www.acsanm.

org Article

Photothermal Electrospun Nanofibers Containing Polydopamine-

Coated Halloysite Nanotubes as Antibacterial Air Filters
Oyku Demirel, Sarp Kolgesiz, Sena Yuce, Serap Hayat Soytaş, Derya Y. Koseoglu-Imer,
and Hayriye Unal*
Cite This: ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137 Read Online

ACCESS Metrics & More Article Recommendations *

sı Supporting Information
See https://pubs.acs.org/sharingguidelines for options on how to legitimately share published articles.

ABSTRACT: Antibacterial air filter media offer an important

solution to indoor air pollution from bioaerosols, which pose a
serious threat to global public health. In this study, we introduced an
Downloaded via SABANCI UNIV on March 9, 2023 at 17:38:19 (UTC).

antibacterial air filter based on nanofibers functionalized with a

photothermal agent, which deactivates bacteria upon near-infrared
(NIR) irradiation. Halloysite nanotube (HNT) clay nanoparticles
coated with polydopamine (PDA), which heat up when exposed to
NIR light, were utilized as photothermal agents to be incorporated
into polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers. The resulting PAN/HNT-
PDA nanofibers reached 102 °C after 2 min of NIR irradiation and
physically destroyed Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) cells that were
in contact with the nanofibers. In a simulated air filtration test
system, photothermal nanofibers demonstrated a bioaerosol
filtration efficiency of 99.97% and a quality factor of 0.14 Pa−1. 107S. aureus cells captured on the nanofibers were killed via a 10
min NIR-light irradiation, whereas the light-activated antibacterial properties of the nanofibers were maintained over 5 bioaerosol
flow/NIR-treatment cycles. The photothermal agent-containing electrospun nanofibers presented here have a strong potential for
aerosol removal as light-activated antibacterial air filters.
KEYWORDS: photothermal agents, nanofiber, air filter, bioaerosol removal, light-activated antibacterial activity

