Microchemical Journal 143 (2018) 220–227

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Microchemical Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/microc

Identification, characterisation and mapping of calomel as ‘mercury white’, T

a previously undocumented pigment from South America, and its use on a
barniz de Pasto cabinet at the Victoria and Albert Museum
⁎
Lucia Burgioa, , Dana Melcharb, Stanislav Strekopytovc, David A. Peggied,
Marta Melchiorre Di Crescenzod, Brenda Keneghana, Jens Najorkac, Tomasz Goralc,1,
Amin Garboutc, Brett L. Clarkc
a
Science Section, Conservation Department, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London SW7 2RL, UK
b
Furniture Conservation, Conservation Department, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London SW7 2RL, UK
c
Imaging and Analysis Centre, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
d
Scientific Department, National Gallery London, Trafalgar Square, London WC2N 5DN, UK

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: An investigation into the materials and manufacturing techniques of a rare table cabinet decorated using the
X-ray fluorescence barniz de Pasto technique led to the discovery that calomel, mercury(I) chloride Hg2Cl2, had been used ex-
Micro-computed tomography tensively and deliberately as the white pigment of choice. Analysis of the decorative scheme of the cabinet using
Raman microscopy micro-destructive and non-destructive techniques, such as X-ray fluorescence, Raman microscopy, micro-com-
Mercury(I) chloride
puted X-ray tomography and micro-X-ray diffraction, provided conclusive evidence regarding the identity,
Mercury white
Mopa mopa
distribution and characteristics of this ‘mercury white’ pigment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
documented instance of the intentional use of calomel as a pigment on a cultural heritage object. The in-
vestigation also revealed a design on the inner surface of the lid, concealed below a 20th century scheme. The
rediscovery of this radical element in a substantially intact state provides grounds to investigate the complete
removal of overpaint so as to restore the decorative integrity of the cabinet and permit a full appraisal of its
complex iconographic scheme.

1. Introduction
In 2015 a small, richly decorated table cabinet (Fig. S1) was given to
the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) [1].2 It was probably made
during the seventeenth century in the northern zone of the Vice-royalty
of Peru (an area today encompassing parts of Peru, Colombia and
Ecuador). Preliminary FTIR analyses confirmed that the decoration
contained the plant resin mopa mopa, the main element in barniz de
Pasto (Pasto varnish), a type of Iberian American ‘lacquer’ named after
the Colombian city most closely associated with its use. The historical
importance of barniz de Pasto has been detailed elsewhere [2,3]. It is
known that, before the arrival of the Spanish, mopa mopa was used by
the Inca to decorate ceremonial objects. From around 1600 it was ap-
plied decoratively to various European types of wooden artefacts, of
which the V&A cabinet is an example. At present there is no established
account of the chronology and geographical spread of barniz de Pasto
and its technical varieties. Mopa mopa is a transparent phenolic resin
from the trees of the genus Elaeagia, native to the tropical rain forests of
the mountains of southwest Colombia. When heated and chewed, the
resin can be stretched into a thermoplastic ‘cling film’ which is then
applied to the object and heat pressed [4]. Additionally, pigments or
dyes can be mixed with mopa mopa, greatly enhancing the decorative
potential of the resin.
Other barniz de Pasto objects in North American collections have

