MODULE 4 - RESEARCH DESIGN

This research design is the overall-plan of getting up and carrying out the study. It

describes the nature and the type of the study. In other words, research design refers to a scheme

or plan of action in accomplishing the objectives of the study.

A research design is similar to a detailed lesson plan. In short, it serves as the guide of the

thesis writer in the conduct of the study considering that writing a thesis follows a systematic

plan or procedure. This is the writer’s master plan/blueprint of the study. It tells him how he will

proceed this work and what he will do to finish the study.

Research design could be Historical; experimental, descriptive-normative, etc. its use is

determined substantially by the nature and by the purpose of the study.

However, whatever research design is used, it is essential that the following must be

observed according to Abelson as cited by Aquino (1971):

The thesis writer should base his choice of method on the five criteria, to wit:

1. The method of research must be logically sound.

2. The research method must be adequate for the solution of the problem.

3. The thesis writer must be able to give reasons for the selection of the research method.

4. The method of research chosen must be adequately explained.

5. It is free from specific weaknesses in research methodology.

The method(s) selected should be carefully and accurately described in the thesis report.

Historical Research

The origin of the word history means the search for knowledge and the truth, a searching

to find out. “History is any integrated narrative or description of past events or facts written in a

spirit of critical inquiry for the whole truth.” Good and Scates as cited by Calderon and Gonzales
(2014) as any narrative of any past event, say the election of a president, is not history if it is

written without any critical inquiry into the whole truth. A newspaper report about any session of

Congress cannot be history if there is no critical analysis about the whole truth. 

There are major activities in historical Research:

1. Choosing and defining the problem;

2. Collecting the data;

3. Critically analyzing the data; and

4. Writing the research report.

Guidelines to effective writing a Historical Research

There are certain guidelines to an effective writing of historical research among which

are: (Good and Scates as cited by Calderon and Gonzales, 2014).

1. Mastery of materials. Effective modern historical writing shows evidence of scholarship,

research, and mastery of materials, presented without ostentation.

Historians have a good mastery of their materials before writing their historical

report, not necessarily memorizing the facts but a full knowledge of the events they are

writing about. May it be added that the materials must be authentic, genuine and

adequate. 

2. Working Outline. Before note – taking has gone far, a preliminary outline is necessary to

guide the selection and arrangement of notes; then, as the accumulated materials is

digested, the outline can be revised radically as necessary. 

Like any other writing activity, a historian must have a good working outline

before starting to write. A working outline shows the direction toward which the writing
 is heading to. A good working outline gives continuity to the writing of the historical

report.

3. Progression. Good history has progression; that is, it moves forward, although it does not

show in mechanical fashion the original condition, the action, and the results. This

movement of progression should employ a thesis or principle of synthesis as a theory of

causation to explain the cause-effect relationships.

In writing history, there must be logical sequences of events. The causes and

effects; the effects and their causes must be given due emphasis. The why’s of events

must be stressed. 

4. Emphasis on major elements. The major elements in any piece or effective writing,

historical or otherwise, stand out in bold relief like the large cities, rivers, bodies of

water, and mountain range on map. A good working outline, a guiding thesis, and more

detailed generalizations for the major sections of the work are essential to the

accomplishment of this purpose and to the subordination of the details. This frequently

means that painstakingly gathered data must be discarded to promote condensation and

precision, and to prevent too many details from crowding off the scene, the main actors

and events of the narrative.

5. Art of narration. While the purpose of history is not primarily to entertain or to please,

there is no reason why good history should not possess literary excellence. Both the

science of research and the literary art od narration are essential from however, should

not be pushed to the point of filling in missing details through sheer play of the

imagination, merely for the poet; therefore, certain gaps or missing links may be a

characteristic of authentic history. 

 6. Dramatization, rhetoric and style. A historical composition can be written simply and

clearly, without excessive dramatization, exaggerated rhetorical flourishes, or undue

appeal to the motions. In other words, historical writing should possess the characteristics

of a good story. Dramatization and rhetoric are frequently overdone when narrating the

splendor of kings and the noise of battle in political and military history.

Importance of Historical Research

Historical Research is important due to the following:

1. A study of the past makes people understand the present better, especially the factors

affecting the present. For instance, the Philippines is a Catholic nation because for more

than those centuries she was occupied by Spain, a zealous Catholic propagator, and she

will remain  Catholic for a long, long time to come. “History has a three-fold purpose:

giving us knowledge of the past, a better understanding of the present and a means of

predicating the future.” (Lacuesta, et. al.)

2. Historical information serves as a preliminary to reform. Mistakes of the past may be

avoided if we have knowledge of them.

3. People become more open to change if they are well informed about the past, especially

about tragic events.

4. People are motivated to respect the contributions of the people of the past to the present

state of things, especially those heroes. 

Descriptive Research 

Although descriptive research has only one meaning, several authors have defined in

their own several ways. Some of the definitions are:

 Manuel and Medel as cited by Calderon and Gonzales (2014) defined descriptive

research is a research that describes what is. It involves the description, recording, analysis, and

interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes of phenomena. The focus is on

prevailing conditions, or how a person, group, or thing behaves or functions in the present. It

often involves some type of comparison or contrast. 

Aquino Also commented that descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate

interpretation. The descriptive method is something more and beyond just data-gathering; the

latter is not reflective thinking or research. The true meaning of the data collected should be

reported from the point of view of the objectives and the basic assumption of the project under

way. This follows logically after careful classification of deviation, or of correlation; but the

report is not research unless discussion of those data is not carried up to the level of adequate

interpretation. Data must be subjected to the thinking process in terms of ordered reasoning. 

Also, Best defined descriptive research as a research that describes and interprets what is.

It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist; practices that prevail; beliefs,

processes that are going on; effects that are being left, or trends that are developing.

In other words, descriptive research may be defined as a purposive process of gathering,

analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs,

processes, trends, and cause-effect relationships and then making adequate and accurate

interpretation about such data with or without the aid of statistical methods.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research has the following characteristics:

1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case under

study.
 2. It gives either qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of the general

characteristics of the group or case under study.

3. What cause the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.

4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress

that took place between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value it gives.

5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to determine their

similarities and differences

6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually controlled.

7. Descriptive studies, except in the case studies, are generally cross-sectional, that is, it

studies the different sections belonging to the same group.

8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of verification and

comparison. 

Experimental Research 

Experimental design is a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the

future on what will be when variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. Experimental

design can be a basic, applied, or development research. This type of research involves the 7Ms,

namely: manpower, money, methods, materials, machinery, moment of time, and marketing.

Experimental research is given priority by research institutions in giving of research

grants-in-aid because research outputs can be converted into SMEs (Small and Medium

Enterprises), thus, help housewives, rural folks, out-of-school youth, unemployed adults and

graduates augment their income, alleviate poverty, and improve their quality of life. More so, it

helps the austerity measures of the Philippines. 