■ INTRODUCTION
Indoor air pollution caused by the deterioration of air quality
fact that the microorganisms captured on the filters remain
alive and the air filters become a secondary source of pollution
via aerosol particles is an important environmental problem constitutes an important problem. The high humidity in air
filtration systems, along with the organic/inorganic particles
that can have significant health consequences.1 One of the
retained on the filter media, create a suitable environment for
important sources of indoor air pollution is bioaerosols, which
the growth of microorganisms, which not only decreases the
are composed of bacteria, fungi, fungal spores, viruses, pollen,
filter efficiency but also poses the risk of pathogens being
and their airborne constituents.2,3 Bioaerosols are found in
reintroduced into the air.11 Therefore, there is a substantial
homes, schools, commercial and office buildings, and other
need for antimicrobial electrospun air filters that enable the
indoor common spaces where people spend the majority of
inactivation of captured bioaerosol particles.
their time, raising concerns for human health as they create a
Antibacterial properties have been imparted to air filters via
variety of diseases. Some of the diseases include sick building
the coating of antibacterial agents onto the surfaces of
syndrome, respiratory sensitization, and infectious diseases
nanofibers by dip coating, aerosol-based processes, or the
such as Legionnaires’ disease and Covid-19.4
integration of the antimicrobial agents into the electrospinning
Conventional air filters that are used to control indoor air
precursor solutions.12−14 Silver- and titanium-based nano-
quality by removing micron-sized airborne particles can
particles,15−17 carbon nanotubes,18 and natural plant ex-
capture larger bioaerosol particles and play a significant role
tracts19−21 have been incorporated into electrospun nanofibers,
in minimizing the consequences of indoor air pollution.5
However, their effect on the removal of submicron bioaerosol
particles is negligible.6 Air filter media prepared from Received: September 12, 2022
nanofibers, on the other hand, are excellent candidates for Accepted: November 11, 2022
the removal of fine bioaerosol particles due to their nanoscale Published: November 23, 2022
pore sizes, large surface-to-volume ratios, and excellent physical
properties.7−10 While the inherent advantages of electrospun
nanofibers allow efficient capture of bioaerosol particles, the
© 2022 The Authors. Published by
American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
18127 ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
resulting in antibacterial air filters. Bioaerosol particles that are
captured on the air filter medium are inactivated via the
biochemical toxicity provided by the incorporated antibacterial
agents. Antibacterial air filters, that can physically inactivate the
captured microorganisms, thus having a killing mechanism to
which pathogens cannot develop resistance, have not been
reported.
Incorporation of photothermal agents, which generate local
temperature elevations when irradiated with near infrared
(NIR) light, has been demonstrated to result in antimicrobial
materials and surfaces which can physically disrupt micro-
organisms via light-activated heat generation.22−24 Composite
nanofibers comprising photothermal agents have also been
shown to kill bacteria and viruses in membrane distillation,
cancer therapy, and biomedical applications,25−27 but their
utilization as antibacterial air filters was not demonstrated
before.
This study focused on the development of a photothermal
agent containing antibacterial air filters which can kill retained
microorganisms by NIR-light activation. NIR-light irradiation
activates the photothermal agents, resulting in a temperature
increase at the nanofiber’s surface, which kills the bacteria via
hyperthermic effects. In our previous research, halloysite
nanotubes (HNT), which are hollow nontoxic28 tubular clay
nanoparticles widely utilized as functional green nanofillers in
composites,29−31 were coated with photothermal polydop-
amine (PDA), a sticky protein imitation found in mussels, to
create nontoxic clay-based photothermal nanohybrids (HNT-
PDA) with strong light-to-heat conversion properties.32 Here,
HNT-PDA nanohybrids were incorporated into polymeric
electrospun nanofibers to obtain air filter membranes imparted
with photothermal properties, which heat up and kill bacteria
upon NIR light irradiation. The light-activated antibacterial
properties along with aerosol filtration properties of the
photothermal agent containing nanofibers were investigated.
As the first example of antibacterial nanofibrous air filters,
which can physically deactivate retained bacteria upon light-
stimulus, the membranes presented in this study have a strong
potential to provide a solution to the problems associated with
bioaerosol-based air pollution.
■ EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Chemicals. HNTs were purchased from Eczacıbaşı ESAN
(Turkey). Dopamine (3-hydroxytyramine hydro-chloride) was
provided by Acros Organics Inc. Ultrapure Tris base (Tris-
(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane) was purchased from MP Biomed-
icals, LLC. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) (Mw = 150 kDa) was provided by
Sigma-Aldrich. N,N-Dimethylformamide 99.8% was purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich. Tryptic soy broth (TSB) and agar powder were
procured from Medimark (Italy). Deionized (DI) water was used in
all experiments. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) (ATCC 29213)
bacteria were used for the antibacterial activity tests. The organic
model, aerosol bis(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (DEHS) ≥ 97.0% (GC),
and the inorganic model, aerosol sodium chloride (NaCl), were
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.
Preparation and Characterization of HNT-PDA Nano-
hybrids. The preparation of HNT-PDA nanohybrids was described
in our prior work in detail.33 Briefly, neat HNTs were dispersed in
deionized water at a concentration of 10 mg/mL by ultrasonication
(QSonica, Q700, Newtown, CT, USA) at 50% amplitude with a 5 s
pulse on and a 2 s pulse off in an ice bath for 20 min. Dopamine was
added to the HNT dispersion at a concentration of 8 mg/mL. The
pH of the dispersion was adjusted to 8.5 by adding the Tris base, and
the dispersion was continuously stirred for 24 h at 30 °C. The
dispersion was centrifuged at 11,000 rpm and washed six times with
18128
www.acsanm.org Article
deionized water to remove the residual dopamine. HNT-PDA
nanohybrids in powder form were dried at 70 °C for 24 h.
The nanohybrids’ PDA content was determined by thermogravi-
metric analysis (TGA) [Shimadzu Corp. DTG-60H (TGA/DTA)].
TGA was carried out under nitrogen flow with a scan range of 30−
1000 °C and a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Calculations were done to
determine the weight percent of PDA by comparing the weight loss of
HNT and HNT-PDA nanohybrid between 30 and 1000 °C.
The morphology of the HNT-PDA nanohybrids was evaluated
using the Zeiss LEO Supra 35VP scanning electron microscope
(SEM). Images were collected at 3 kV using the secondary electron
detector after the samples were coated with Au−Pd.
The time−temperature profiles of the HNT-PDA nanohybrids
were constructed to examine their photothermal properties. 0.5 g of
HNT-PDA nanohybrids in powder form was placed in a Teflon
holder under the infrared incandescent light bulb at 200 mW/cm2
(Philips, Incandescent 230-250V BR125) light source, and temper-
atures were recorded using a FLIR E6xt thermal camera. Measure-
ments were made on three different samples; mean and standard error
values were reported.
Preparation of the PAN/HNT-PDA Nanofibers. The electro-
spinning solutions consisted of PAN (7 wt % in DMF) and 10, 30,
and 50 wt % HNT-PDA nanohybrids. HNT-PDA nanohybrids were
dispersed in DMF by ultrasonication for 20 min at 50% amplitude
with a 5 s pulse on and a 2 s pulse off in an ice bath. Then, PAN was
added into the prepared dispersion and stirred with a magnetic bar at
500 rpm for 2 days at room temperature. In addition, an
electrospinning solution composed of PAN (7 wt % in DMF) and
50 wt % neat HNTs was prepared to obtain PAN/HNT_50
nanofibers.
PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers were produced utilizing an electro-
spinning system (Inovenso starter kit) that included a syringe pump, a
vertical metal plate collector, and a DC voltage power supply. PAN/
HNT-PDA electrospinning solutions were transferred into a 5 mL
syringe with a diameter of 13.10 mm, fitted with a stainless-steel
needle. The electrically grounded 15 × 15 cm metal plate wrapped
with aluminum foil was placed 20 cm ahead of the needle tip. The
applied voltage and the solution flow rate were set to 12 kV and 1
mL/h, respectively.
Characterization of the PAN/HNT-PDA Nanofibers. The
actual HNT and HNT-PDA content of the nanofibers were measured
by TGA (Shimadzu Corp. DTG-60H (TGA/DTA)). TGA was
performed with a scan range of 30−1000 °C and a heating rate of 10
°C/min under nitrogen flow. The weight-loss differences between
PAN nanofiber and PAN/HNT-PDA nanofiber at 30 to 1000 °C
were calculated to determine the weight percent of the HNT-PDA
nanohybrid in the nanofiber.
The surface morphology and diameter of nanofibers were evaluated
using Zeiss LEO Supra 35VP SEM. Images were collected at 2 kV
using the secondary electron detector after the samples were coated
with Au−Pd. The diameter distribution diagrams of the fibers were
computed using the ImageJ application by measuring the fiber
diameter at 100 different spots in the SEM images.
The tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and elongation at break (%)
of the nanofibers were calculated using the TA-XT Plus Texture
Analyzer (Stable Micro System, U.K.) equipped with a 50 kg load cell
and Tensile Grips A/TG (Stable Micro System, U.K.). Nanofibers
with thicknesses in the range of 0.01−0.025 mm were cut into 20 mm
× 50 mm dimensions. Before the experiment, the height and force
calibration of the instrument was completed. The distance between
the grips was set to 50 mm, the test speed was set to 0.5 mm/s and
the breaking distance was set to 10 mm. For each nanofiber, 5
different samples were prepared and tested. The statistical analysis of
the data was completed with one-way ANOVA (Tukey) analysis
(Origin Lab Corporation, USA) at p < 0.05.
Photothermal Properties of the PAN/HNT-PDA Nanofibers.
The time-temperature profiles of the nanofibers were constructed to
examine their photothermal properties. The nanofiber was cut into 1
× 1 cm dimensions and placed in a Teflon holder under the selected
light source, and temperatures were recorded using a FLIR E6xt
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
Figure 1. (a) Schematic representation of the HNT-PDA synthesis and SEM images of neat HNTs and HNT-PDA nanohybrids, (b) TGA of
HNTs and HNT-PDA nanohybrids, and (c) time-temperature profiles of neat HNTs and HNT-PDA nanohybrids under irradiation from an
infrared incandescent lamp at 200 mW/cm2 light density.
thermal camera. The following light sources and light densities were
utilized: (i) an 808 nm laser module (STEMINC, SMM22808E1200)
(Doral, FL USA) at 800 mW/cm2, (ii) an infrared incandescent light
bulb at 100 mW/cm2 (Philips, Incandescent 230-250V BR125), (iii)
an infrared incandescent light bulb at 200 mW/cm2 (Philips,
Incandescent 230-250V BR125) (iv) a solar simulator (Oriel LCS-
100) at 1 sun (100 mW/cm2), and (v) a solar simulator (Oriel LCS-
100) at 2 sun (200 mW/cm2). Time-temperature profiles were
constructed with data obtained from three different spots on each
nanofiber; mean and standard error values were reported.
Light-Activated Antibacterial Properties of the PAN/HNT-
PDA Nanofibers. S. aureus (ATCC 29213) cells were cultured in 3
mL of TSB growth medium for 24 h at 37 °C in an incubator with
shaking at 200 rpm. The bacteria that had grown were centrifuged,
washed twice with sterile Tris buffer (pH 7.5) and resuspended at a
concentration of 108 CFU/mL in Tris buffer. 1 × 1 cm nanofibers
were cut and placed in wells of Teflon molds with a radius of 1 cm
and a height of 0.5 cm. The nanofiber surface has been completely
covered with 100 μL of the bacterial suspension. To ensure that the
bacteria were not killed by the light alone, the same amount of the
bacterial suspension was added to an empty well as a control.
Additionally, PAN/HNT_50 composite nanofibers were utilized as a
control to demonstrate that PDA-induced light-to-heat conversion
basically caused the physical death of the bacteria. For each of the
nanofibers, two samples were prepared. To examine the NIR light-
18129
www.acsanm.org Article
activated antibacterial properties of the nanofibers, one sample was
treated with NIR light for varying periods of time (2, 5, 10 min), while
the control sample was kept in the dark for the same amount of time.
Bacteria on the nanofiber samples were transferred into 1 mL of Tris
buffer by vortexing for 2 min. Bacterial suspensions were serially
diluted, plated on TSB agar plates, and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h.
Colony counting was performed, and the viability of S. aureus on the
nanofiber samples before and after NIR light-treatment was reported
as log10 CFU/mL. Mean and standard error values from three
different experiments were reported.
Air Filtration Properties of the PAN/HNT-PDA Nanofibers.
The filtration performance tests were carried out using a custom-
made, continuous flow air filtration test system constructed with an
aerosol generator (TSI Six-Jet Atomizer 9306), a diffusion dryer (TSI
3062-NC), an optical particle sizer (OPS) (TSI 3330), a differential
pressure gauge, and a custom-made stainless-steel filter module with a
quartz top onto which the nanofiber membranes of 10 cm diameter
can be inserted. An aqueous neutralized monodisperse NaCl solution
at 1 g/L concentration and DEHS solution in distilled water at 0.5 g/
L concentration were loaded into the aerosol generator that is
connected to a compressed air line at 10 psi. Generated aerosol passed
through the diffusion dryer and entered the filter module at an air flow
rate of 0.5 L/min and a velocity of 0.02 m/s. Particle quantities
downstream and upstream of the filter were determined with the OPS
after operating the system for 50 min.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials www.acsanm.org Article

