.

2.4 Agricultural biodiversity: Crop diversity – Definition and significance. Poly

culture and mono culture. Influences of green revolution on modern
agricultural practices of India – Loss of agrobiodiversity – Influence of
transboundary crops. Agricultural biotechnology – Genetically Modified Crops
– Influence on environment. Pollination crisis. Integrated pest management.
Economy

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2.1 Environment Determinants of Agriculture

Environment Determinants of Agriculture

 The agricultural practices, cropping patterns and their productivity are

closely determined by the geo-climatic, socioeconomic, and cultural-
political factors. In fact, the agriculture of any region is influenced by the
following factors:
 Physical factors: Terrain, topography, climate, and soil.
 Institutional Factors: Land tenure, land tenancy, size of the
landholdings, size of fields, and land reforms.
 Infrastructural factors: Irrigation, electricity, roads, credit and
marketing, storage, facilities, crop insurance, and research.
  Technological Factors: High-yielding varieties (new seeds)
introduced in Green Revolution, chemical fertilizers, insecticides,
pesticides, and farm machinery.
 These factors individually and collectively have their impact on the
cropping patterns and on the level of agricultural development and yield
of crops in a region.

A brief account of physical factors & Institutional factors has been given
below.

Physical factors
The physical factors which affect the agriculture of any region are terrain,
topography, climate, and soil which have varying influences on the agricultural
productivity of a region.

It is worth mentioning that these factors do not work in isolation but the
agricultural activity of a place is the product of combinations of different
physical factors. The various physical factors are discussed below:

Terrain, Topography, and Altitude

 The agricultural patterns are strictly dependent on the geo-ecological

conditions such as terrain, topography, slope and altitude.
  For example, while paddy cultivation requires levelled fields in order to
have standing water, the tea plantations perform well in the undulating
topography in which water does not remain standing, standing water
damages tea plantations. Orchards of coconut, are found at low
altitudes, preferably closer to sea level. While the apple orchards in the
tropical and sub-tropical conditions perform well at an altitude above
1500 metres above sea level.
 However, cultivation of crops is rarely done 3500 m above sea level in
the tropical and subtropical latitudes. Reason for this is the highly
rarefied air, low pressure, low temperature, and shortage of oxygen at
high altitudes which are serious impediments not only in the cultivation
of crops but also in keeping dairy cattle.
 The soils of high mountainous tracts are generally immature. The soils at
such altitude are not well developed due to the slope which induces
erosion of the soil making it thin and non-conducive for agriculture.
 Topography affects agriculture as it relates to soil erosion, difficulty of
tillage and poor transportation facilities.
 Mechanization of agriculture depends entirely on the topography of the
land. On rough, hilly lands, the use of agricultural machinery is
impossible.
 The topographical features also affect the distribution of rainfall.
Normally, the windward side gets more rainfall than the leeward side.
For example the windward side of Western Ghats receives 250 to 300
cm rainfall whereas the leeward side receives 75 to 100 cm rainfall.
 The amount of rainfall received in a region determines the selection of
crops to be sown like we can grow jute in West Bengal but not in
Rajasthan due to the variation in rainfall.
 Apart from altitude, the aspects of slope also determine the agricultural
activity in a region. Aspect of slope means weather the slope is sun
facing or not and how steep the slope is. The steeper the slope is, the
less conducive it is for agriculture. On steep slopes terrace farming is
practiced.
 The nature of the surface also affects agricultural activities. The gullied
land is the least conductive for cropping. The gullied lands are highly
eroded and are deficient in key nutrient resources required for
agriculture. For example, the Chambal ravines in Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh have put over thousands of hectares of
good arable land out of agriculture.

Climate
  Of all the physical factors, the climate is one of the most significant
determinants of agricultural land use and cropping patterns. All forms of
agriculture are controlled largely by temperature.
 Areas deficient in heat are deficient in agriculture. For that is one
element of climate that man has not been able to create at economic
costs on a large scale. Temperature determines the growth of vegetation
through determining the length of the vegetative period. Successful
agriculture, therefore, requires a fairly long summer.
 In lower latitudes where the winters are never too cold to arrest the
growth of vegetation, practically the whole year is the growing period,
and the agricultural operations are timed according to the supply of
rainfall.
 In higher latitudes, however, the shortness of summer is compensated
by the longer duration of the day. The total amount of heat received is
enough for the ripening of crops.
 The climate of the region which is important for the growth of plant
includes the following:

i. Temperature

 The crops to be grown, their patterns and combinations are closely

controlled by the prevailing temperature and precipitation conditions.
The agricultural scientists have proved that each crop has a specific zero
temperature below which it cannot be grown. There is also an optimal
temperature in which the crop is at its greatest vigour. For example,
wheat can be grown in Punjab in the month of November-December due
to cool climatic conditions, it cannot be grown in Kerala at the same
time, and similarly, apples can be grown in Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir but not in Chennai.
 For each stage of crop life i.e. germination, foliation, blossoming or
fructification a specific zero and optimum can be observed in
temperature.
 The upper limit of temperature for plant growth is 60 degrees C. Under
high-temperature conditions, i.e. at above 60 degrees C, crops dry up if
the moisture supply is inadequate. In contrast to this, the chilling and
freezing temperatures have a great adverse effect on the germination,
growth, and ripening of crops.
 Crops like rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton, chilli, and tomatoes are killed or
damaged at the occurrence of frost. The minimum temperature for
wheat and barley is 5 degrees C, maize 10 degrees C, and rice 20 degrees
C.
  The impact of temperature on cropping patterns may be seen from the
fact that the northern limit of the regions in which date palm bear ripe
fruit coincides almost exactly with the mean annual temperature of 19
degrees C.
 The essential factor in the limit of grape orchards seems to be
temperature. Grapes ripen only in those countries in which the mean
temperature from April to October exceeds 15 degrees C.
 Crop like winter- wheat and barley perform well when the mean daily
temperature ranges between 15 degrees C and 25 degrees C. Contrary
to this, tropical crops like cocoa, coffee, spices, squash, rubber, and
tobacco require over 18 degrees C temperature even in the coldest
months, while crops like wheat, gram, peas, lentil, potato, mustard, and
rapeseed require a temperature of about 20 degrees C during the
growth and development stage and relatively higher (over 25 degrees C)
during the sowing and harvesting periods.
 Thus from the above discussion, it can be seen that each crop requires
different conditions of temperature and precipitation during the
different stages of its growth like germination, maturity, harvesting, etc.