 Experimental Design is a research wherein a researcher manipulates and controls one or

more independent variables for variation concomitant to the manipulation of the dependent

variable. 

Also, Experimental design is the most prestigious method for advancing Science and

Technology as well as research and Development because it is production-oriented. This is the

only design wherein the invest-harvest principle can be attained. In other words, if a researcher

invests or spends money in research, he is likely to harvest or gain money from his research

outputs. Hence, his research output be sold commercially to have return of investment so that the

research budget will not be exhausted; more so, help economic recovery and austerity measures

of the Philippines. 

Types of Experimental Design

There are nine types of experimental design applicable in natural sciences and education.

These types are:

1. Single-group design. This design involves a single treatment with two or more levels. 

2. Two – group design. In this design, two comparable groups are employed as

experimental and control groups or two comparable groups are both experimental groups.

3. Two-pair-group design. This design is an elaboration of the two-group design wherein

there are two control groups and two experimental groups.

4. Parallel-group design. This is a design in which two or more groups are used as the same

time with only a single variable (control group) manipulated or changed. The

experimental group varies while the parallel group serves as control for comparative

purposes.
 5. Counterbalanced or Latin square design. This design is also called rotation design. it

involves an exchange of two or more treatments taken by the subjects during the

experiment. The arrangement employed in the design is Latin square in which each

variable is a form of square occurring once in each row or column. This is also called

quasi-experimental design.

6. Complete randomized design. This is a design in which a group of test plants or animals

is studied only once but subsequent treatment is applied to determine the cause of change.

There is no control in this design but the subjects will undergo randomization

procedures. 

7. Randomized complete block design. This experimental design uses a group of test of

plants and animals as subjects of the study which are studied once but subsequent

treatments applied are replicated to determine the cause of change. There is control in this

design and the subjects will undergo randomization process.

8. Correlational design. This experimental design is used to determine the relationship of

two dependent variables, X and Y, on how they are manipulated by the independent

variable.

9. Pre-test-post-test group design. This design involves the experimental group and the

control group which are carefully selected through randomization procedure. Both groups

are given pretest at the beginning of the semester and posttest at the end of the semester.

But the control group is isolated from all experimental influences. 

Case Study Research 

 A case study design is a problem solving technique wherein the study is described from

the past, present, and future. Some writers categorize this under the descriptive method. But it is

more distinct if this technique is placed in another design which is independent from the other.

Case study design is an intensive investigation of a particular individual, institution,

community, or any group considered as a unit which includes the development, adjustment,

remedial, or corrective procedure that suitably follows the diagnose of the causes of

maladjustment or favorable development. 

This design is usually applied by guidance counselors, midwives, nurses, physicians,

psychologists, and educators.

This case study method is not only limited to conditions of maladjustments such as

behavior or problem, underprivileged community, substandard institutions, but also to normal or

well-adjusted individuals, well-organized communities, or school which aid in understanding the

normal situation or well –adjusted condition. 

Furthermore, McKee and Robertson (1975) as cited by Sanchez (1980) stated that case

study involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual, group or

situation over a period of time. Young (1966) defines case study as a comprehensive study of

social unit – be that unit a person, a social institution, a group, a district, or a community.

Good and Scates define case study as that method which takes account of all pertinent

aspect of one thing or situation, employing as the unit for study an individual, an institution, a

community, or any group considered as a unit. The case consists of the data relating to some

phase of life history of the unit or relating to the entire life process, whether the unit is an

individual, a family, a social group, an institution, or a community. The complex situation and a
combination of factors involved in the given behavior are examined to determine the existing

status and to identify the causal factors operating.

Who should be studied?

1. Generally, children with some forms of abnormalities are the subjects of case studies.

2. Children with Physical and mental handicaps are also included in the list.

3. Social groups, each taken as a unit, showing some kind of abnormalities or

maladjustments may be subjects of a case study.

Kinds of information needed in case studies

A complete case history or biographical information containing all kinds of information

about the subject of a case study is needed. The following is a sample of a case history or

biography:

1. Identifying data: name sex, date of birth, age, place of birth, etc.

2. Identification and statement of the problem - Any symptoms of complaints about health,

school, work, etc.

3. Health and development history – details of birth whether normal or caesarian; attended

by doctor or nurse, or midwife in hospital or at home; or by a hilot at home; any

abnormality at birth or congenital efficiency, etc.

4. Family history – abnormalities among ancestors, parents, and siblings, health history of

family, transmitted tendencies of some kind of sickness or physical deficiency’s

education of parents, attitudes of members of family, etc.

 5. Educational history – cannot read, can’t do simple mathematical computation, low

grades, no interest in school work, delinquent behavior in school such as loafing,

bullying, stealing, etc.

6. Social history – church membership, attendances, and involvement, plays normally with

others of his own age, membership on civic organizations such as Boy or Girl Scouts, etc.

7. Economic history – economic status whether low, average or high, kind of job and size of

income, cannot stay long in a job, works willingly or grudgingly even in doing chores at

home, kind of house whether made of light materials, one room affair, or strong materials

with many rooms, etc.

8. Psychological History – personality traits such as metal ability, special talents, interest,

skills, moods, emotional patterns, desires, needs, extroversion and introversion,

dominant-submission, how leisure is spent and hobbies, mental abnormalities due to

traumatic experiences, etc.

Data Gathering instruments

Almost all data gathering devices are used in collecting data for a case study.

1. Interview

2. Observation

3. Questionnaire

4. Psychological tests

5. Anecdotal records

6. Autobiographies

7. Other instruments

Characteristics of a satisfactory case study

 The following are the characteristics of a satisfactory case study: (Maxifield as cited by

Good and Scates)

1. Continuity. There is a desirable continuity of information as for instance, that provided

by two successive psychological examinations at an interval of a year, and by an

elementary school record in relation to performance in high school.

2. Completeness in data. The potential range of information includes symptoms,

examination results.

3. Validity of data. For instance, a doubtful birth should be verified through the birth

registry and employment record by reference to employers. 

4. Confidential recording. Educational workers have something to learn from medicine with

respect to the confidential nature of professional records; the difficulties of individual

teachers or pupils in relation to discipline, failure, or mentality should be regarded as

professional problem to be treated in a confidential manner.

5. Scientific synthesis. This is an interpretation of the evidence that is more than a mere

enumeration of data secured; it embraces diagnosis in identifying causal factors, and

prognosis in looking toward treatment or development procedures. 

Boundaries to case studies

Without some notion of a boundary, it becomes impossible to state what the case is.

The notion of a ‘case’, then, must carry with some idea of a boundary which is sufficiently

clear and obvious to allow the researcher to see what is contained within the case and what is

outside the case.