Figure 2. (a) Preparation of the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers; (b) visual appearance of the PAN and PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofibers.

Filtration efficiency (η, %) and quality factor (QF) were calculated
with eqs 1 and 2, respectively, by determining the differential pressure
(ΔP) at the inlet and outlet of the filter module and measuring the
total number of particles both inlet (Cin) and outlet (Cout) using the
OPS.
Cout
(%) = 1
Cin (1)
ln(1 ) used as natural, nontoxic, low-cost additives, that can impart
QF (kPa 1) =
P (2)
Bioaerosol Removal and Antibacterial Properties of the
PAN/HNT-PDA Nanofibers. The bioaerosol removal and anti-
bacterial properties of the nanofibers were investigated via the
following procedure: S. aureus cells were cultured in 3 mL of TSB
growth medium for 24 h at 37 °C with shaking at 200 rpm, washed
twice with sterile Tris buffer (pH 7.5) and resuspended in Tris buffer
at a concentration of 108 CFU/mL. The prepared bacterial
suspension was diluted in 50 mL of deionized water to generate a
bacterial suspension at a concentration of 2.0 × 108 CFU/mL, which
was transferred into the chamber of the aerosol generator. After the
nanofiber was placed in the filter module, the system parameters were
set to a flow rate of 0.5 L/min and a velocity of 0.02 m/s. After the
system was operated for 50 min, the nanofiber sample on the filter
module was irradiated with the near-infrared incandescent light bulb
at 200 mW/cm2 via the quartz top of the filter module for 0, 2, 4, and
10 min. Light-treated nanofiber filters were aseptically removed from
the filtration module and placed in 10 mL of Tris to transfer the
bacteria retained on the air filters into the buffer. After vortexing for 2
min, bacterial suspensions were serially diluted and plated on TSB
agar plates. Plates were incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Colony counting
was performed, and the viability was expressed as log10 CFU/mL.
To investigate the reusability of the nanofibers, nanofiber samples
were exposed to S. aureus aerosols in the filtration system as detailed
above for 50 min and irradiated with NIR light for 10 min. This cycle
was repeated three times without replacing the nanofiber sample.
Following the three-aerosol exposure/irradiation cycles, the nanofiber
sample was aseptically removed, and the viability of the bacteria on
the filter was determined with the procedure explained above.
were not reacted with dopamine monomer indicated that the
HNT-PDA nanohybrids contained 8 wt % PDA (Figure 1b).
The time-temperature profile of the HNT-PDA nanohybrids
under irradiation from an NIR lamp revealed that the
nanohybrids can be heated to 212 °C under 2 min irradiation,
whereas the neat HNTs did not heat up under the same
conditions (Figure 1c). The PDA coating on the HNTs
introduced photothermal properties and allowed them to be
light-to-heat conversion properties to nanofibers.
HNT-PDA integrated PAN nanofibers were produced by
the electrospinning method (Figure 2a). The weight ratio of
the PAN and the HNT-PDA was varied to determine the
optimum formulation that allows nanofiber formation with a
uniform HNT-PDA distribution and the highest NIR-light-
induced temperature elevations. By dispersing HNT-PDA
nanohybrids in DMF and mixing them with PAN in various
proportions, an electrospinning solution with the required
viscosity for electrospinning was obtained. The electrospinning
solution did not present any phase separations and
precipitations, demonstrating appropriate compatibility be-
tween PAN and HNT-PDA nanohybrids. Electrospinning of
the dispersion resulted in a gray-colored nanofiber mat,
confirming the successful incorporation of the black-colored
HNT-PDA nanoparticles, whereas the control PAN nanofiber
was white-cream in color (Figure 2b).
The presence of the HNT-PDA nanohybrids in the
nanofiber mat was further verified using TGA (Figure S1
and Table 1). The decomposition onset temperature (Tonset) of
the PAN nanofiber was shifted to lower temperatures when 50
Table 1. Thermal Properties of the PAN/HNT-PDA
Nanofibers; the HNT-PDA Content of the Nanofibers
Calculated from the % Char at 1000 °C Values

■ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

HNT-PDA nanohybrids were utilized as the photothermal sample name
Tonset
(°C)
% char at
1000 °C
HNT-
PDAtheoretical
(wt %)
HNT-
PDAexperimental
(%)
agents to be incorporated into nanofibers.33 Oxidative PAN 292 2.0
polymerization of dopamine in the presence of HNT PAN/HNT_50 276 38.7 50 50.6
substrates resulted in PDA-coated clay nanoparticles, which PAN/HNT-PDA_10 284 12.2 10 15.9
preserved their nanotubular structure (Figure 1a). TGA of the PAN/HNT-PDA_30 300 29.1 30 38.0
HNT-PDA nanohybrids in comparison to neat HNTs, that PAN/HNT-PDA_50 332 43.0 50 56.2

18130 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
Figure 3. SEM images at 5k (top raw) and 50k (middle raw) magnification and nanofiber diameter distributions (bottom row) of PAN (a), PAN/
HNT-PDA_10 (b), PAN/HNT-PDA_30 (c), and PAN/HNT-PDA_50 (d) nanofibers.
wt % neat HNTs were incorporated, demonstrating a
destabilizing effect, potentially due to the aggregation of
HNTs at high concentrations. On the other hand, when HNT-
PDA nanohybrids were incorporated into PAN at the same
concentration, the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers presented
decomposition temperatures 40 °C higher than those from
the PAN nanofibers, indicating improved thermal stability in
PAN/HNT-PDA composite nanofibers. The carbonization of
the PDA on the HNT-PDA nanohybrids starting at 220 °C has
potentially created a synergistic effect with PAN, which
resulted in more stable PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers. As the
control PAN nanofiber was entirely decomposed at 1000 °C,
the remaining weight of the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers at
this temperature allowed us to determine the amount of the
HNT-PDA nanohybrids integrated into the nanofibers. The
experimental HNT-PDA nanohybrid content of the nanofibers
were calculated by dividing the % char at 1000 °C of the
nanofiber by the weight loss of the PAN nanofiber and the
weight loss of HNT-PDA nanohybrids at the same temper-
ature and are given in Table 1. The fact that the total weight
loss of the composite nanofibers decreased proportionally to
the amount of the theoretically integrated HNT-PDA
nanohybrids proved that the HNT-PDA nanohybrids were
successfully integrated into the nanofibers. Furthermore, the
experimental HNT-PDA nanohybrid content largely coincided
with the theoretical HNT-PDA nanohybrid content, which
emphasizes that the PAN and HNT-PDA nanohybrids were
compatible and that all HNT-PDA nanohybrids present in the
electrospinning solution were integrated into the composite
nanofibers.
The images acquired from the SEM analysis of the PAN/
HNT-PDA fiber mats demonstrated that the nanofiber
formation was successful (Figure 3). As the amount of the
HNT-PDA nanohybrids integrated into the nanofiber
increased, agglomerated fragments and bead structures were
18131
www.acsanm.org Article
observed. These structures potentially consisted of nano-
hybrids that were not completely dispersed in the electro-
spinning solution and remained agglomerated, resulting in
expanded fibers when present. Bead formation was observed in
nanofibers with an HNT-PDA content greater than 30 wt %.
The type of anionic or cationic agents integrated into the
electrospinning solution has been shown to have a
considerable impact on the properties of the solution.34 The
difference in the electrical conductivity of the polymer and the
HNT-PDA nanohybrids might have caused the bead
formation. Studies in the literature have proven that bead
formation in nanofibers has a positive effect on efficiency and
low airflow resistance in air filters.35,36 Bead-on-string
structures for use in the production of PAN nanofiber air
filters have been attempted and were shown to be effective at
holding onto ultra-fine particulate matter.37 Thus, the PAN/
HNT-PDA nanofibers with the higher HNT-PDA photo-
thermal agent content can be effectively utilized as air filters.
When the size distributions of nanofibers containing the
HNT-PDA photothermal agents were analyzed, it has been
seen that the nanofiber diameters varied in the range of 200−
250 nm, whereas the diameter distributions of neat PAN
nanofibers were mainly observed between 200 and 500 nm.
The addition of HNT-PDA nanoparticles likely changes the
properties of the electrospinning solution, promoting better
charge distribution and resulting in thinner fibers. Similarly, the
reduction in the fiber diameter with the addition of PDA
nanoparticles has been previously reported in the production
of electrospun polycaprolactone fibers.38 The fiber diameter
distributions obtained from PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers are
similar to other PAN air filter studies.39−41 In general, a
reduction in fiber diameter leads to a reduction in the overall
pore size distribution of the nanofiber, which increases the
uptake of small diameter particles, especially in air filtration
applications.42
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
Figure 4. SEM images of PAN/HNT-PDA (a,b) and PAN (c) nanofibers.
The distribution of the HNTs in the nanofibers was also
investigated with SEM at higher magnifications (Figure 4).
While PAN nanofibers presented fine, uniform nanostructures,
the HNT-PDA nanohybrids were easily visible within the
PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers, either as individually oriented
along the flow direction of the nanofibers or within aggregated
structures incorporated into the nanofibers.
The mechanical properties of the composite nanofibers in
comparison to neat PAN nanofibers were demonstrated in
Figures 5 and S2. The elongation at break and the tensile
Figure 5. Mechanical properties of PAN and PAN/HNT-PDA
nanofibers. (a) Elongation at break, (b) tensile strength, and (c)
Young’s modulus.
strength of the composite nanofibers were slightly improved
compared to neat PAN nanofibers. However, the Young’s
modulus of the samples did not significantly change at
increasing HNT-PDA concentrations inside the nanofibers.
While the tensile strength of the nanofibers increased at 10 and
30 wt % HNT-PDA content, it did not further increase above
30 wt % HNT-PDA content, potentially due to the
18132
www.acsanm.org Article
agglomeration of the HNT-PDA nanohybrids, which created
local small vacancies on the fiber matrix, directly affecting the
mechanical properties. Overall, the presence of the HNT-PDA
nanohybrids inside the nanofibers improved the mechanical
properties because of the high aspect ratio of the nanohybrids
and their nucleating effect on the nanofibers, and durable
composite nanofibers that are suitable for air filter applications
were obtained.
The light-activated heating properties of the composite
nanofibers and whether they can be heated to temperatures
that can disrupt bacteria under NIR-light irradiation were
studied. The time-temperature profiles of HNT-PDA contain-
ing nanofibers were constructed by monitoring the NIR lamp
irradiation-triggered temperature elevations. As shown in
Figure 6, the irradiation of the neat PAN and PAN/HNT
Figure 6. Time-temperature profiles of PAN, PAN/HNT, and PAN/
HNT-PDA nanofibers with varying HNT-PDA content under NIR
irradiation from an incandescent light bulb at 200 mW/cm2 light
density.
nanofibers under the NIR light source did not cause any
temperature elevations in 2 min, whereas the HNT-PDA-
containing nanofibers were heated significantly under the same
conditions due to the photothermal character of the HNT-
PDA nanohybrids. The degree of light-triggered temperature
elevations was observed to be in direct proportion to the
HNT-PDA photothermal agent loading rates of the composite
nanofibers. The temperature of PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nano-
fibers with the highest content of photothermal agents by
weight reached 102 °C when irradiated with a NIR lamp for 2
min. Thus, it has been shown that the photothermal effect of
the HNT-PDA nanohybrids was transferred to the composite
nanofibers and that the degree of the light-triggered heating of
the nanofibers can be adjusted by changing the amount of the
integrated photothermal agent. The temperature elevations
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials www.acsanm.org Article