ii. Moisture

 All crops need moisture. They take water and moisture from the soil.
This moisture may be available from the rains or from the irrigation
system.
 Within wide temperature limits, moisture becomes more important than
any other climatic factor in crop production.
 There are optimal moisture conditions for crop development just as
there are optimal temperature conditions. The excessive amount of
water in the soil alters various chemical and biological processes, limiting
the amount of oxygen and increasing the formation of compounds that
are toxic to plant roots. The excess of water in the soil, therefore, leads
to stunted growth of plants. The problem of inadequate oxygen in the
soil can be solved by drainage practices in an ill-drained tract.
 Heavy rainfall may directly damage plants or interfere with flowering
and pollination. Cereal crops are often lodged by rain and this makes
harvest difficult and promotes spoilage and diseases. Heavy rainfall at
the maturity of wheat, gram, millets, oilseeds, and mustards causes loss
of grain and fodder. Indian farmers all over the country have often
suffered on account of the failure of rains or fury of floods.

iii. Drought
  Drought has devastating consequences on the crops, their yields, and
production.
 Soil drought has been described as a condition in which the amount of
water needed for transpiration and direct evaporation exceeds the
amount of water available in the soil. Drought damages the crops when
plants are inadequately supplied with moisture from the soil.
 The drought-prone areas of India lie in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Bundelkhand (U.P.),
Uttarakhand, J&K, southwest Punjab, and Haryana.
 In the areas where the average annual rainfall is less than 75 cm,
agriculture is considered a gamble on monsoon. In 2009, the erratic
monsoon resulted into drought in more than 200 districts of the country.
Vidarbha region of Maharashtra has a high incidence of farmer suicides
due to the drought condition which results in the failure of crops, this is
basically due to the inadequate irrigation facilities in the region.
 The incidence of drought and its intensity can be determined from the
annual seasonal and diurnal distribution of rainfall. Moreover, different
plants have different moisture requirements. In the drought-prone areas
of India, dryland farming is practiced, while in the more rainfall
recording regions, intensive agriculture of paddy crop is a common
practice.

iv. Snow

 The occurrence of snow reduces the ground temperature which hinders

the germination and growth of crops.
 Land under snow cannot be prepared for sowing because of permafrost.
 Melting of snow may cause hazardous floods in the summer season,
affecting the crops, livestock, and land property adversely.

v. Winds

 Winds have both, direct and indirect effects on crops. Direct winds result
in the breaking of plant structure, dislodging of cereals, fodder, and cash
crops, and sheltering of seed- heads. Fruit and nut crops may be stripped
from the trees in high winds.
 Small plants are sometimes completely covered by windblown dust or
sand.
 The indirect effect of winds is in the form of transport of moisture and
heat in the air. In fact, the movement of winds increases evaporation
 and transpiration, which can make plants devoid of a sufficient amount
of moisture.

Soils

 In agricultural operations, the soil is probably the most important

determining physical factor. It determines the cropping patterns, their
associations, and production.
 The fertility of the soil, its texture, structure, and humus contents have a
direct bearing on crops and their productivity. In general, the alluvial
soils which are found in the river valleys are considered to be good for
wheat, barley, gram, oilseeds, pulses, and sugarcane; while the clayey
loam soil with fine grains found in the GangaBrahmaputra deltaic
regions gives a good harvest of rice and Jute.
 Black soil is known for cotton in Maharashtra, and sandy soil for guar,
pulses (green gram, black-gram, red-gram, etc) in Rajasthan.
 The saline and alkaline soils are useless from the agricultural point of
view unless they are reclaimed by chemical fertilizers and biological
manures and fertilizers. For example the soil in Punjab and Haryana.

2.2 Animal Husbandry – Dairy and Poultry

What Is Animal Husbandry?

Animal husbandry is the science of farming of animal livestock. It includes
caring, breeding and management of livestock. Animal husbandry is a large
scale business where animals that provide us food are reared, bred, sheltered
and cared in a farm or regions which are specially built for them.
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture and organic farming concerned
with the management, raising and caring of farm animals by humans. It
is initiated with cattle farming and rearing of livestock such as cows, goats,
buffalo, sheep, etc. Later, animal husbandry was extended to cattle farming,
poultry farming, productions of egg and broiler, apiculture, fisheries, etc.
Dairy
Dairying is an important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers
and agricultural labourers.

The manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for
improving soil fertility and crop yields.

The gober gas from the dung is used as fuel for domestic purposes as also for
running engines for drawing water from well. The surplus fodder and
agricultural by-products are gainfully utilised for feeding the animals.

The small/marginal farmers and land less agricultural labourers play a very
important role in milk production of the country. Dairy farming is now taken up
as a main occupation around big urban centres where the demand for milk is
high.