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: l.burgio@vam.ac.uk (L. Burgio), d.melchar@vam.ac.uk (D. Melchar), s.strekopytov@nhm.ac.uk (S. Strekopytov),
David.Peggie@ng-london.org.uk (D.A. Peggie), Marta.Melchiorre@ng-london.org.uk (M. Melchiorre Di Crescenzo), b.keneghan@vam.ac.uk (B. Keneghan),
j.najorka@nhm.ac.uk (J. Najorka), t.goral@cent.uw.edu.pl (T. Goral), a.garbout@nhm.ac.uk (A. Garbout), brett.clark@nhm.ac.uk (B.L. Clark).
1
Current address: Center of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Ul. Banacha 2c, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.
2
Museum no. W.5-2015, given by Dr. Robert MacLeod Coupe and Heather Coupe in memory of their brother, Philip MacLeod Coupe. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/
item/O1296371/cabinet-unknown/ https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/box-of-mysteries.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.08.010
Received 23 June 2018; Received in revised form 6 August 2018; Accepted 6 August 2018
Available online 08 August 2018
0026-265X/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V.
L. Burgio et al.
been studied using a range of scientific techniques [4,5], but the V&A
cabinet (Fig. S2) is the first published example of barniz de Pasto in a UK
public collection. Its scientific analysis was therefore potentially of
great importance, providing an opportunity to understand the techni-
ques and materials used, to inform any necessary conservation proce-
dures and to shed new light on the relatively little studied field of barniz
de Pasto. The results obtained by a range of non-destructive analyses
performed either non-invasively on the cabinet or on microsamples
taken from it, both within the V&A and in collaboration with external
partners, is the subject of this paper. The overall technical examination
results and the conservation issues and procedures for the cabinet as a
whole will be described elsewhere.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Description of the cabinet and sampling strategy
The table cabinet has a hinged lid and hinged fall-front, on two
‘sled’ supports with cork pads. It also has an exterior lock hasp screwed
to the lid, fastening on a lockplate screwed to the fall-front. The in-
terior, from the top, consists of a top tier accessed by raising the lid, a
fixed tray with one large square compartment (with a painted fleur-de-
lis), and three small square compartments to the right, with three false
drawer fronts; two tiers of drawers accessed by opening the fall-front:
two drawers above one large drawer (which is faced with three ap-
parent drawer fronts). The cabinet has the following dimensions:
height: 23.2 cm, width: 37.7 cm, depth: 27 cm. The full record of the
location of the analysis spots and the individual analysis results is
contained in the V&A internal analysis report, which can be made
available on request. Additional details about samples, sampling loca-
tions and in situ analysis areas are mentioned below where appropriate.
The following techniques were used to examine the barniz de Pasto
cabinet at the V&A:
2.2. Optical microscopy
Ten samples were cast in Tiranti polyester resin, polished on a
grinding wheel and viewed under a visible light Leica Aristomet mi-
croscope equipped with ×10, ×20 and ×40 objectives and a 2.5 op-
tical zoom. UV microscopy was performed on a Leitz Laborlux 12 ME
microscope equipped with 365 nm and a 470 nm CoolLED pE-100 light
sources.
2.3. Fourier transform infrared analysis (FTIR)
FTIR analysis was performed using a Nicolet iS10 FTIR spectro-
meter. Four samples of the decorated surface were positioned on a
diamond cell and analysed with a Nicolet Continuum microscope
(50 × 50 μm spot). The spectra were collected in transmission mode
(32 scans were collected, with a resolution of 4 cm−1). The resulting
spectra were searched against relevant databases.3
2.4. Micro- X-ray fluorescence analysis (μXRF)
The μXRF analysis was performed using a Bruker ArtTAX equipped
with a molybdenum source. The experimental conditions were set at
50 kV, 600 mA and 100 s livetime. The area examined was approxi-
mately 200 μm across. 18 XRF spectra were obtained in situ from the
cabinet or from samples removed from it and embedded in polyester
resin.
3
http://www.irug.org/search-spectral-database (last accessed 2 August
2018).
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Microchemical Journal 143 (2018) 220–227
2.5. Raman microscopy
Seven of the samples embedded in polyester resin were analysed by
Raman microscopy using a Horiba XploRA equipped with two diode
lasers (532 and 638 nm) and an Olympus microscope. Only the ×50
objective was used, providing an overall magnification of 500. The
power at the sample was always kept below 1 mW. Total accumulation
times varied between 10 s and 3 min and no spectral manipulations
were used. The spectra obtained from the object were compared to
reference spectra collected in house, to those in published databases
[6,7] and online resources [8]. Commercially obtained mercury(I)
chloride (Acros Organics/Thermo Fisher Scientific, 99+%, extra pure)
was used to produce a reference spectrum.
2.6. X-radiography
The cabinet was shot on a FUJI CR plate (35 × 43 cm) and pro-
cessed through a FUJI FCR XG-1N computed radiography reader unit.
The exposure was 12 s at 50 kV and 5 mA with a FFD of 0.8 M.
Additional analyses were performed at the Natural History Museum
(NHM) and the National Gallery (NG):
2.7. Micro-X-ray diffraction (micro-XRD), NHM
One of the samples embedded in polyester resin was analysed. XRD
data were collected using a Rigaku D/max Rapid2 diffractometer. A
combination of point-focus X-ray source (Cu Kα radiation, 40 kV and
36 mA) and curved 2D imaging plate detector (4700 × 2560 pixels)
allows for analysis of fine-grained microsamples on polished blocks.
The X-ray beam was collimated to 30 μm to minimize exposure of epoxy
surrounding the sample. The polished block was mounted on a 45° χ
stage with a beam-to-sample angle of 20°. Data were collected for 15 h.
The Rigaku 2DP software was used for 2D to 1D conversion of the XRD
pattern. Phase identification was performed with the Panalytical
HighScore software and the PDF-4 database from ICDD (International
Centre of Diffraction Data).
2.8. Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray
analysis (SEM-EDX), NHM
Two cross sections from the inner surface of the lid were chemically
mapped for 4 h on a Quanta 650 FEG SEM (FEI Company) equipped
with a Bruker XFlash 5060F FlatQuad EDX detector under the following
conditions: 15 kV, chamber pressure 20 Pa, map pixel size = 560 nm,
count rate ~25 kcps, deadtime = 5%.
2.9. Micro-computed X-ray tomography (μCT), NHM
μCT (Nikon Metrology HMX ST 225) was used to examine the lid of
the box. Scans were made at 180 kV and 200 μA with a 0.1 mm copper
filter collecting 3142 averaged projections in a 360° sample rotation,
with a final resolution of 127.5 μm voxel size. A filtered back projection
algorithm was used to reconstruct the projections, creating tomo-
graphic slices. The lid was scanned in 4 parts for better resolution and
then later stitched for visualisation. Stitching was performed by manual
alignment (aided with visual landmarks), using 3D rendering software.
Tomographic data was investigated in two ways: 1) two-dimensional
slices and 2) three-dimensional volumetric renders, with the higher at-
tenuating paint layers selectively thresholded. All scan data was visua-
lised using Thermo Scientific™ Amira-Avizo Software (v. 9.0.2).
2.10. Macro X-ray fluorescence scanning (MA-XRF), NG
This analysis was undertaken using a Bruker M6 Jetstream macro-
XRF (MA-XRF) scanner. The measuring head consists of a 30 W
L. Burgio et al. Microchemical Journal 143 (2018) 220–227