Figure 7. (a) Schematic representation of the in vitro antibacterial tests, (b) viability of S. aureus suspension on PAN and PAN/HNT-PDA_50
nanofibers after 0, 2, 4, and 10 min NIR irradiation at 200 mW/cm2 light density.

Table 2. Air Filtration Performance of PAN, PAN/HNT_50, and PAN/HNT-PDA_50 Nanofibers

sample Name inner particle number (#/cm3) outer particle number (#/cm3) η (%) ΔP (Pa) QF (Pa−1)
inorganic aerosol (NaCl) PAN 3745 0.053 99.9976 10 1.06
PAN/HNT_50 3625 0.037 99.9990 60 0.19
PAN/HNT-PDA_50 3450 0.042 99.9988 60 0.19
organic aerosol (DEHS) PAN 2452 0.012 99.9995 10 1.22
PAN/HNT_50 2832 0.030 99.9989 60 0.19
PAN/HNT-PDA_50 2620 0.036 99.9986 50 0.22
bacterial aerosol (S. aureus) PAN 3400 3.46 99.8981 10 0.69
PAN/HNT_50 3798 1.96 99.9484 60 0.13
PAN/HNT-PDA_50 3866 1.05 99.9729 60 0.14

caused by the irradiation of nanofibers under different light
sources, including a NIR laser module and a solar simulator
were also investigated, and it was demonstrated that the PAN/
HNT-PDA nanofibers can be remotely heated by NIR
irradiation at different light densities (Figure S3).
The utilization of the PAN/HNT-PDA composite nano-
fibers present unique light-to-heat conversion properties as
membranes that can kill bacteria via light-activated heating was
investigated. The nanofibers with the highest amount of
photothermal agent (PAN/HNT-PDA_50), which was shown
to present the highest light-activated temperature elevations
was tested in terms of its antibacterial properties. The viability
of an aqueous suspension of S. aureus dropped on the PAN/
HNT-PDA_50 nanofibers was examined after NIR irradiation
of the nanofiber mat for different durations (Figure 7).
Irradiation of the neat PAN nanofibers that did not contain the
photothermal HNT-PDA nanohybrids resulted in insignificant
bacterial fatalities that are independent of the irradiation
duration. On the other hand, the number of viable S. aureus
dropped on the PAN/HNT-PDA_50 decreased significantly
with increasing NIR-irradiation times, and all of the
approximately 108 bacteria were killed when the composite
nanofibers were exposed to irradiation for 10 min. The fact
that suspensions of S. aureus that were exposed to the same
irradiation conditions did not present any killing confirmed
that the bacteria were killed by light-activated heating of the
HNT-PDA photothermal agents in the nanofibers and not
directly by light. Similarly, bacteria dropped on the PAN/
18133
HNT-PDA nanofibers and kept in the dark for the same period
of time as the irradiated nanofibers remained alive, which
implied that there is no eradication of bacteria by environ-
mental factors and that PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers do not
have any antibacterial activity in the absence of NIR light.
Consequently, PAN/HNT-PDA composite nanofibers were
shown to have remarkable light-activated antibacterial proper-
ties in in vitro testing and strong potential for use as air filter
membranes that can be purified from microorganisms by NIR
irradiation.
The aerosol filtration performance of the PAN/HNT-
PDA_50 nanofibers was studied in comparison to neat PAN
nanofibers to determine the effect of the HNT-PDA
nanohybrids on the air filtration properties. The aerosol
filtration performance of the nanofibers was tested using the
filtration test system schematized in Figure S4. Aerosols of
neutralized monodisperse NaCl, DEHS, and S. aureus bacteria
were utilized as models that simulate inorganic, organic, and
bio aerosols in the indoor air, respectively.
The filtration performance of the PAN/HNT-PDA_50
nanofibers, which presented strong light-to-heat conversion
properties and excellent light-activated bacteria-killing poten-
tial was investigated in the air filtration test system. Filtration
efficiency, pressure drop, and quality factor values for the neat
PAN, PAN/HNT_50, and PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofibers
obtained after inorganic (NaCl) and organic (DEHS) aerosol
flow for 50 min are tabulated in Table 2.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
Figure 8. (a) Schematic illustration of the light-activated deactivation of the bioaerosol particles captured on the air filter membrane, (b) viability of
S. aureus particles on PAN, PAN/HNT, and PAN/HNT-PDA composite nanofibers after 0, 4, and 10 min irradiation with an NIR lamp at 200
mW/cm2. (c) Viability of S. aureus captured on the PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofiber after multiple bioaerosol flow/NIR-irradiation cycles.
The pressure drop (ΔP) of the PAN/HNT-PDA_50
nanofiber filters under different aerosol flows was observed
to be slightly higher than the ΔP of the neat PAN nanofibers
due to the HNT-PDA photothermal agents integrated into the
fiber, but the ΔP values of the composite nanofibers were
below 60 Pa. The quality factor (QF) is also a standard
parameter for assessing air filter performance.43,44 While QF
values of the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers slightly decreased
relative to the QF values for the neat PAN nanofiber under
organic, inorganic, and bio aerosol flow, the nanocomposite
nanofibers containing the HNT-PDA photothermal agents
presented acceptable QF values ranging between 0.14 and 0.69
Pa−1. Despite having lower QF values than the PAN nanofiber,
the bead-on-string PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofibers still had
competitive QF values. For both PAN and PAN/HNT-
PDA_50 nanofibers, the filtration efficiency was above 99.97%.
PAN/HNT nanofibers presented similar air filtration perform-
ance as the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers, demonstrating that
the PDA coating on the HNTs did not affect the air filtration
properties. SEM images of the PAN and PAN/HNT-PDA_50
nanofibers obtained after 50 min of NaCl and DEHS aerosol
flow have also clearly visualized the filtration performance of
the air filters, showing particles captured on the surface and
within the pores of the nanofibers (Figure S5). As a result, the
composite nanofibers and PAN nanofibers developed were
18134
www.acsanm.org Article
demonstrated to have superior aerosol filtration capabilities
and achieved high QFs.
The aerosol filtration test setup was also utilized to assess
the efficiency of the PAN/HNT-PDA composite nanofibers as
antibacterial air filters, which can deactivate the bioaerosol
particles trapped on the membrane upon NIR irradiation. The
light-activated antibacterial activity of the nanofibers was
examined by exposing them to a 50 min of S. aureus aerosol
flow followed by NIR irradiation for various periods of time
and determining the viability of the captured bacteria (Figure
8a). When the PAN and PAN/HNT_50 nanofibers were
exposed to NIR light, approximately 107 bacteria captured on
the nanofibers remained alive; independent of the duration of
the irradiation; no significant killing activity was observed. On
the other hand, when the PAN/HNT-PDA_10, PAN/HNT-
PDA_30, and PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofibers with approx-
imately the same number of bacteria on the surface were
exposed to NIR light, significant killing activity was observed
(Figure 8b). On the PAN/HNT-PDA_50 air filters, a 5 log
reduction in the number of viable bacteria was observed after 4