Scope for Dairy Farming and its National Importance:

The total milk production in the country for the year 2001-02 was estimated at
84.6 million metric tonnes. At this production, the per capita availability was to
be 226 grams per day against the minimum requirement of 250 grams per day
as recommended by ICMR. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for
increasing the milk production. The population of breeding cows and buffaloes
in milk over 3 years of age was 62.6 million and 42.4 million, respectively (1992
census).

Management of Diary:
The scheme for diary, farming should include information on land, livestock
markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities,
marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of
assistance available from State Government, dairy society/union/federation.

(A) Technical Feasibility – this would briefly include:

1. Nearness of the selected area to veterinary, breeding and milk collection
centre and the financing bank’s branch.

2. Availability of good quality animals in nearby livestock market.

3. Availability of training facilities.

4. Availability of good grazing ground/lands.

5. Green/dry fodder, concentrate feed, medicines etc.

6. Availability of veterinary aid/breeding centres and milk marketing facilities

near the scheme area.

(B) Economic Viability – this would briefly include:

1. Cost of for feeds and fodders, veterinary aid, breeding of animals, insurance,
labour and other overheads.

2. Output costs i.e. sale price of milk, manure, gunny hags, male/female calves,
other miscellaneous items etc.

Farmers:
Modern and well established scientific principles, practices and skills should be
used to obtain maximum economic benefits from dairy farming.

Some of the major norms and recommended practices are as follows:

I. Housing:
1. Construct shed on dry, properly raised ground.

2. Selling of the old animals after 6-7 lactations.

II. Feeding of Milch Animals:

1. Feeding the animals with best feeds and fodders.

2. Giving adequate green fodder in the ration.

III. Milking of Animals:

1. Milking the animals two to three times a day.

IV. Protection against Diseases:

1. Be on the alert for signs of illness such as reduced feed intake, fever,
abnormal discharge or unusual behaviour.

V. Breeding Care:
1. Animal should be closely observed and keep specific record of its coming in
heat, duration of heat, insemination, conception and calving.

VI. Care during Pregnancy:

Give special attention to pregnant cows two months before calving by
providing adequate space, feed, water etc.
VII. Marketing of Milk:
1. Marketing milk immediately after it is drawn, keeping the time between
production and marketing of the milk to the minimum.

2. Production of milk produces for better storage to give more returns

VIII. Care of Calves:

1. Taking care of new born calf.
 Poultry

Poultry Farming
“Poultry farming mainly refers to growing and protecting various types of
domestic birds commercially.” 

What Is Poultry Farming?

In poultry farming, rearing and management of fowls are done for two
purposes-

 Production of the eggs.

 Production of meat or flesh.

In order to meet the quantity and quality requirements, a variety of strains

(breeds) are raised. These improved strains include layers which produce eggs
and broilers that provide meat.

Leghorn and Aseel breeds

Since poultry farming is a profit-making business, its primary focus is on
maximum production in less expenditure. For this reason, cross-breeding of
local and foreign breeds was started. Cross-breeding aims for raising breeds
with desirable traits.
For example, Indian Aseel/Asil and foreign Leghorn breeds were bred to raise
variety breeds.
Crossbreeding in poultry farming helped to meet the commercial purpose and
management easily. They focused on:

 Quantity and quality of chicks

 Dwarf broiler parents for more chick production
 Adaptation/tolerance to high temperature
  Low maintenance and minimum feeding requirements

Farm Management
Poultry farming involves both egg layers and broilers. The housing, feeding and
growing conditions for broilers and egg layers are different. For high yield,
good management practices are required.
 Shelter
Poultry birds are needed to be maintained in a strictly hygienic manner with
proper housing. A good and clean environment with proper ventilation should
be provided. The farm should be disease and pest free. Layers require regular
temperature.
Food
Poultry farming involves both egg layers and broilers. Both these group have
different food requirements according to their farming purposes.
Since broilers are raised for meat, they are fed with protein and fat-rich food.
Vitamin supplements help them for a good growth rate. They are regularly
checked and good care is taken to avoid death and other infectious diseases.
Egg layer’s rations are rich in vitamins A and K which help in more egg
production.

Disease Management
For successful poultry farming, a disease-free condition is important. Fowls are
vulnerable to numerous diseases. The cause of the disease may be from
different modes of infections from virus, bacteria, fungus, and other agents,  or
even food deficiency or nutritional deficiency. Hence, regular and proper
cleaning, sanitation, spraying of pesticides and disinfectants should be
performed to keep the surroundings clean, tidy and also free from all
microbes. Along with this, all domestic birds are vaccinated to control the
disease and to increase in backyard birds. Vaccination is commonly used
the biological preparation that helps in preventing the chance of occurrence
and spreading of infections.
Role of transboundary species of cattle in Indian
scenario.

Transboundary breed: A transboundary breed is a breed which is present in

several countries.
Transboundary species of the five significant livestock types (cattle, sheep,
goats, pigs and chickens), have been developed for a hundred years or more in
intensive manufacturing systems, which has led to global availability.
A relatively small number of worldwide transboundary breeds compose the
ever-increasing share of total global animal products. However, only in North
America and the Southwest Pacific do the number of transboundary breeds
surpass that of local breeds.
There can be both regional and international types of transboundary breeds.
Regional breeds are breeds that are reported to only be found in one "region",
which may include several countries, and an international transboundary
breed is one that is reported to be found in multiple regions.
For example, the Holstein Fresian cattle is an international transboundary
breed, because it is found in several different continents and regions.
Centuries of selective breeding, accelerated in the later part by the use of
modern breeding tools, has helped in evolving some of the most outstanding
dairy breeds of cattle in western countries. These breeds maintains a very high
standard with respect to milk production, age at maturity and breeding
efficiency. They are given adequate feeding and good management so that
they can express themselves fully. In India some of these breeds have
introduced for cross-breeding to raise the genetic potential of our cattle for
milk production. Slowly, this practice is becoming popular and has started to
have impact on our dairying. Some important exotic breeds are described here.