“A ‘case’ needs to be a fairly self-contained entity; a ‘case’ needs to have fairly

distinct boundaries.
 1. Physical boundaries. For the purpose of social research, a case study will not actually be

based on an office block or a school classroom. The case study will actually be on

activities, processes and relationships that go on within those physical areas. It will

exclude those things happening outside the physical boundary that have a bearing on

what happens inside the case study boundary.

2. Social and historical boundaries. More authentic boundaries are likely to be identified

when case studies focus on ‘naturally occurring’ social or historical phenomenon. Case

studies in social research normally deal with ‘objects’ with fairly well established

boundaries prior to any investigation.

Advantages of the case study approach

1. Deal with subtleties and intricacies 

2. Multiple methods

3. Multiple source of data

4. No pressure on the researcher to impose controls

5. Concentrating effort

6. Theory building and theory testing can both use the case study approach to good effect

Disadvantages of the case study approach

1. Credibility of generalization

2. Perceived as producing ‘soft’ data

3. Boundaries

4. Negotiating access

 
 MODULE 5–METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES

This is Chapter III of a thesis/dissertation which discusses how and where the writer

expects to find the data upon which a solution to the problem can be made. It involves research

design, setting of the study/locale, the respondents and sampling procedure, the instrument and

its validity, data gathering technique, and statistical tool/s. (Rodriguez and Rodriguez, 1997)

Method or Research 

The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be

explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and some

of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.

Example: Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in the study of the

teaching of science in the high schools of Province A. Briefly the discussion follows:

The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Descriptive method of

research is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation of the findings. It

describes what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions,

practices, situations, or any phenomena. Since the present study or investigation was concerned
with the present status of the teachings of science in the high schools of Province a, the

descriptive method of research was the most appropriate method to use. (This can be elaborated

further)

Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research Instrument

The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument for gathering data

must also be explained. 

Example: The method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This is

concerned with looking into the commonality of some elements. Since the present research

is a status study, the normative survey was the most appropriate method to use ingathering data.

The instrument used to collect data was the questionnaire. This was used because it

gathers data faster than any other method. Besides, the respondents were teachers and students

and so they are very literate. They could read and answer the questionnaire with ease.

Development of the instrument. After reading and studying samples of questionnaire from

related studies, the researcher prepared his own questionnaire. He also consulted some

knowledgeable people about how to prepare one. The researcher saw to it that there were enough

items to collect data to cover all aspects of the problem and to answer all the specific questions

under the statement of the problem. Then he submitted the questionnaire to his adviser for

correction after which it was finalized. 

For validation purposes, the questionnaire was given to ten high school scienceteachers

for them to fill up. These teachers did not participate in the study. After they have filled up the

copies they were interviewed by the researcher to find out their assessment of the questionnaire.

They were asked if all the items were clear and unequivocal to them; if the number of items were

adequate enough to collect data about all aspects of teaching of science; if the questions were
interesting and not boring; if all the items were objective and not biased except for a few

unavoidable essay questions; if all the items were relevant to the research problem; and if the

questionnaire were not too long. All of them said the items were clear and unequivocal except a

few, relevant, interesting and objective questions, and

the length was alright. The few questioned items were revised for more clarity and definiteness.

The copies of the questionnaire were then distributed personally by the researcher to the

respondents. After a few days, all the copies distributed were retrieved also personally by the

researcher. (The discussion may be extended) 

Setting of the Study

Setting of the study refers to the place where the study will be conducted. A brief

description of the place is to be presented for information and clarification where the data can be

found or in such areas where the study will be carried on. A map may be included.

Data Gathering Procedure

This part of thesis/dissertation explains/discusses briefly but concisely procedure/manner

to be followed in conducting the study. It is in this section wherein the reader gets to know what

the researcher did and how the study was done.

Moreover, the tools, techniques, devices, and the procedure applied used are

described/explained concisely. Even the error or weaknesses that were discovered during the

conduct of the research is also pointed out including changes of schedule of administering test

and disturbances in the conduct of the test. 

In the case of experimental method, this includes among others the instructions given to

the respondents, the guidelines to be followed in the formation of the group and the experimental
manipulations and construct features of the design. Even measures found impractical and were

discarded should also be explained so that future researchers will not commit the same mistakes.

The Respondents and Sampling Procedure

The respondents of the study include the population/people, persons/subjects involved in

the study. If the population is too big, a sampling procedure may be used. However, if it is

manageable or small, the total population will be considered. A brief description of the

respondents as what kind/type will be discussed in this part of the thesis. The thesis writer will be

guided with the questions: Who are the people involved in the study? How many will be needed

for the study? And how are these people be selected if they are plenty? This part will also discuss

the procedure of sampling used.

Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of the

population to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the sample

must have been finished. So, what the researcher has to do here is to write about

the complete procedure he used in determining his. Among the things that he should explain are: 

a. The size of the population;

b. The study population;

c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;

d. The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, cluster sampling

or a combination of two or more techniques;

e. The actual computation of the sample; and.

f. The sample.

The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be able to

show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used the appropriate
technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his sample is not

representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid and reliable. 

The Instrument and Its Validity 

Instruments or tools in thesis/dissertation writing describe all measures used to collect the

data or information needed in the study. This includes a description of the type of items used in

the measure/instrument, reliability of data, evidence of validity if the instruments are not

standard and a brief description if standard measures are used, other studies in which the

measures had been used and any other material necessary to give the reader a thorough

understanding of the instrument. 

Criteria of a good Research Instrument

1. The instrument must be valid and reliable. The instrument is valid if it collects data which

are intended for the study or collects adequate information to complete the study or

investigation. The instrument is reliable if it is administered to the same respondent

without any practice and gives the same result. 

2. It must be based upon the conceptual framework or what the researcher wants to find out.

3. It must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic.

4. It must gather data that would test the hypothesis or answer the questions under

investigation.

5. It should be free from all kinds of biases.

6. It must contain only questions or items that are unequivocal. It admits only one

interpretation.

7. It must contain clear and definite directions to accomplish it.

 8. If the instrument is mechanical device, it must be of the best or latest model.

9. It must be accompanied by a good cover letter cordially and politely worded to gain

acceptance.

10. It must be accompanied, if possible by a letter of recommendation from a sponsor.

Sampling Designs 

Sampling is applicable if the population of the study is too large especially the 7Ms–

manpower, money, materials, machinery, methods, moment, and marketing of the researcher –

are limited. It is advantageous for him to use sample survey for it is economical rather than tool

population.

However, the use of total population is advisable if the number of subjects is less than

100. If the population is equal or more than 100, it is advisable to get the sample in order to be

effective, efficient and economical in gathering data, provided however, that the sample is a

representative cross-section of the population and scientifically selected. 