min of irradiation with NIR light. Irradiation of the same
nanofiber for 10 min resulted in killing of all bacteria. In light
of the comparison between PAN/HNT_50 and PAN/HNT-
PDA_50 composite nanofibers, the results indicated that the
presence of the photothermal PDA coating on the HNTs
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
caused the killing of bacteria. The antibacterial properties of
PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofiber, which were proven in an in
vitro test, were also confirmed in an aerosol filtration system,
where bioaerosol particles captured on the nanofiber were
entirely deactivated remotely with NIR irradiation.
Bacteria attached to the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofiber surface
after being exposed to bioaerosol flow for 50 min were
visualized before and after NIR irradiation of the nanofibers.
SEM images in Figure S6 clearly demonstrate that bacteria
were entrapped on the nanofiber surface following the
bioaerosol flow exposure. The bacteria attached to the
nonirradiated nanofiber surface appeared to retain their
spherical shape and to be alive, whereas the majority of
bacteria on the irradiated PAN/HNT-PDA_50 surface
appeared to be dead, as evidenced by their radically disrupted
morphology; thus, the lethal activity of the PAN/HNT-
PDA_50 nanofibers on S. aureus was observable.
In terms of environmental damage and financial expenditure,
the reusability and sustainability of antibacterial air filters are
crucial. To investigate their reusability after NIR light
treatment, the PAN/HNT-PDA_50 nanofibers were irradiated
for 10 min after being exposed to bacterial aerosol for 50 min
in the aerosol filtration test system, and this procedure was
repeated five times under the same conditions. Finally, the
viability of bacteria before and after 5 aerosol flow/irradiation
cycles was evaluated. Figure 8c demonstrates that the killing
activity of the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers remained the same
and that the nanofiber filter was able to deactivate all captured
bacteria even after 5 cycles. This result demonstrated that the
composite nanofibers were stable, so that they could reach the
same temperature required to deactivate the bacteria after
multiple cycles of light exposure and are suitable for reuse.
■ CONCLUSIONS
The HNT-PDA photothermal agents, which were prepared by
coating the natural clay nanoparticles with PDA, have been
integrated into electrospun nanofibers, resulting in antibacterial
composite nanofiber mats that kill S. aureus bacteria via NIR
irradiation. The amount of the photothermal agent contained
in the nanofibers proportionally increased the temperature
reached by the nanofibers upon NIR irradiation. The
temperature of the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers was observed
to rise above 100 °C in nearly 2 min. The integration of HNT-
PDA photothermal agents did not adversely impact the aerosol
filtration properties of the composite nanofibers, but imparted
light-activated antibacterial properties, which allowed deacti-
vation of the bacteria captured by the nanofibers by light
activation. Even after being exposed to NIR light multiple
times, they exhibited reusability by reaching the same
temperature and deactivating the bacteria. To the best of our
knowledge, the PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers presented here
are the first examples of a photothermal air filter, which could
provide a new dimension to the air filtration application field.
By utilizing the heat produced by a widely obtainable light
source, bacteria such as S. aureus, which are important
contaminants found in indoor air, can be physically destroyed.
While antibacterial activity is commonly integrated into air
filter systems via various methods, this study demonstrates a
unique example of imparting air filters with antibacterial
properties by the preparation of composite membranes
containing photothermal agents.
18135
www.acsanm.org Article
■
*
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
sı Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026.
Stress−strain curves of PAN and PAN/HNT-PDA
nanofibers, time−temperature profiles of PAN, PAN/
HNT, and PAN/HNT-PDA nanofibers with varying
photothermal agent contents under different light
sources, and SEM images of PAN and PAN/HNT-
PDA_50 composite nanofibers exposed to 50 min NaCl
and DEHS aerosol flow (PDF)
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Hayriye Unal − SUNUM Nanotechnology Research Center,
Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; orcid.org/
0000-0002-9090-2440; Email: hunal@sabanciuniv.edu
Authors
Oyku Demirel − Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences,
Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; SUNUM
Nanotechnology Research Center, Sabanci University,
Istanbul 34956, Turkey
Sarp Kolgesiz − Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences,
Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; SUNUM
Nanotechnology Research Center, Sabanci University,
Istanbul 34956, Turkey
Sena Yuce − Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences,
Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; SUNUM
Nanotechnology Research Center, Sabanci University,
Istanbul 34956, Turkey
Serap Hayat Soytaş − SUNUM Nanotechnology Research
Center, Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey;
orcid.org/0000-0002-2114-8923
Derya Y. Koseoglu-Imer − Department of Environmental
Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak Campus,
Istanbul 34467, Turkey
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
Author Contributions
The manuscript was written through the contributions of all
authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of
the manuscript.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under the project
number 119Y131.
■ REFERENCES
(1) González-Martín, J.; Kraakman, N. J. R.; Pérez, C.; Lebrero, R.;
Muñoz, R. A state−of−the-art review on indoor air pollution and
strategies for indoor air pollution control. Chemosphere 2021, 262,
128376.
(2) Nazaroff, W. W. Indoor bioaerosol dynamics. Indoor Air 2016,
26, 61−78.
(3) Lee, B. U. Life Comes from the Air: A Short Review on
Bioaerosol Control. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2011, 11, 921−927.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials
(4) Kim, K. H.; Kabir, E.; Jahan, S. A. Airborne bioaerosols and their
impact on human health. J. Environ. Sci. 2018, 67, 23−35.
(5) Souzandeh, H.; Wang, Y.; Netravali, A. N.; Zhong, W. H.
Towards Sustainable and Multifunctional Air-Filters: A Review on
Biopolymer-Based Filtration Materials. Polym. Rev. 2019, 59, 651−
686.
(6) Podgórski, A.; Bałazy, A.; Gradoń, L. Application of nanofibers
to improve the filtration efficiency of the most penetrating aerosol
particles in fibrous filters. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2006, 61, 6804−6815.
(7) Khan, W. S.; Asmatulu, R.; Ceylan, M.; Jabbarnia, A. Recent
progress on conventional and non-conventional electrospinning
processes. Fibers Polym. 2013, 14, 1235−1247.
(8) Kadam, V. V.; Wang, L.; Padhye, R. Electrospun nanofibre
materials to filter air pollutants�A review. J. Ind. Textil. 2018, 47,
2253−2280.
(9) Zhao, X.; Wang, S.; Yin, X.; Yu, J.; Ding, B. Slip-Effect