1. Jersey
This breed was developed on the island of Jersey in British Channel. Jersey
cows vary in colour from light red to black and from white spotted to solid in
marking. The muzzle is black with a light encircling ring. Cows are
comparatively small in size with well developed and properly placed udders.
Teats are squarely placed. Average lactation yield of this breed is 4,055 kg. Milk
is light yellow with 5.4% fat. Adult cows weigh about 500 kg and males 600 to
700 kg. Early maturity of heifers produces calf between to 30 months and have
a regular calving interval, thereafter 12 - 13 months.

2. Holstein Friesian
This breed originated in Holland, particularly in the provinces of North Holland
and West Fineland. Animals of this breed are ruggedly built and possess large
feeding capacities and udders. They are alert and vigorous. Holstein is black
and white in colour and the amount of black and white may vary from white
with a few black spots to almost black. The switch is always white.

The breed is widely distributed in Western Europe, England, Canada, Australia,

America and South Africa. This breed is considered to be the best milk
producer in the world. The cows are quiet and docile but the bulls may be
vicious.

They are heavy milk producers averaging 6,500 kg per lactation. The fat
percentage in their milk is generally low (3.0 to 3.5 per cent). The animals are
large in size and the adult males and females weigh about 800 to 900 kg and
500 to 650 kg, respectively.

Under tropical conditions they may not perform well since they are least heat
tolerant. They can be maintaining production even below 32o F but
temperatures above 82o F depresses milk production.

3. Brown Swiss
This breed from Switzerland originated on the east and north of Alps. But now,
they are seen in most parts of the world. The colour varies from a light fawn to
almost black. the muzzle and a stripe along the backbone are light in colour.
The nose, switch and horn tips are black. The animals are fairly large in size and
have extremely strong constitution and hardiness. The breed is triple purpose
animal in the homeland i.e. milk, meat and draught. Cows of this breed have
large bones, large heads which are usually dished. The breed is quiet, docile
and easily manageable. Calves are nearly white at birth and become darker
with the age. Adult males weigh about 700 to 800 kg and adult females about
500 to 600 kg. On an average a Brown Swiss cow produces 5,250 kg of  milk
which contains 4.2 % fat. Females calve for the first time between 28 to 30
months per lactation and thereafter maintain a regular calving interval of 13 to
14 months.

4. Ayrshire

This breeds takes its name from the country of Ayr and South west Scotland.
where it was developed. The animals are cherry red to brown in colour and are
of medium size. Ayrshire is considered by many as the most beautiful dairy
breed. This is a relatively nervous breed and is known for its hardiness and
good grazing ability. The animals are strong and robust. The udder is strongly
and evenly balanced and well shaped. They have long horns which are trained
up wards.

The average milk production of this breed cows is 4,840 kg per lactation. The
milk contains about 4.0 % fat. This is an early maturing (first calving at 20-30
months age) and regular breeder (interval 13 to 14 months).

5. Guernsey

This breed was developed and named from one of the islands between France
and England in the English Channel. The animals have a shade of fawn with
white markings clearly defined. Skin has golden yellow colour pigmentation.
Usually, markings are dominant on the face, legs, switch and flanks. The nose
may be creamy or buff coloured. Cows of this breed are alert and active. They
are easy to handle and manage. Generally milk has golden colour.
Adult males weigh around 600 to 800 kg and adult females about 400 to 500
kg. Good herds produce on a an average 4000 kg milk per lactation. The milk
contains about 5% fat. This is also an early maturing breed.

Pisciculture

Indian fisheries and aquaculture are key food-producing sectors that provide
nutritional security to the food basket, contribute to agricultural exports, and
employ approximately 14 million people in various activities.

Since independence, the country has exhibited consistent and sustained

increases in fish output, with various resources ranging from deep seas to
highland lakes and more than 10% of global biodiversity in terms of fish and
shellfish species. The sector contributes 1.1 percent of the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and 5.15 percent of the agricultural GDP, accounting for around
6.3 percent of global fish production.

Inland fisheries contribute almost 65 percent of overall fish production of 10.1

million metric tonnes, and cultural fisheries contribute roughly the same.

Export potential

With 10.5 lakh tonnes in volume and 33,442 crores in value, fish and fish
products have risen to become India's largest group of agricultural exports.
This accounts for approximately 10% of the country's total exports and roughly
20% of agricultural exports. Fish and shellfish items from more than 50
different species are shipped to 75 countries across the world.

 Global position 3rd in Fisheries, 2nd in Aquaculture

 Contribution of Fisheries to GDP (%) 1.1

 Contribution to Agricultural GDP (%) 5.15

 Per capita fish availability (Kg) 9.0

 Annual Export earnings (Rs.
33,441.61
In Crore)

 Employment in sector (million) 14.0

Farming systems based on aquaculture 

In India, there are 2.36 million hectares of ponds and tanks, 0.798 million
hectares of flood plain lakes, 195 210 kilometers of rivers and canals, and
2.907 million hectares of reservoirs that might be used for aquaculture.

Freshwater aquaculture relies heavily on ponds and tanks; yet, only around
40% of the available space is now exploited for aquaculture. Eastern India's
ponds are mainly small farmhouse ponds of less than 1 hectare, but western
India's watersheds are larger, covering areas of 15–25 hectares each.

Open rivers with in-flows are frequent in northern India, while watersheds,
sometimes known as tanks, are commonly used for agriculture irrigation in
southern India. Ponds and tanks are state-owned or communal in numerous
sections of the country, and they are leased out for 3–5 years.