Sampling may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of a

population. The term, population, is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species,

or orders of plants or animals. (Calmorin and Calmorin, 2015)

Generally, there are two kinds of sampling designs. These are (1) scientific sampling, and

(2) non – scientific sampling. In the scientific sampling, each member in the population is given

an equal chance of being included in the sample. In non-scientific sampling, not all of the

members in the population are given an equal chance of being included in the sample. 

Advantages of Sampling

The advantages of sampling are as follows:

 1. It saves time, money, and effort. The researcher can save time, money, and effort because

the number of subjects involved is small. With only a small number of subjects to be

collected, tabulated, presented, analyzed and interpreted, the use of sample gives

comprehensive information of the results of the study.

2. It is more effective. Sampling is more effective if every individual of the population

without bias has an equal chance of being included in the sample and data are

scientifically collected, analyzed, and interpreted.

3. It is faster, cheaper, and economical. Since sample is only “drop in a bucket,” the

collection, tabulation, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data are rapid and less

expensive due to small number of subjects and few copies of the questionnaires are used.

4. It is more accurate. Fewer errors are made due to small size or data involved in

collection, tabulation, presentation, analysis, and interpretation.

5. It gives more comprehensive information. Since there is a thorough investigation of the

study due to small sample, the results give more comprehensive information because all

members of the population have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Disadvantages of Sampling

If sampling design has strength, it also has its weaknesses. The disadvantages of

sampling are as follows:

1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub- classification due to small

number of subjects.

2. If the Sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be

misleading.
 3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this lacking, the results can

be erroneous.

4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population, for instance, teachers

over 30 years of teaching experience or teacher with outstanding performance.

5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The last part of this chapter usually describes the statistical treatment of data. The kind of

statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the specific

problems and the nature of the data gathered.The explicit hypotheses particularly determine the

kind of statistics to be used.

The role of statistics in research. With the advent of the computer age, statistics is now

playing a vital role in research. This is true especially in science and technological research.

What functions do statistics perform in research? Some are the following:

1. Statistical methods help the researcher in making his research design, particularly in

experimental research. Statistical methods are always involved in planning a research

project because in some way statistics directs the researcher how to gather his data.

2. Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability of his

research instruments. Data gathered with instruments that are not valid and reliable are

almost useless and so the researcher must have to be sure that his instruments are

valid and reliable. Statistics helps him in doing this.

3. Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make the latter appropriate

for study. Unorganized data cannot be studied. No inferences or deductions can be made

from unorganized data. Statistics organized systematically by ordered arrangement,

 ranking, score distribution, class frequency distribution or cumulative frequencies. These

make the data appropriate for study.

4. Statistics are used to test the hypotheses. Statistics help the researcher to determine

whether these hypotheses are to be accepted or to be rejected. 

5. Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. For Instance, if the standard

deviation of the class frequency of a group is small, we know that the group is more or

less homogeneous but if it is large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.

6. Statistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significance of vital

statistical measures. These statistical measures are the bases for making inferences,

interpretations, conclusions or generalizations.

Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures

The researcher must have at least a rudimentary knowledge of statistics so that he will be

able to select and apply the appropriate statistical methods for his data. Some suggestions for the

selection and application of statistical techniques follows:

1. First of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the following depending upon

what is desired to be known or what is to be computed: talligram (tabulation table),

ordered arrangement of scores, score distribution, class (grouped) frequency distribution,

or scattergram.

2. When certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such as age, height,

income, etc. are desired to be known, frequency counts with their frequency percents may

be used. For further analysis, cumulative frequencies (up and down) with their respective

cumulative frequency percents (up and down) may also be utilized.

 For example, a specific question is “How the high school science teachers

of province A may be described in terms of sex?” The males were counted and the

females were also counted and their respective percent equivalents were computed.

3. When the typical, normal, or average is desired to be known, the measures of central

tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may be computed and used.

4. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that they cannot be

counted individually such as adequacy, efficiency, excellence, extent, seriousness (of

problems), and the like, the weighted mean may be computed and used if the average is

desired to known. The variable is divided into categories of descending degree

of quality and then each degree of quality is given a weight. For instance, the question is

“How adequate are the facilities of the school?” Adequacy may be divided into five

degrees of quality such as “very adequate” with a weight of 5, “adequate” with a weight

of 4, “Fairly adequate” with a weight of 3, “inadequate” with a weight of 2, and “very

inadequate” with a weight of 1. Then the weighted mean is computed.

5. When the variability of the population is desired to be known, the measures of variability

such as the range, quartile deviation, average deviation or the standard deviation may be

computed and used. When the measure of the variability or dispersion is small, the group

is more or less homogenous but when the measure of variability is large, the group is

more or less heterogeneous.

6. When the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be known, ranking,

quartile or percentile rank may be computed and used. These measures indicate the

relative positions o scores in an ordered arrangement of the scores.

7. When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a group toward a

certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be known but in which there is a

neutral position, the chi-square of equal probability, single group, is computed and

interpreted.

8. When the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions of two distinct

groups in which there is a neutral position isdesired to be known, the chi-

square of equal probability, two-group, is computed and used. 

For instance, a group of 50 persons, 25 males and 25 females, were asked

to give their reactions may be “Strongly agree”, “Agree”, “Undecided or No opinion”,

“Disagree”, or  “Strongly disagree”. If the

persons are considered as a group, the chisquare of equal probability, single group is

computed as in No. 7. However, if the significance of the difference between the

reactions of the males and those of the females is to be studied, the chi-square of equal

probability, two-group, is applied as in No. 8.

9. To determine how one variable varies with one another, the coefficient of correlation is

computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group of students in English test. This is

also used to determine the validity of a test by correlating it with a test of known validity.

When the coefficient of correlation between two tests is known and a prediction is to be

made as to what score a student gets in a second test after knowing his score in the first,

the so-called regression equation is to be utilized.

10. If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two-groups about a

certain situation is to be studied, the computation of the difference between means is to

be made. Example: Is there a significant difference between the perceptions of

 the teachers and those of the students about the facilities of the school? To answer this

question, the significance of the difference of two means is to be used. The statistical

measure computed is called t.

The t is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable to which one

group called the experimental group is exposed and a second group called control group

is not exposed. For instance, the

question is: Does guidance improve instructions?” Create two matched groups and

expose one group to guidance while the control group is not exposed to guidance. At the

end of the experimental period, give the same test to the two groups. Then compute the

t which will show if guidance is an effective aid to instruction.

11. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things to which

different randomized groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test is given to

the different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate to use. For instance, a teacher

wants to find out the relative effectiveness of the following methods of communication:

pure lecture, lecture-demonstration, recitation-discussion, and seminar type of instruction

in science. Four groups of students are formed randomly and each assigned to one

method. The four groups study the same lessons and after a certain period given

the same test.  By analysis of variance, the relative effectiveness of the four methods will

be revealed. 