Functional Air Filter for Efficient Purification of PM 2.5. Sci. Rep.
2016, 6, 1−11.
(10) Zhao, H. F.; Li, Y.; Sha, L. Z. Preparation of functional air filter
material based on biodegradable fibers and nano titanium dioxide.
Dig. J. Nanomater. Biostruct. 2018, 13, 391−397.
(11) Joe, Y. H.; Yoon, K. Y.; Hwang, J. Methodology for Modeling
the Microbial Contamination of Air Filters. PLoS One 2014, 9,
No. e88514.
(12) Kang, J. S.; Kim, H.; Choi, J.; Yi, H.; Seo, S. C.; Bae, G. N.;
Jung, J. H. Antimicrobial air filter fabrication using a continuous high-
throughput aerosol-based process. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2016, 16,
2059−2066.
(13) Song, K.; Wu, Q.; Qi, Y.; Kärki, T. Electrospun nanofibers with
antimicrobial properties. Electrospun Nanofibers 2017, 551−569.
(14) Komaladewi, A. A. I. A. S.; Khoiruddin, K.; Surata, I. W.;
Subagia, I. D. G. A.; Wenten, I. G.Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Air
Filter, 2018.
(15) Victor, F. S.; Kugarajah, V.; Bangaru, M.; Ranjan, S.;
Dharmalingam, S. Electrospun nanofibers of polyvinylidene fluoride
incorporated with titanium nanotubes for purifying air with bacterial
contamination. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 37520−37533.
(16) Vanangamudi, A.; Hamzah, S.; Singh, G. Synthesis of hybrid
hydrophobic composite air filtration membranes for antibacterial
activity and chemical detoxification with high particulate filtration
efficiency (PFE). Chem. Eng. J. 2015, 260, 801−808.
(17) Dong, H.; Wang, D.; Sun, G.; Hinestroza, J. P. Assembly of
metal nanoparticles on electrospun nylon 6 nanofibers by control of
interfacial hydrogen-bonding interactions. Chem. Mater. 2008, 20,
6627−6632.
(18) Hwang, G. B.; Sim, K. M.; Bae, G. N.; Jung, J. H. Synthesis of
hybrid carbon nanotube structures coated with Sophora flavescens
nanoparticles and their application to antimicrobial air filtration. J.
Aerosol Sci. 2015, 86, 44−54.
(19) Byun, H. R.; Park, S. Y.; Hwang, E. T.; Sang, B. I.; Min, J.;
Sung, D.; Choi, W. I.; Kim, S.; Lee, J. H. Antimicrobial air filter
coating with plant extracts against airborne microbes. Appl. Sci. 2020,
10, 9120.
(20) Son, B. C.; Park, C. H.; Kim, C. S. Fabrication of Antimicrobial
Nanofiber Air Filter Using Activated Carbon and Cinnamon Essential
Oil. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2020, 20, 4376−4380.
(21) Jung, J. H.; Hwang, G. B.; Park, S. Y.; Lee, J. E.; Nho, C. W.;
Lee, B. U.; Bae, G. N. Antimicrobial air filtration using airborne
Sophora flavescens natural-product nanoparticles. Aerosol Sci. Technol.
2011, 45, 1510−1518.
(22) Chen, Y.; Gao, Y.; Chen, Y.; Liu, L.; Mo, A.; Peng, Q.
Nanomaterials-based photothermal therapy and its potentials in
antibacterial treatment. J. Controlled Release 2020, 328, 251−262.
(23) Xu, J. W.; Yao, K.; Xu, Z. K. Nanomaterials with a
photothermal effect for antibacterial activities: An overview. Nanoscale
2019, 11, 8680−8691.
(24) Lishchynskyi, O.; Shymborska, Y.; Stetsyshyn, Y.; Raczkowska,
J.; Skirtach, A. G.; Peretiatko, T.; Budkowski, A. Passive antifouling
18136
www.acsanm.org Article
and active self-disinfecting antiviral surfaces. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 446,
137048.
(25) Xi, Y.; Ge, J.; Wang, M.; Chen, M.; Niu, W.; Cheng, W.; Xue,
Y.; Lin, C.; Lei, B. Bioactive Anti-inflammatory, Antibacterial,
Antioxidative Silicon-Based Nanofibrous Dressing Enables Cutaneous
Tumor Photothermo-Chemo Therapy and Infection-Induced Wound
Healing. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 2904−2916.
(26) Huang, P.; Gao, Y.; Lin, J.; Hu, H.; Liao, H. s.; Yan, X.; Tang,
Y.; Jin, A.; Song, J.; Niu, G.; Zhang, G.; Horkay, F.; Chen, X. Tumor-
Specific Formation of Enzyme-Instructed Supramolecular Self-
Assemblies as Cancer Theranostics. ACS Nano 2015, 9, 9517−9527.
(27) Zare, E. N.; Jamaledin, R.; Naserzadeh, P.; Afjeh-Dana, E.;
Ashtari, B.; Hosseinzadeh, M.; Vecchione, R.; Wu, A.; Tay, F. R.;
Borzacchiello, A.; Makvandi, P. Metal-Based Nanostructures/PLGA
Nanocomposites: Antimicrobial Activity, Cytotoxicity, and Their
Biomedical Applications. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 3279−
3300.
(28) Rozhina, E.; Batasheva, S.; Miftakhova, R.; Yan, X.; Vikulina, A.;
Volodkin, D.; Fakhrullin, R. Comparative cytotoxicity of kaolinite,
halloysite, multiwalled carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide. Appl.
Clay Sci. 2021, 205, 106041.
(29) Bertolino, V.; Cavallaro, G.; Milioto, S.; Lazzara, G.
Polysaccharides/Halloysite nanotubes for smart bionanocomposite
materials. Carbohydr. Polym. 2020, 245, 116502.
(30) Danyliuk, N.; Tomaszewska, J.; Tatarchuk, T. Halloysite
nanotubes and halloysite-based composites for environmental and
biomedical applications. J. Mol. Liq. 2020, 309, 113077.
(31) Idumah, C. I.; Hassan, A.; Ogbu, J.; Ndem, N.; Nwuzor, I. C.
Recently emerging advancements in halloysite nanotubes polymer
nanocomposites. Compos. Interfac. 2019, 26, 751−824.
(32) Yuce, S.; Demirel, O.; Alkan Tas, B.; Sungur, P.; Unal, H.
Halloysite Nanotube/Polydopamine Nanohybrids as Clay-Based
Photothermal Agents for Antibacterial Applications. ACS Appl.
Nano Mater. 2021, 4, 13432−13439.
(33) Yuce, S.; Demirel, O.; Alkan Tas, B.; Sungur, P.; Unal, H.
Halloysite Nanotube/Polydopamine Nanohybrids as Clay-Based
Photothermal Agents for Antibacterial Applications. ACS Appl.
Nano Mater. 2021, 4, 13432−13439.
(34) Lou, L.; Osemwegie, O.; Ramkumar, S. S. Functional
Nanofibers and Their Applications. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2020, 59,
5439−5455.
(35) Huang, J. J.; Tian, Y.; Wang, R.; Tian, M.; Liao, Y. Fabrication
of bead-on-string polyacrylonitrile nanofibrous air filters with superior
filtration efficiency and ultralow pressure drop. Sep. Purif. Technol.
2020, 237, 116377.
(36) Hu, S.; Chen, R.; Lu, P.; Zheng, Z.; Gu, G.; Wang, M.; Zhang,
X. Electrospun PAN-HNTs composite nanofiber membranes for
efficient electrostatic capture of particulate matters. Nanotechnology
2022, 33, 265702.
(37) Huang, J. J.; Tian, Y.; Wang, R.; Tian, M.; Liao, Y. Fabrication
of bead-on-string polyacrylonitrile nanofibrous air filters with superior
filtration efficiency and ultralow pressure drop. Sep. Purif. Technol.
2020, 237, 116377.
(38) Deng, Y.; Yang, W. Z.; Shi, D.; Wu, M.; Xiong, X. L.; Chen, Z.
G.; Wei, S. C. Bioinspired and osteopromotive polydopamine
nanoparticle-incorporated fibrous membranes for robust bone
regeneration. NPG Asia Mater. 2019, 11, 39.
(39) Wang, S.; Liu, Y.; Xu, M.; Hu, F.; Yu, Q.; Wang, L.
Polymersomes as virus-surrogate particles for evaluating the perform-
ance of air filter materials. Giant 2022, 10, 100104.
(40) Guo, S.; Yu, B.; Ahmed, A.; Cong, H.; Shen, Y. Synthesis of
polyacrylonitrile/polytetrahydropyrimidine (PAN/PTHP) nanofibers
with enhanced antibacterial and anti-viral activities for personal
protective equipment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 424, 127602.
(41) Mirković, M.; Stojanović, D. B.; Mijailović, D.; Barać, N.;
Janaćković, J.; Uskoković, P. S. Electrospun polyacrylonitrile fibers
incorporated with microporous carbon for improved airborne PM2.5
filtration. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2022, 285, 126103.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137
ACS Applied Nano Materials www.acsanm.org Article