Fig. 1. XRF (A) and Raman (B) spectra of white layer in sample 3b (from the original decoration of the outer surface of the lid). Reference Raman spectrum of
commercially obtained Hg2Cl2 is also shown. Mercury and chlorine are the only elements detected by XRF, and the bands of mercury(I) chloride are very clear in the
Raman spectrum.

Rhodium-target microfocus X-ray tube (Incoatec ixtube-Rh-30) with a 3. Results and discussion
maximum voltage of 50 kV and a maximum current of 600 μA and a
HiTek MH60/503/06 X-ray generator. The beam is defined by a poly- Before accepting the object into the V&A collection, it was necessary
capillary optic, which allows a variable beam size (c.100–600 μm). A to confirm the presence of mopa mopa resin on it. This was successfully
60 mm2 XFlash silicon drift (SDD) X-ray detector is used with an energy identified by the V&A Science section via the analysis of two samples by
resolution ≤145 eV at 100 kcps for Mn Kα. The maximum scanning FTIR (Fig. S3).
range for a single acquisition is 800 × 600 mm and the final resolution
obtained depends on both the beam size and the selected step size [9].
3.1. Identification of calomel (mercury(I) chloride) as a pigment
In this study, scans were carried out at 50 kV and 600 μA beam current,
a 10 ms dwell time and either a 580 μm X-ray beam size and 580 μm
It is customary at the V&A to obtain as much relevant information as
step size or 350 μm X-ray beam size and 350 μm step size. The detector
possible about an object using non-destructive, non-intrusive methods.
maximum pulse throughput was set to 275 kcps and maximum energy
Thus, μXRF analysis was performed first and the results made it clear
to 40 keV. The scans were undertaken in normal mode in a single ac-
that most of the white areas on the decorated surface of the cabinet had
quisition cycle. The resulting datacubes were evaluated, and element
mercury as the predominant element (Table S1).
distribution maps created using the Bruker M6 software (version 1.3).
This was surprising: normally the detection of mercury is limited to
pink, orange or red areas, due to the presence of vermilion, mercury(II)