If the four groups are given pre-test and a post-test, the analysis of

covariance is utilized.

12. To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which they are

related, partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used. For example, the
 question is: Which is most related to the passing of a licensing engineering examination:

college achievement grades, or percentile ranks in aptitude tests, general mental

abilitytest, vocational and professional interest inventory, or National College Entrance

Examination? The process of partial and multiple correlations will reveal the pure and

sole effect of each of the independent variables upon the dependent variable, the passing

of the licensing examination.

13. To determine the association between two independent variables, the chi-square of

independence or chi-square of multiplication may be used. The question answered by this

statistical process is: Is there an association between education and leadership? Or, the

level of education and the ability to acquire wealth? Or, between sociability and

economic status? 

Indeed, there are lots of research situations in which different statistical

procedures may or can be used and if the researcher is not so sure that he is in the right

path, he better consult good statistical books, or acquire the services of a good statistician

plus the services of a computer especially if the statistical procedures are complex ones.
 MODULE 6 –PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, 

AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

After the data were collected and treated statistically, the thesis writer proceeds to the

next phase of his writing where results or findings are discussed. This is normally the Chapter 4

of a thesis report where the data are presented, analyzed and interpreted. Other institutions label

this chapter as Result of the Findings. Chapter 4 is one chapter in the thesis that would require

the concretization of the concepts pursued by the thesis writer and further ends it up with his own

insights. This section of the research report presents the findings, analyses of the data and the

discussion concerning them. This will also interpret the results, and discuss why such results

came about. In this section, the thesis writers compare the findings with those of the previous
researchers which he may either confirm, support or reject the findings and theories of the past

researchers.

Presentation of Data

Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful

categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation. Analysis and

interpretation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that are

intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific questions and

their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of presenting the data: Textual,

tabular, and graphical.

1. Textual Presentation of Data

Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data. The

main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to

supplement tabular presentation.

The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader

may not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The reader

may even skip some statements.

2. Tabular Presentation of Data

A statistical table or simply table is defined as a systematic arrangement of relate data in

which classes or numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses are given each

a column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite,

compact, and understandable form or forms.

 Pagoso, et. al. also defined it as the process of condensing classified data, and arranging

them in a table. Through this process, data can easily be understood before the tabulation and

interpretation of the data collected, these must be classified first. 

The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpretation, the making of inferences and

implications of the relationships of statistical data. Table construction for data presentation is a

part of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according to class or category.

3. Graphical Presentation of Data

A graph is a chart representing the quantitative various or changes of a variable itself, or

quantitative changes of a variable in comparison with those of another variable or variables in

pictorial or diagrammatic form. This method may be a more advantageous form because the

readers can easily grasps the facts that numerical data intend to convey.  Furthermore, this

method can easily be understood.

The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes, and relationships of data in

a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.

Sevilla, et. al. suggested that if tables are short, they may be integrated into the text. It

was also emphasized by the authors that,…”it is a good practice for the longer tables to be

presented on that page following the page that is first presented in the text”. This was further

explained that this type of arrangement poses the sequence easily understood by the reader thus

minimizes confusions. Under no condition should any table appear on an earlier page than its

first presentation in the text.

Information usually found in the table are the data for variables or variables presented,

the respondents from whom the data were collected, sometimes including their sub-group within

the table, and the statistical treatment being done. (Rodriguez and Rodriguez, 1997) 
Data Analysis

Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of

categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to bring

out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually preceded presentation.

Moreover, analysis of the data is an important component in the thesis report. Regardless

of how well the study is conducted, inappropriate analysis can lead to inappropriate conclusions.

The first step in data analysis is to describe, or summarize, the data using descriptive

statistics. In some studies, the entire analysis procedure may consist solely of calculating and

interpreting descriptive statistics. 

In the discussion of the analysis of the data, it is a good practice to cite first the problem

and corresponding hypothesis to be followed by the decision on whether the hypothesis is

accepted or rejected. This is followed by the decision on the findings citing the significant one

first, then the non-significant findings.

Interpretation of the Findings

The next process which is considered as the most important feature in a research report is

the interpretation of the findings. The result of statistical analysis should be interpreted in terms

of the purpose of the study, the research hypothesis, and with respect to other studies which had

been conducted in the same area of research.

In a research, interpretation of results may be done through a hypothesized or un-

hypothesized result.

In the hypothesized results, the thesis writer must discuss whether the results support the

hypothesis and why or why not, and whether the results are in agreement with other findings and
why or why not. If the results are not in agreement with the other research, reasons for the

discrepancy must be discussed as there may have been some problems in the present study or in

the previous study that were uncovered by the present investigation.

On the other hand, hypothesized results may come out during the conduct of the study. In

this case, the thesis writer must not change the original hypothesis nor slip in the new one.

Hypotheses must be formulated in a priori based on deductions from theory and/or experience.

What could be done is to collect and analyze data on these unforeseen results and present these

as such, for this may form the basis for a later study, which may be specifically designed to test a

hypothesis related to the present findings.

According to de Jesus, et. al. as cited by Rodriguez and Rodriguez (1997), interpretation

involves some inferences related to the present investigation where some generalizations are

drawn. This process may be carried out in many different ways. The thesis writer may interpret

the results while presenting and analyzing them, then the conclusions are drawn in the process.

The writer may interpret these findings by comparing his research data and the meaning to what

other related researches have pointed out. Sometimes the thesis writer may relate his

interpretations to existing theories by drawing some points of disagreements or agreements

between them, then draws his own inferences or implications.

In the discussion of the findings, the thesis writer should only discuss what data – based

are. No interpretations based on personal experiences, feelings, sentiments, and opinions or

something out of the data contents are allowed.  

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

"Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected
data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time consuming, creative, and fascinating process. It does not
proceed in a linear fashion; it is not neat. Data analysis is a search for answers about
relationships among categories of data."- Marshall and Rossman, 1990:111
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential and meaningful categories
and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation.
Three Ways of Presenting Data:
1. Textual – (statements with numerals or numbers that serve as supplements to tabular
presentation)
2. Tabular – (a systematic arrangement of related idea in which classes of numerical facts or
data are given each row and their subclasses are given each column in order to present the
relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact and understandable
form)
Two general rules regarding the independence of tables and text:
1. The table should be so constructed that it enables the reader to comprehend the data presented 
without referring to the text;
2. The text should be so written that it allows the reader to understand the argument presented
without referring to the table. (Campbell, Ballou and Slade, 1990)
3. Graphical – (a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of variables in
pictorial or diagrammatic form)
Types of graphs and charts:
1. Bar graphs
2. Linear graphs
3. Pie graphs
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts

ANALYSIS
 A separation of a whole into its constituent parts (Merriam-Webster, 2012)
 The process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories
according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. (Calderon, 1993)
Two ways of Data Analysis:
1. Qualitative Analysis – is not based on precise measurement and quantitative claims. (PSSC:
2001: 51)
Examples of Qual. Analysis:
1. Social analysis
2. From the biggest to the smallest class;
3. Most important to the least important;
4. Ranking of students according to brightness;
2. Quantitative Analysis – is employed on data that have been assigned some numerical value.
(PSSC: 2001: 51)
 It can range from the examination of simple frequencies to the description of events or
phenomenon using descriptive statistics, and to the investigation of correlation and casual
hypothesis using various statistical tests. (PSSC: 2001: 51)
INTERPRETATION
 This section answers the question, “So what?” in relation to the results of the study. What
do the results of the study mean? This part is, perhaps, the most critical aspect of the
research report.
  It is often the most difficult to write because it is the least structured.
 This section demands perceptiveness and creativity from the researcher.
How Do We Interpret the Result(S) of our Study?
1. Tie up the results of the study in both theory and application by pulling together the:
a. conceptual/theoretical framework;
b. the review of literature; and
c. the study’s potential significance for application.
2. Examine, summarize, interpret and justify the results; then, draw inferences. Consider the
following:
a. Conclude or Summarize
This technique enables the reader to get the total picture of the findings in summarized form, and
helps orient the reader to the discussion that follows.
b. Interpret
Questions on the meaning of the findings, the methodology, the unexpected results and the
limitations and shortcomings of the study should be answered and interpreted.
c. Integrate
This is an attempt to put the pieces together.
Often, the results of a study are disparate and do not seem to “hang together.” In the discussion,
it attempts to bring the findings together to extract meaning and principles.
d. Theorize
When the study includes a number of related findings, it occasionally becomes possible to
theorize.
1. Integrate your findings into a principle;
2. Integrate a theory into your findings; and
3. Use these findings to formulate an original theory.
e. Recommend or Apply Alternatives
In deducing interpretation from statistical analysis, the following key words or phrases may be
useful.
1. Table _______ presents the…
2. Table _______ indicates the…
3. As reflected in the table, there was…
4. As observed, there was indeed…
5. Delving deeper into the figures…
6. The illustrative graph above/below shows that…
7. In explaining this result, it can be stated that…
8. Is significantly related to…
9. Is found to be determined of…
10. Registered positive correlation with…
11. Is revealed to influence…
12. Has significant relationship with…
13. Is discovered to be a factor of…
14. In relation with the result of ________, it may be constructed that…
15. And in viewing in this sense, it can be stated that…
16. The result establishes the fact that…
17. This finding suggest that…
18. With this result, the researcher developed an impression that…
19. This finding also validates the findings of…
20. This improvement in ________ could be understood in the context of …
21. These findings also accept the framework of the study…
22. The interpretation marked as _________ reveals that…
23. Nevertheless, this finding could be attributed to the fact that…
24. Probably, this was also influenced…
25. In the rational sense, the juxtaposition of…

Saavedra (1997) gives some guidelines in the presentation, analysis and interpretation of
data:
1. The chapter is organized and divided into several main components or topics, each of which is
titled according to the sub-problem or hypothesis statement.
2. Present only relevant data.
3. In reporting data, choose the medium that will present them effectively.
4. Presenting tables that can be presented as well in a few sentences in the text must be avoided.
5. The textual presentation should supplement or expand the contents of tables and charts, rather
than duplicate them.
6. Only objective data embodied in tables are made the bases of discussion.
7. The analysis of the data should be objective and logical.
8. In analyzing and interpreting data, point out those that are consistent or inconsistent with the
theory presented in the study’s theoretical framework.
9. In reporting statistical tests of significance, include information concerning the value of the
test, the degree of freedom, the probability level and the direction of the effect.
10. The findings are compared and contrasted with that of other previous studies and
interpretations are made thereof.

PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT AND WRITING A GRANT PROPOSAL