Integrated farming system for one ha 

 Cropping (0.90 ha) + fishery (0.10 ha) + poultry (50 layers) + 5 kg oyster
mushroom production/day. 

 Rice-Gingelly-Maize and Rice-Soybean-Sunflower in 0.90 ha

+ polyculture fish rearing (0.10 ha), Pigeon (100 pairs), and 5kg
mushroom production per day 
  Goat (20 female + one male) + fish (400 numbers of polyculture) +
improved cropping system for wetlands 

Integration of cropping in 0.90 ha with the fishery in 0.10 ha, 50 layers of

poultry, and 5 kg oyster mushroom production per day will result in a higher
net return of Rs.35,000/ha/year (or) Integration of Rice-Gingelly-Maize and
Rice-Soybean-Sunflower in 0.90 ha with 0.10 ha polyculture fish rearing, 100
pairs of pigeon and 5 kg mushroom production per day could result in a higher
return of Rs. 88, 700 in one ha farming with additional employment of 300
man-days/year. 

The highest net return of Rs. 1,31,118 could be possible by the integration of

goat (20 female + one male), fish (400 numbers of polyculture), along with
improved cropping system for wetlands.

It has been estimated that about 1.2 million ha of potential brackish water area
available in India is suitable for farming. In addition to this, about 9.0 million ha
of salt-affected areas are also available. However, in shrimp culture, only
15% of the potential area has been put into cultural purposes.

The farming of shrimp is largely dependent on smallholdings of less than 2

ha, these farms account for over 90% of the total area utilized for shrimp
culture. Many of the farm holdings located in Kerala and West Bengal belong
to the traditional systems of shrimp farming.  

Freshwater aquaculture activity being an important activity expanded its

dimension in terms of area coverage and intensity of operation, with Andhra
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, etc, taking up fish culture as a
commercial farming enterprise.

Of late, scientific carp farming is picking up in the northeastern states of India.

Brackish water aquaculture is mainly concentrated on the coasts of Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and West Bengal. With regards to the market,
while the main areas of consumption for freshwater fish are in West Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, and northeastern India. Cultured brackish water shrimps are
destined mainly for export. 

Non-conventional culture systems 

Sewage-fed fish culture and rice paddy-cum-fish culture are two important
culture systems practiced in certain areas of the country; sewage-fed fish
culture in bheries in West Bengal is an age-old practice.

About 5,700 ha are currently being utilized for fish culture using the input of
primary-treated sewage and produce over 7,000 tonnes of fish per annum,
mainly consisting of the major and minor carps. The culture system usually
involves multiple stocking and multiple harvesting approaches, with harvest
sizes usually in the range of 300–500 g.

Though stocking densities of 7,000–10,000 of advanced fingerlings per ha is

prescribed. Normally, multiple stockings and multiple harvesting are adopted
and fishes are reared for 3-5 months, depending on the growth of the fishes to
reach the marketable size of 250-400 g.  

Paddy-cum-fish culture is undertaken in medium to semi-deep water rice

paddy fields in lowland areas with fairly strong dykes to prevent the escape of
cultivated fish during floods, trenches and pond refuges in the paddy fields
provide shelter for the fish.

The modern concept of paddy-fish integration with the rice-fish plot, digging of
peripheral trenches, construction of dykes, nutrient utilization of pond refuge
and sowing of improved varieties of rice and release of fish in
trenches, resulted in improved the yield of rice and fish. Fish ponds receive the
crop residues as pond input.

Cultured fish species 

While carp form the most important species farmed in freshwater in India, it is
the shrimp from the brackish water sector which contributes the bulk of the
production.

The three Indian major carps, namely, 

Catla (Catla Catla), rohu labeo (Labeo rohita) and mrigal carp
(Cirrhinus mrigala) contribute over 90% of the total Indian aquaculture
production. Introduced during the 1970s into the carp polyculture system in
the country, three exotic carps, namely, silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), and
common carp (Cyprinus carpio) now form a second important group.

Among the catfishes, Philippine catfish, 'magur' (Clarias batrachus) is the only

species that has received a lot of attention. Stinging catfish, 'Singhi'
(Heteropneustes fossilis) is another air-breathing catfish species being cultured
to a certain extent in swamps and derelict water bodies, especially in the
eastern states. In recent years, attempts have been made to develop the
culture of fishes
like Pangasius pangasius, Pangasius sutchi, Oreochromis niloticus, Ompok pabd
a, etc.

The other finfish species of importance include climbing perch

(Anabas testudineus), mussels (Channa striata and C. marulius), etc. Among the
freshwater prawns, the giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), is the
most important species followed by the monsoon river
prawn, M.malcolmsonii.

The brackish water aquaculture sector is mainly supported by shrimp

production, as well as, the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), which is
responsible for the bulk of production followed by the recently introduced
white leg shrimp, Penaeus vannamei. In fact, the culture of this shrimp picked
up on par with tiger shrimp in a very short span of time. Although India
possesses several other potential species of finfish and shellfish, the
production of these is still very low-key. In seawater, the major farmed species
are the green mussel (Perna viridis), Indian brown mussel (Perna indica), Indian
backwater oyster (Crassostrea madrasensis), Japanese pearl oyster
(Pinctada fucata), and seaweed species like Gracilaria edulis. 

Future prospects 

The Indian government's Ministry of Agriculture has a Department of Animal

Husbandry, Dairy, and Fisheries, with a Division of Fisheries serving as the
nodal agency. This institution is in charge of designing, supervising, and funding
many centrally funded fisheries and aquaculture development projects in all
Indian states.
Most states have a separate Ministry of Fisheries, or it falls under the Ministry
of Animal Husbandry in others. All states have well-organized fisheries
departments, with district fisheries executive officers and block fisheries
extension officers who are active in the sector's overall growth.