(42) Zhang, S.; Tang, N.; Cao, L.; Yin, X.; Yu, J.; Ding, B. Highly
Integrated Polysulfone/Polyacrylonitrile/Polyamide-6 Air Filter for
Multilevel Physical Sieving Airborne Particles. ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 2016, 8, 29062−29072.
(43) Wang, J.; Kim, S. C.; Pui, D. Y. H. Figure of Merit of
Composite Filters with Micrometer and Nanometer Fibers. Aerosol
Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 722−728.
(44) Dhaniyala, S.; Liu, B. Y. H. Investigations of particle
penetration in fibrous filters: Part II. Theoretical. J. IEST 1999, 42,
40−46.

Recommended by ACS
Double-Grafted PET Fiber Material to Remove Airborne
Bacteria with High Efficiency
Yuxin Lin, Mingdong Huang, et al.
OCTOBER 10, 2022
ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES READ

Easy Fabrication of a Polymeric Transparent Sheet to

Combat Microbial Infection
Brinta Bhattacharjee, Jayanta Haldar, et al.
JULY 31, 2022
ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS READ

Allicin-Loaded Electrospun PVP/PVB Nanofibrous Films

with Superior Water Absorption and Water Stability for
Antimicrobial Food Packaging
Yudong Song, Ce Wang, et al.
MAY 09, 2022
ACS FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY READ

Enhanced In Vitro Wound Healing Using PVA/B-PEI

Nanofiber Mats: A Promising Wound Therapeutic Agent
against ESKAPE and Opportunistic Pathogens
Aarcha Shanmugha Mary, Kaushik Rajaram, et al.
NOVEMBER 23, 2021
ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS READ

Get More Suggestions >

18137 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.2c04026
ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 18127−18137