How to Prepare Successful Grant Proposals?
Scipione (2008) highlights that Grants, both public and private, play an increasingly
important role in planning and community development projects. Funding from grants can
advance important community initiatives that might not otherwise be achieved. To augment
limited budgets, a growing number of planning departments are finding themselves seeking
grants. In larger communities grant writing may be a formal staff responsibility. Smaller
communities may look to planning commissioners and others to assist with grant preparation.
The grant industry is vast and “giving” can take a variety of forms, including monetary funding,
land grants, and in-kind donations of equipment or technical expertise. However, today’s
funders, whether government agencies, private foundations, or local corporations, receive more
requests than ever before. Competition to obtain funding is high, but creating a winning proposal
is far from impossible even for the novice grant-writer. 
The Grant Process 
The grant process begins with identifying and prioritizing a project. Grant proposals
should reflect regional or local planning priorities, and support identified planning goals and
objectives. Funders want to see this connection in project proposals. Grant proposals are often
unsuccessful when they are developed primarily to meet donor interests and requirements (i.e.,
just because there’s a pot of money available). Grant proposals reflecting “partnerships” with
citizens groups, non-profit organizations, local businesses, and other agencies should not be
underrated. Funders often look for proposals that take a collaborative approach, and show
community-wide benefits that can be linked to other efforts. Funders want the most for their
money, so emphasis on weaving together concurrent programs or studies, even of other
organizations, is strategically important. By making the grant process inclusive, the merits of the
proposal will be strengthened. 
The decision to pursue a grant should begin with an evaluation of not just the time and
effort needed to prepare the proposal, but also what it will take to implement the project, and
report back to the funding agency. Partnership grants may require additional time during the
proposal development process. During this process, a designated point-person should facilitate
meetings and be in charge of writing and circulating the draft proposal. It is always important to
weigh whether or not the resulting funds, if awarded, are worth the time and energy required.
Staff time does not end once the proposal is submitted. If grant funds are awarded, time and
resources (beyond the grant award) will often be needed to support project implementation,
monitoring, reporting, and evaluation. Poor reporting, often the result of staff time constraints,
will likely impact future grant opportunities from that funding agency. Especially relevant to new
projects are the future implications of project funding once the start-up funds provided by the
grant are exhausted. Most grants are designed to provide the “seed money” to help get new
projects or initiatives off the ground, rather than to support ongoing local programs. All these
considerations should be evaluated before any substantial time is put into preparing a proposal.
Grant Preparation 
The first step to building a strong proposal is to research the target funding agency. Often
funders showcase past grantees on their websites, making this a great way to learn about the
types of programs and projects that capture the interest of the funder. Reading successful grant
proposals will also help newcomers to the grant process become familiar with the lexicon of
grants. The most important aspect of writing a proposal is to remember the “3 C’s” – be clear, be
concrete, and be creative. Clearly presenting ideas is critical. Avoid long sentences. Also, steer
clear of overly technical jargon and superfluous information that may lose the reviewer’s
attention. Be concrete in your presentation of need, goals, and the strategy to achieve the
project’s objectives. Finally, don’t be afraid to be creative. This means thinking broadly when
presenting the importance of both the direct and indirect impacts of your project. Let the
proposal communicate the enthusiasm of your agency and its partners in the project. Passion is
contagious. You want the potential funder to share your enthusiasm for the project. ODDS &
ENDS As you prepare a proposal, do not hesitate to call the contact person listed at the funding
agency if questions arise. Clarifying a question prior to submission is critical, and most funding
agencies will be happy to answer. Before you submit the proposal allow sufficient time for a
review by several colleagues who (preferably) have not been involved with the proposal. What
you want is critical feedback that will further strengthen the proposal. If you are partnering or
cooperating with other agencies or groups, also allow time to circulate the proposal for their
feedback.
 Once the proposal has been sent, follow-up to confirm its receipt. Many funders now
have online application processes, which will automatically provide confirmation that the
proposal was received. If you are emailing or faxing a proposal remember to also send a hard
copy via registered mail. 
If Your Grant Is Funded 
As soon as your proposal has been chosen for a grant award, send a thank you note to the
contact person. Building a relationship with the funding agency will help ensure that your project
is supported if there is ever a problem with its implementation. A relationship with the funder
will also go a long way if a change of course is needed. Finally, having a good relationship will
allow for your agency and project to be remembered should you ever reapply for funding. 
Writing the Grant Proposal
 The Basic Components of a Proposal made by Scipione (2008). There are eight basic
components to creating a solid proposal package:
 (1) the proposal summary; (2) introduction of organization; (3) the problem statement (or
needs assessment); (4) project objectives; (5) project methods or design; (6) project evaluation;
(7) future funding; and (8) the project budget. 
The following will provide an overview of these components. 
The Proposal Summary
  The proposal summary outlines the proposed project and should appear at the beginning
of the proposal. It could be in the form of a cover letter or a separate page, but should definitely
be brief -- no longer than two or three paragraphs. The summary would be most useful if it were
prepared after the proposal has been developed in order to encompass all the key summary points
necessary to communicate the objectives of the project. It is this document that becomes the
cornerstone of your proposal, and the initial impression it gives will be critical to the success of
your venture. 
In many cases, the summary will be the first part of the proposal package seen by agency
officials and very possibly could be the only part of the package that is carefully reviewed before
the decision is made to consider the project any further. The applicant must select a fundable
project which can be supported in view of the local need. Alternatives, in the absence of Federal
support, should be pointed out. The influence of the project both during and after the project
period should be explained. The consequences of the project as a result of funding should be
highlighted.
 Introduction/ Presenting a Credible Applicant or Organization 
The applicant should gather data about its organization from all available sources. Most
proposals require a description of an applicant's organization to describe its past and present
operations. Some features to consider are: A brief biography of board members and key staff
members. The organization's goals, philosophy, track record with other grantors, and any success
stories. The data should be relevant to the goals of the Federal grantor agency and should
establish the applicant's credibility.

 The Problem Statement/Stating the Purpose at Hand

The problem statement (or needs assessment) is a key element of a proposal that makes a
clear, concise, and well-supported statement of the problem to be addressed. The best way to
collect information about the problem is to conduct and document both a formal and informal
needs assessment for a program in the target or service area. The information provided should be
both factual and directly related to the problem addressed by the proposal. Areas to document
are: The purpose for developing the proposal. The beneficiaries -- who are they and how will
they benefit. The social and economic costs to be affected. The nature of the problem (provide as
much hard evidence as possible). How the applicant organization came to realize the problem
exists, and what is currently being done about the problem. The remaining alternatives available
when funding has been exhausted. Explain what will happen to the project and the impending
implications. Most importantly, the specific manner through which problems might be solved.
Review the resources needed, considering how they will be used and to what end.
  There is a considerable body of literature on the exact assessment techniques to be used.
Any local, regional, or State government planning office, or local university offering course
work in planning and evaluation techniques should be able to provide excellent background
references. Types of data that may be collected include: historical, geographic, quantitative,
factual, statistical, and philosophical information, as well as studies completed by colleges, and
literature searches from public or university libraries. Local colleges or universities which have a
department or section related to the proposal topic may help determine if there is interest in
developing a student or faculty project to conduct a needs assessment. It may be helpful to
include examples of the findings for highlighting in the proposal. 
Project Objectives
Goals and Desired Outcome Program objectives refer to specific activities in a proposal.
It is necessary to identify all objectives related to the goals to be reached, and the methods to be
employed to achieve the stated objectives. Consider quantities or things measurable and refer to
a problem statement and the outcome of proposed activities when developing a well-stated
objective. The figures used should be verifiable. Remember, if the proposal is funded, the stated
objectives will probably be used to evaluate program progress, so be realistic. There is literature
available to help identify and write program objectives. 
Program Methods and Program Design
The program design refers to how the project is expected to work and solve the stated
problem. Sketch out the following: The activities to occur along with the related resources and
staff needed to operate the project (inputs). A flow chart of the organizational features of the
project. Describe how the parts interrelate, where personnel will be needed, and what they are
expected to do. Identify the kinds of facilities, transportation, and support services required
(throughputs). Explain what will be achieved through 1 and 2 above (outputs); i.e., plan for
measurable results. Project staff may be required to produce evidence of program performance
through an examination of stated objectives during either a site visit by the Federal grantor
agency and or grant reviews which may involve peer review committees. It may be useful to
devise a diagram of the program design. 
For example, draw a three column block. Each column is headed by one of the parts
(inputs, throughputs and outputs), and on the left (next to the first column) specific program
features should be identified (i.e., implementation, staffing, procurement, and systems
development). In the grid, specify something about the program design, for example, assume the
first column is labeled inputs and the first row is labeled staff. On the grid one might specify
under inputs five nurses to operate a child care unit. The throughput might be to maintain charts,
counsel the children, and set up a daily routine; outputs might be to discharge 25 healthy children
per week. This type of procedure will help to conceptualize both the scope and detail of the
project. Wherever possible, justify in the narrative the course of action taken. The most
economical method should be used that does not compromise or sacrifice project quality. The
financial expenses associated with performance of the project will later become points of
negotiation with the Federal program staff. If everything is not carefully justified in writing in
the proposal, after negotiation with the Federal grantor agencies, the approved project may
resemble less of the original concept. Carefully consider the pressures of the proposed
implementation, that is, the time and money needed to acquire each part of the plan. 
A Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) chart could be useful and
supportive in justifying some proposals. Highlight the innovative features of the proposal which
could be considered distinct from other proposals under consideration. Whenever possible, use
appendices to provide details, supplementary data, references, and information requiring in-depth
analysis. These types of data, although supportive of the proposal, if included in the body of the
design, could detract from its readability. Appendices provide the proposal reader with
immediate access to details if and when clarification of an idea, sequence or conclusion is
required. Time tables, work plans, schedules, activities, methodologies, legal papers, personal
vitae, letters of support, and endorsements are examples of appendices. 
Evaluation: Product and Process Analysis 
The evaluation component is two-fold: (1) product evaluation; and (2) process evaluation.
Product evaluation addresses results that can be attributed to the project, as well as the extent to
which the project has satisfied its desired objectives. Process evaluation addresses how the
project was conducted, in terms of consistency with the stated plan of action and the
effectiveness of the various activities within the plan. Most Federal agencies now require some
form of program evaluation among grantees. The requirements of the proposed project should be
explored carefully. Evaluations may be conducted by an internal staff member, an evaluation
firm or both. The applicant should state the amount of time needed to evaluate, how the feedback
will be distributed among the proposed staff, and a schedule for review and comment for this
type of communication. Evaluation designs may start at the beginning, middle or end of a
project, but the applicant should specify a start-up time.
 It is practical to submit an evaluation design at the start of a project for two reasons:
Convincing evaluations require the collection of appropriate data before and during program
operations; and, If the evaluation design cannot be prepared at the outset then a critical review of
the program design may be advisable. Even if the evaluation design has to be revised as the
project progresses, it is much easier and cheaper to modify a good design. If the problem is not
well defined and carefully analyzed for cause and effect relationships then a good evaluation
design may be difficult to achieve. Sometimes a pilot study is needed to begin the identification
of facts and relationships. Often a thorough literature search may be sufficient. Evaluation
requires both coordination and agreement among program decision makers (if known). 
The Proposal Budget: Planning the Budget 
Funding levels in Federal assistance programs change yearly. It is useful to review the
appropriations over the past several years to try to project future funding levels. However, it is
safer to never anticipate that the income from the grant will be the sole support for the project.
This consideration should be given to the overall budget requirements, and in particular, to
budget line items most subject to inflationary pressures. Restraint is important in determining
inflationary cost projections (avoid padding budget line items), but attempt to anticipate possible
future increases. Some vulnerable budget areas are: utilities, rental of buildings and equipment,
salary increases, food, telephones, insurance, and transportation. Budget adjustments are
sometimes made after the grant award, but this can be a lengthy process. Be certain that
implementation, continuation and phase-down costs can be met. Consider costs associated with
leases, evaluation systems, hard/soft match requirements, audits, development, implementation
and maintenance of information and accounting systems, and other long-term financial
commitments. A well-prepared budget justifies all expenses and is consistent with the proposal
narrative. 