However, the administrative structure at state levels varies from state to state.
Centrally sponsored schemes like the 422 FFDAs cover almost all districts in the
Country and the 39 BFDAs in the maritime districts have also contributed to
aquaculture development. 

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research located within the Department of

Agricultural Research and Education, which in turn is within the Indian Ministry
of Agriculture, has a Division of Fisheries, which undertakes the R&D on
aquaculture and fisheries through a number of research institutes. There are
about 695 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Science Centres) in the Country,
operated through State Agricultural Universities, ICAR Research Institutes, and
NGOs, most of which also undertake aquaculture development within their
scope of activities.

Aquaculture over recent years has not only led to substantial socio-economic
benefits such as increased nutritional levels, income, employment, and foreign
exchange but has also brought vast unutilized and under-utilized land and
water resources under culture. With freshwater aquaculture being compatible
with other farming systems, it is largely environmentally friendly and provides
for recycling and utilization of several types of organic wastes.

Over the years, however, cultural practices have undergone considerable

intensification and with the possibility of obtaining high productivity levels,
there has been a state of flux between the different farming practices.

In the brackish water sector, there were issues of waste generation, conversion
of agricultural land, salinization, degradation of soil and the environment due
to the extensive use of drugs and chemicals, destruction of mangroves, and so
on. Though some of these issues posed concerns, most however, were isolated
instances with the bulk of farming conforming to eco-requirements.
 Effects of aquaculture wastes

The effects of pollution by intensive aquaculture in temperate climates are well

known.

Wastes such as fish faeces and uneaten food in effluents and in sediments
from cages have high BODs and contain large amounts of particulate matter.
These can cause water quality to deteriorate and anoxic sediments to build
up (Barg, 1992, Kautsky and Folke, 1991, Pullin, 1989).

These sediments are richer than natural sediments in nutrients such as

phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon.

The organic matter in the sediment is decomposed by bacteria and this can
cause anaerobic conditions within a few millimetres of the sediment surface.
Under completely anoxic conditions the highly toxic gas H2S can develop.

Release of gases is enhanced by bioturbation which is caused by the high

number of pollution-tolerant macro-invertebrates that can occur (Barg, 1992,
Beveridge and Phillips, 1990).
4
 COD: Chemical oxygen demand.

At the current level of coastal fish farming, nutrient enrichment and

eutrophication of open coastal waters is unlikely but could occur where
exchange of water with more open coastal waters is limited such as in semi-
enclosed coastal embayment (Barg, 1992, GESAMP, 1991).

The primary effect of aquaculture effluents on running waters is to increase

ammoniacal nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the water
immediately downstream of the discharge.

In lakes cage culture can cause long-term elevations of carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus levels.

Carbon is not usually a limiting factor for productivity in fresh water systems. In
the case of nitrogen and phosphorus, of which one or the other usually limits
productivity in fresh waters, increased levels will lead to eutrophication.
Eutrophication can also cause increased production and changes in the
macrophyte and natural fish communities structure. It has been shown that
fresh water aquaculture operations can increase growth of the natural fish
community. This is partly caused by the ingestion of uneaten pellets by wild
fish (Beveridge and Phillips, 1990).

Most aquaculture uses a large amount of water, and consequently aquaculture

effluents are characterized by their relatively large volume. Usually they have
relatively low concentrations of wastes compared with effluent from other
industries (Beveridge et al, 1990).

Ponds, which represent the most common aquaculture system in the tropics
and subtropics, differ from most other systems in that water exchange is
usually low, even in fairly intensive systems. Only when the ponds are drained
to facilitate harvesting are the effluent discharges large with extremely high
levels of solids, BOD and nutrients. It has been difficult to show a correlation
between the effluent solids loading and the biomass harvested to the pond soil
erosion that almost always occurs (Beveridge et al, 1990).

Agricultural biodiversity
 Agricultural diversity is driven by the demands of the topography, the limited
movement of people, and the needs for crop rotation of varieties that do well
in different fields.
 Resistance to disease is a chief benefit to maintaining crop biodiversity; lack
of diversity in crop species risks an entire crop being wiped out by a disease
to which it is susceptible.
 The ability to create new crop varieties relies on the diversity of varieties
available and the accessibility of wild forms related to the crop plant that can
be bred with existing varieties.
 Seed companies must continually breed new varieties to keep up with
evolving pest organisms.

Crop diversity:
Crop diversity or crop biodiversity is the variety and variability of crops, plants
used in agriculture, including their genetic and phenotypic characteristics. It is
a subset of and a specific element of agricultural biodiversity.
Significance of crop diversity:
Resistance to disease is a chief benefit to maintaining crop biodiversity; lack
of diversity in contemporary crop species carries similar risks.
The world will have to produce more — and more nutritious — food on less
land, with less water and less energy, and in increasingly unpredictable
weather. Breeders must continue to develop new crop varieties that are more
productive, more nutritious and more resistant to stresses — like higher
temperatures or less water. The development of these new crop varieties
which can cope with challenging situations may well be the single most
important step we can take to adapt to climate change.

The wise use of crop genetic diversity in plant breeding can also contribute
significantly to protecting the environment. Crop varieties that are resistant to
pests and disease can reduce the need for application of crop protection
products; drought-resistant plants can help save water through reducing the
need for irrigation; and varieties that are more efficient in their use of
nutrients require less fertiliser.

Monoculture: a single crop planted over a wide area. Used excessively on

American farms, especially on corn and soy farms.