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Fig. 2. XRD pattern from white layer in sample 3b (from the original decoration of the outer surface of the lid). The inset shows the white layer containing ‘mercury
white’ that generated the XRD pattern, viewed under the microscope (×250).

sulfide, a material employed as a pigment since antiquity [10] and decomposition and a crystallite size of 147( ± 22) nm was derived,
easily characterised by Raman spectroscopy [7]. However, the areas which confirms the high degree of crystallinity expected from a delib-
where mercury was first detected were very white with no hint of red, erately synthesised compound as opposed to a degradation product.
and displayed the type of opaque appearance one would usually as-
sociate with the use of pure lead white, lead hydroxycarbonate
3.2. A concealed design
(PbCO3)2·Pb(OH)2. Even the decoration on the inside of the cabinet's
trays was made with this mercury-containing material (Fig. S4).
As part of the overall investigation into the new acquisition, X-
In order to investigate in more detail the presence of mercury in the
radiography had been planned to provide information on the joinery
white-coloured areas, several microsamples were obtained from dif-
and character of hidden metal fixings. Unsurprisingly, due to the den-
ferent areas and made into cross-sections, which were then analysed by
sity and high atomic number of mercury, all the areas which contained
μXRF and Raman microscopy. In every cross section where an original
‘mercury white’ showed up well on the X-radiography images. When
white layer was present, mercury and chlorine were detected by μXRF,
the lid was exposed to X-rays however, it became apparent that the
and calomel (mercury(I) chloride, Hg2Cl2) was identified by Raman
white pigment on the surface of the inner lid did not contain mercury or
microscopy (Fig. 1). Calomel was also identified in some of the original
any other heavy metal. Moreover, underneath the visible decoration,
coloured layers: for example, the greens were found to contain calomel
there was another decorative scheme containing materials able to block
and indigo (Fig. S5).
the X-rays very effectively (Fig. S6).
Thus it appeared that, whenever a white pigment with good cov-
To investigate further this unexpected discovery, the lid was
ering power was needed on the cabinet, calomel was used. The term
scanned using μCT. This technique allowed to disregard the signal
‘calomel’ has been widely used in medicine since the 17th century, and
coming from the outermost surface of the inner lid and to image the
is still in use in electrochemistry (‘calomel electrode’). Because calomel
hidden surface in isolation. This revealed a central rectangle with a
has never been reported as a pigment before, to avoid confusion and
standing skeleton holding a scythe and bow and arrows, and with
make communication simpler for the V&A scientists, curators and
various other smaller motifs, set within a narrow band and a wide
conservators involved in this study, we decided to avoid using the term
border containing flowers and leaves. None of this is visible to the
‘calomel’ and started referring to this painting material as ‘mercury
naked eye (Fig. 3) due to the presence of an overpainted scheme.
white’; a name we will also use in this paper, unless otherwise specified.
By now it had been established that calomel as ‘mercury white’ had
As mentioned above, examination of the cross-sections with an
been used consistently across the visible surface of the cabinet. The
optical microscope indicated that the original white layers appeared to
elemental composition of a pigment used for the hidden but apparently
be made of a dazzlingly bright material, with regular and uniform
original scheme on the inner surface of the cabinet's lid was then
particles of sub-micron dimensions; their Raman analysis showed that
identified by MA-XRF.
the dominant peaks of mercury(I) chloride are sharp and well defined
Due to the presence of protruding wooden edges on the lid and time
(Fig. 1). The micro-XRD results confirmed the identity of the white
restrictions, only the lower resolution (580 μm X-ray beam size and
material. Fig. 2 shows a background-subtracted XRD pattern of the
580 μm step size) could be used to investigate the full area, both on the
white layer in sample 3. All peak positions match very well with ca-
inner and outer sides of the lid. However, the centre of the lid (the area
lomel, Hg2Cl2 [11] and no other phases were detected. The crystallite
with the skeleton) was also analysed with higher resolution (350 μm X-
size was calculated by comparing line profile shapes of calomel with a
ray beam size and 350 μm step size).
LaB6 standard analysed with the same setup. The Pawley fitting method
When the distribution of mercury was mapped on the inner surface,
in the TOPAS software [12] was used for XRD powder pattern
it was clear that our hypothesis that ‘mercury white’ had been used