Polyculture: a multitude of different crops grown on a given expanse of land,

either through crop rotation or planting rows of different crops side-by-side.
This method uses nutrients, space, and energy in a balanced manner. It also
increases self-reliance, food security, and economic growth.

The Green Revolution was an endeavour initiated by Norman Borlaug in the

1960s. He is known as the 'Father of Green Revolution' in world.
It led to him winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work in
developing High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat.
In India, the Green Revolution was mainly led by M.S. Swaminathan.
The Green Revolution resulted in a great increase in production of food
grains (especially wheat and rice) due to the introduction into developing
countries of new, high-yielding variety seeds, beginning in the mid-
20th century.Its early dramatic successes were in Mexico and the Indian
subcontinent.The Green Revolution, spreading over the period from 1967-68
to 1977-78, changed India’s status from a food-deficient country to one of the
world's leading agricultural nations.
Objectives of Green Revolution

 Short Term: The revolution was launched to address India’s hunger

crisis during the second Five Year Plan.
 Long Term: The long term objectives included overall agriculture
modernization based on rural development, industrial
development; infrastructure, raw material etc.
 Employment: To provide employment to both agricultural and
industrial workers.
 Scientific Studies: Producing stronger plants which could withstand
extreme climates and diseases.
 Globalization of the Agricultural World: By spreading technology to
non-industrialized nations and setting up many corporations in
major agricultural areas.
Basic Elements of the Green Revolution

 Expansion of Farming Areas: Although the area of land under

cultivation was being increased from 1947 itself, this was not
enough to meet the rising demand.

o The Green Revolution provided assistance in this

quantitative expansion of farmlands.
 Double-cropping System: Double cropping was a primary feature of
the Green Revolution. The decision was made to have two crop
seasons per year instead of just one.
 o The one-season-per-year practice was based on the fact
that there is only one rainy season annually.
o Water for the second phase now came from huge
irrigation projects. Dams were built and other simple
irrigation techniques were also adopted.
 Using seeds with improved genetics: Using seeds with superior
genetics was the scientific aspect of the Green Revolution.

o The Indian Council for Agricultural Research developed

new strains of high yield variety seeds, mainly wheat and
rice, millet and corn.
 Important Crops in the Revolution:

o Main crops were Wheat, Rice, Jowar, Bajra and Maize.

o Non-food grains were excluded from the ambit of the
new strategy.
o Wheat remained the mainstay of the Green Revolution
for years.
Green Revolution in India

Background of Green Revolution in India

 In 1943, India suffered from the world’s worst recorded food

crisis; the Bengal Famine, which led to the death of approximately 4
million people in eastern India due to hunger.
 Even after independence in 1947, until 1967 the government largely
concentrated on expanding the farming areas.

o But the population was growing at a much faster rate

than food production.
 This called for an immediate and drastic action to increase yield.
The action came in the form of the Green Revolution.
 The green revolution in India refers to a period when Indian
Agriculture was converted into an industrial system due to
the adoption of modern methods and technology such as the use
of HYV seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides and fertilizers.
  It was funded by the US and the Indian Government and the Ford
and Rockefeller Foundation.
 The Green Revolution in India is largely the Wheat Revolution as the
wheat production increased by more than three times between
1967-68 and 2003-04, while the overall increase in the production
of cereals was only two times
Positive Impacts of Green Revolution

 Tremendous Increase in Crop Produce: It resulted in a grain output

of 131 million tonnes in the year 1978-79 and established India as
one of the world's biggest agricultural producers.

o The crop area under high yielding varieties of wheat and

rice grew considerably during the Green Revolution.
 Reduced Import of Food-Grains: India became self-sufficient in
food-grains and had sufficient stock in the central pool, even, at
times, India was in a position to export food-grains.

o The per capita net availability of food-grains has also

increased.
 Benefits to the Farmers: The introduction of the Green Revolution
helped the farmers in raising their level of income.

o Farmers ploughed back their surplus income for

improving agricultural productivity.
o The big farmers with more than 10 hectares of land were
particularly benefited by this revolution by investing
large amounts of money in various inputs like HYV seeds,
fertilizers, machines, etc. It also promoted capitalist
farming.
 Industrial Growth: The Revolution brought about large scale farm
mechanization which created demand for different types of
machines like tractors, harvesters, threshers, combines, diesel
engines, electric motors, pumping sets, etc.

o Besides, demand for chemical fertilizers, pesticides,

insecticides, weedicides, etc. also increased considerably.
 o Several agricultural products were also used as raw
materials in various industries known as agro based
industries.
 Rural Employment: There was an appreciable increase in the
demand for labour force due to multiple cropping and use of
fertilizers.

o The Green Revolution created plenty of jobs not only for

agricultural workers but also industrial workers by
creating related facilities such as factories and
hydroelectric power stations.
Negative Impacts of Green Revolution

 Non-Food Grains Left Out : Although all food-grains including

wheat, rice, jowar, bajra and maize have gained from the
revolution, other crops such as coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds
were left out of the ambit of the revolution.

o Major commercial crops like cotton, jute, tea and

sugarcane were also left almost untouched by the Green
Revolution.
 Limited Coverage of HYVP: High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP)
was restricted to only five crops: Wheat, Rice, Jowar, Bajra and
Maize.

o Therefore, non-food grains were excluded from the

ambit of the new strategy.