223
L. Burgio et al.
Fig. 3. Detail of the left side of the underside of the lid (A) and corresponding
μCT image showing the hidden scheme (B).
extensively was fully justified. Moreover, the absolute lack of correla-
tion between the appearance of the inner, painted surface and the
corresponding mercury map is striking (Fig. 4).
However, the surface decoration matches very well the MA-XRF
map of titanium (Fig. 5). This is very significant, and useful because it
allows us to give an initial terminus post quem for the inner surface re-
paint. Titanium had already been identified by μXRF in a few spots (Fig.
S7), its distribution within two cross sections had been mapped by SEM-
EDX, and rutile, a polymorph of titanium dioxide (TiO2), was identified
by Raman spectroscopy on the outer layers of the cross sections taken
from the border of the inner surface of the lid. Rutile is a naturally
occurring material, but in nature its colour is rarely white due to the
presence of impurities in its structure [13,14]. Because of this it was
never used as a white pigment in fine arts until the synthetic, purer
version (‘titanium white’) became available.
The titanium white particles present on the paint layers of the lid
are of sub-micron dimension, uniform in size and are white in colour.
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Microchemical Journal 143 (2018) 220–227
Fig. 4. Video mosaic of the underside of the lid (A) and corresponding MA-XRF
map of mercury (B) using the Lα line.
This evidence supports the hypothesis that this is the synthetic version
of the pigment, which was commercially available only from the early
1920s. The Raman spectrum of phthalocyanine blue (copper phthalo-
cyanine, C32H16CuN8) was also identified in the same layers (Fig. S8),
which pushes the terminus post quem for the inner lid repaint to after
1935, the year phthalocinanine blue was first made commercially
available [15].
When the distribution of mercury was mapped on the outer barniz de
Pasto surface, it became clear that every detail of the original scheme
where a white pigment has been employed contains mercury (Fig. 6).
Areas showing mercury loss have clearly sustained some damage over
the centuries and have been repaired with calcium-containing fillers
and retouched with lead white (Fig. 7).
3.3. ‘Mercury white’ (calomel) – a previously unknown pigment
The finding of pure, crystalline mercury(I) chloride (calomel, or
‘mercury white’ as it has been referred to in this paper), used deliber-
ately as a white pigment, is in itself remarkable. If a white, opaque
pigment with good covering power was desired, one would expect lead
white to be used in an object from this period. Extensive research
carried out on Qero cups by a number of institutions and professionals
confirms this assumption; the only white pigments identified in their
study were lead white, lead carbonate (PbCO3), cristobalite (SiO2) [5]
and, very recently, a mixture of cristobalite, anatase (TiO2) and α-
quartz (SiO2) [16]. As far as the authors are aware, this is the first time
‘mercury white’, synthesised and used deliberately as a pigment, has
been detected and characterised on a cultural heritage object. Calomel
L. Burgio et al.
Fig. 5. Video mosaic of the underside of the lid (A) and corresponding MA-XRF
map of titanium (B), using the Kα line.
has occasionally been detected as a degradation product of cinnabar or
vermilion (HgS) [17,18], but is not normally listed amongst other
pigments and artists' materials (for example it is not mentioned in the
Pigment Compendium [19], either as calomel or as a mercury chloride, or
in any of the traditional pigment publications and lists [13,20]).
The practice of mining mercury in the Vice-royalty of Peru from the
16th century, and transporting it long distances for industrial use,
suggests that the base material for the synthesis of ‘mercury white’,
cinnabar (HgS), would have been relatively easy to acquire locally [21].
The famous mercury mine at Huancavelica was opened just after 1559,
and other mines in the district opened shortly after, but cinnabar had
been mined and used for paint in the region by the indigenous people
for a long time before that [22–24]. Making a barniz de Pasto layer
containing ‘mercury white’ probably involved the continuous and
lengthy chewing of the mopa mopa resin with calomel. Like any other
mercury compound, calomel is both an acute and a cumulative poison
(even if it was used as a medicine for centuries) [25,26]. However,
because it is characterised by a relatively low solubility in water and
therefore much lower toxicity comparing with that of mercury(II)
chloride, health and safety concerns associated with such an activity
were probably not too significant in the seventeenth century.
The only reference to the use of a mercury-based white pigment for
painting is in the manuscript “A Treatise Concerned the Arte of
Limning” preserved in the Edinburgh University Library, attributed to
miniature painter Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1547–1619) and not published
until recently. The modernised text reads “There is also an excellent
white to be made of quicksilver which draweth a very fine line; this
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Microchemical Journal 143 (2018) 220–227
Fig. 6. Video mosaic of outer surface of the lid (A) and corresponding MA-XRF
map of mercury (B) using the Lα line.
white the women painters use.” [27] The use of calomel, alongside lead
white, as face paint by women in Renaissance England (as well as in
contemporary China) is well documented [28,29], but here Hilliard
clearly referred to a painting material used by women and it has been
suggested that he was thinking in particular of Levina Teerlinc, another
miniature painter [30]. The only other known use of calomel as a
pigment belongs to the first half of the 20th century when crystals of
calomel specially prepared to have a silky, nacreous lustre were added
to a plastic base to produce imitation pearl [31,32].
No other barniz de Pasto objects decorated with mercury white have
been identified so far but it is most unlikely that the V&A cabinet was
unique in this regard. The fact that substantial elements of the hidden
decorative scheme with the skeleton are made using a mercury com-
pound (arguably ‘mercury white’ again) suggests that this scheme is
original and contemporary with the rest of the mercury-containing
surfaces. The filling of damaged areas using a calcium-rich compound
and the retouching of the damaged decoration using lead white (Fig.
S9) must have happened when the original scheme was still visible, and
before the whole surface was repainted in the 20th century. It is im-
portant to note that the hidden scheme almost certainly contains other
mopa mopa elements (lacking inorganic colourants) that are not re-
vealed by μCT and MA-XRF. Interpretation of the hidden scheme and its
role as one of seven main faces of the cabinet can therefore only be
hypothetical without further investigation, or the physical removal of
20th century overpaint.
The symbolism of the items revealed by the μCT and MA-XRF scans
is being researched at present and the results will be published in due
L. Burgio et al.
Fig. 7. Detail of XRF distribution maps for mercury (A), corresponding to the original decoration of the external surface of the lid; calcium (B) showing where fillers
are present and structural repairs have been made; and lead (C) showing the location of paint retouchings.
course. Depending on what the background research reveals, we are
considering removing the 20th century scheme to make the original one
visible again.
4. Conclusions
‘Mercury white’ or calomel, mercury(I) chloride, was identified as
the main white pigment on a barniz de Pasto cabinet recently acquired
by the Victoria and Albert Museum. This is the first time that this
material is found to have been used deliberately as a white pigment on
a decorative object, instead of being the product of degradation of other
mercury-containing artists' materials.
The preliminary identification of this pigment was conducted non-
invasively by μXRF and confirmed by Raman spectroscopy and micro-
XRD following microsampling. Non-invasive X-radiography, MA-XRF
mapping and μCT imaging were used to map the distribution of ‘mer-
cury white’ and other metal-containing pigments and revealed a hi-
therto invisible design, likely to be original, concealed under twentieth
century overpaint. The discovery of this radical element in a sub-
stantially intact state provides grounds to investigate the complete re-
moval of overpaint so as to restore the decorative integrity of the ca-
binet and permit a full appraisal of its complex iconographic scheme.
Acknowledgements
This research was generously supported by Jorge Welsh Works of
Art, London and Lisbon. The authors are also grateful to Paul Robins,
Radiographic Protection Officer, V&A Photographic Studio; to Richard
Newman, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts; and to Dr. Diana
Amorello, Department of Chemistry, University of Palermo, for
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Microchemical Journal 143 (2018) 220–227
discussions on the thermodynamic characteristics of calomel.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.08.010.
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