 The HYV seeds in the non-food crops were

either not developed so far or they were not
good enough for farmers to risk their
adoption.
 Regional Disparities:

o Green Revolution technology has given birth to growing

disparities in economic development at interred and
intra regional levels.
 o It has so far affected only 40 percent of the total cropped
area and 60 per cent is still untouched by it.
o The most affected areas are Punjab, Haryana and
western Uttar Pradesh in the north and Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu in the south.
o It has hardly touched the Eastern region, including
Assam, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa and arid and semi-
arid areas of Western and Southern India.
o The Green Revolution affected only those areas which
were already better placed from an agricultural point of
view.
o Thus the problem of regional disparities has further
aggravated as a result of the Green Revolution.
 Excessive Usage of Chemicals: The Green Revolution resulted in a
large-scale use of pesticides and synthetic nitrogen fertilisers for
improved irrigation projects and crop varieties.

o However, little or no efforts were made to educate

farmers about the high risk associated with the intensive
use of pesticides.

 Pesticides were sprayed on crops usually by

untrained farm labourers without following
instructions or precautions.
o This causes more harm than good to crops and also
becomes a cause for environment and soil pollution.
 Water Consumption: The crops introduced during the green
revolution were water-intensive crops.

o Most of these crops being cereals, required almost 50%

of dietary water footprint.
o Canal systems were introduced, and irrigation pumps
also sucked out the groundwater to supply the water-
intensive crops, such as sugarcane and rice, thus
depleting the groundwater levels.
  Punjab is a major wheat- and rice-cultivating
area, and hence it is one of the highest water
depleted regions in India.
 Impacts on Soil and Crop Production: Repeated crop cycle in order
to ensure increased crop production depleted the soil's nutrients.

o To meet the needs of new kinds of seeds, farmers

increased fertilizer usage.

 The pH level of the soil increased due to the

usage of these alkaline chemicals.
o Toxic chemicals in the soil destroyed beneficial
pathogens, which further led to the decline in the yield.
 Unemployment: Except in Punjab, and to some extent in Haryana,
farm mechanization under the Green Revolution created
widespread unemployment among agricultural labourers in the
rural areas.

o The worst affected were the poor and the landless

labourers.
 Health Hazards: The large-scale use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides such as Phosphamidon, Methomyl, Phorate, Triazophos
and Monocrotophos resulted in resulted in a number of critical
health illnesses including cancer, renal failure, stillborn babies and
birth defects.
Conclusion

 Overall, the Green Revolution was a major achievement for many

developing countries, specially India and gave them an
unprecedented level of national food security.

o It represented the successful adaptation and transfer of

the same scientific revolution in agriculture that the
industrial countries had already appropriated for
themselves.
  However, lesser heed was paid to factors other than ensuring food
security such as environment, the poor farmers and their education
about the know-how of such chemicals.
 As a way forward, the policymakers must target the poor more
precisely to ensure that they receive greater direct benefits from
new technologies and those technologies will also need to be more
environmentally sustainable.

o Also, taking lessons from the past, it must be ensured

that such initiatives include all of the beneficiaries
covering all the regions rather than sticking to a limited
field.
Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana

 The government of India introduced the Green Revolution

Krishonnati Yojana in 2005 to boost the agriculture sector.

o Government through the scheme plans to develop the

agriculture and allied sector in a holistic & scientific
manner to increase the income of farmers.
 It comprises of 11 schemes and mission under a single umbrella
scheme:

o Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture

(MIDH)
o National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
o National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
o Submission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE)
o Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material (SMSP)
o Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)
o Sub-Mission on Plant Protection and Plan Quarantine
(SMPPQ)
o Integrated Scheme on Agriculture Census, Economics
and Statistics (ISACES)
o Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Cooperation (ISAC)
 o Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing (ISAM)
o National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A)
The Evergreen Revolution

 The improvements brought out by the Green Revolution came at

the cost of adverse environmental effects in areas subjected to
intensive farming.

o However, where population pressure is high, there is no

option except to produce more food.
 Hence, the need for the Evergreen Revolution was called out by
Dr. M S Swaminathan, the Father of the Green Revolution in India.
 Under the Evergreen Revolution, it is envisaged that productivity
must increase, but in ways which are environmentally safe,
economically viable and socially sustainable.

o The evergreen revolution involves the integration of

ecological principles in technology development and
dissemination.

Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural

science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic
engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue
culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. 
Genetically Modified crops: The term genetically modified (GM), as it is
commonly used, refers to the transfer of genes between organisms using a
series of laboratory techniques for cloning genes, splicing DNA segments
together, and inserting genes into cells. Collectively, these techniques are
known as recombinant DNA technology. Other terms used for GM plants or
foods derived from them are genetically modified organism (GMO), genetically
engineered (GE), bioengineered, and transgenic. 
Pollination crisis:
Pollination is an essential requirement for fruit and seed set. It is, therefore, crucial for
crop productivity and sustenance of flowering plant diversity in their natural habitats.
Nearly 90% of flowering plants use a range of animals to achieve pollination. Human-
induced environmental changes in recent decades have markedly reduced the
diversity, density and distribution of pollinators around the world, resulting in global
pollinator crisis. The crisis is also threatening the survival of managed pollinators that
are being used routinely for decades for pollination services of a large number of
crop species grown in monoculture cropping system. Thus, pollination constraints
have raised serious concern on the sustenance of crop productivity and plant
diversity in the coming decades. Concerted efforts are being made around the world
to study pollinator and pollination both in natural and agricultural habitats to
mitigate the crisis. Recent approaches have been to use integrated pollination
services using the wild as well as managed pollinators for crop species and to make
the agricultural and natural habitats favourable for the sustenance of pollinators.
Unfortunately, biologists in the tropics in general and India in particular have
remained indifferent about pollinators and pollination services of wild as well as
pollinator-dependent crop species. Serious efforts are needed to initiate extensive
studies on the pollination ecology of our crops and wild species and make all
possible efforts to identify and alleviate the pollinator crisis.