 STATISTICAL TOOLS
a. Chi Square
How to use Chi-Square Statistic in Research?
 
The Chi Square statistic is commonly used for testing relationships between categorical
variables.  The null hypothesis of the Chi-Square test is that no relationship exists on the
categorical variables in the population; they are independent.  An example research question that
could be answered using a Chi-Square analysis would be:
Is there a significant relationship between voter intent and political party membership?

How does the Chi-Square statistic work?

The Chi-Square statistic is most commonly used to evaluate Tests of Independence when
using a cross tabulation (also known as a bivariate table).  Cross tabulation presents the
distributions of two categorical variables simultaneously, with the intersections of the categories
of the variables appearing in the cells of the table.  The Test of Independence assesses whether
an association exists between the two variables by comparing the observed pattern of responses
in the cells to the pattern that would be expected if the variables were truly independent of each
other.  Calculating the Chi-Square statistic and comparing it against a critical value from the Chi-
Square distribution allows the researcher to assess whether the observed cell counts are
significantly different from the expected cell counts.

The calculation of the Chi-Square statistic is quite straight-forward and intuitive:

where f  = the observed frequency (the observed counts in

o the cells)
and f  = the expected frequency if NO relationship existed between the variables
e

As depicted in the formula, the Chi-Square statistic is based on the difference between
what is actually observed in the data and what would be expected if there was truly no
relationship between the variables.

How is the Chi-Square statistic run in SPSS and how is the output interpreted?

The Chi-Square statistic appears as an option when requesting a cross tabulation in SPSS.
The output is labeled Chi-Square Tests; the Chi-Square statistic used in the Test of Independence
is labeled Pearson Chi-Square. This statistic can be evaluated by comparing the actual value
against a critical value found in a Chi-Square distribution (where degrees of freedom is
calculated as # of rows – 1 x # of columns – 1), but it is easier to simply examine the p-value
provided by SPSS. To make a conclusion about the hypothesis with 95% confidence, the value
labeled Asymp. Sig. (which is the p-value of the Chi-Square statistic) should be less than .05
(which is the alpha level associated with a 95% confidence level).
Is the p-value (labeled Asymp. Sig.) less than .05?  If so, we can conclude that the variables are
not independent of each other and that there is a statistical relationship between the categorical
variables.
 In this example, there is an association between fundamentalism and views on teaching
sex education in public schools.  While 17.2% of fundamentalists oppose teaching sex education,
only 6.5% of liberals are opposed.  The p-value indicates that these variables are not independent
of each other and that there is a statistically significant relationship between the categorical
variables.

What are special concerns with regard to the Chi-Square statistic?

There are a number of important considerations when using the Chi-Square statistic to
evaluate a cross tabulation.  Because of how the Chi-Square value is calculated, it is extremely
sensitive to sample size – when the sample size is too large (~500), almost any small difference
will appear statistically significant.  It is also sensitive to the distribution within the cells, and
SPSS gives a warning message if cells have fewer than 5 cases. This can be addressed by always
using categorical variables with a limited number of categories (e.g., by combining categories if
necessary to produce a smaller table).

b. T-Test
Statistical tests are used to determine whether a hypothesized relationship between
variables has statistical significance. Typically, the test will measure the degree to which the
variables either correlate or differ. Parametric tests are those that rely on the central tendencies of
the variables and assume a normal distribution. Non-parametric tests do not make assumptions
about the population distributions.
The t-test is a parametric test that compares the means of the samples and populations
involved. There are several varieties of t-tests. A one-sample t-test compares the mean of a
sample with a hypothesized mean. An independent samples t-test looks at whether the means of
two different samples have similar values. A paired sample t-test is used when there are two
observations to compare for each subject in the sample. The t-test is designed for numeric data
that has a normal distribution.
A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant
difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features. It is
mostly used when the data sets, like the data set recorded as the outcome from flipping a coin
100 times, would follow a normal distribution and may have unknown variances. A t-test is used
as a hypothesis testing tool, which allows testing of an assumption applicable to a population. 
 A t-test looks at the t-statistic, the t-distribution values, and the degrees of freedom to
determine the statistical significance. To conduct a test with three or more means, one must use
an analysis of variance.
Points to remember when using T-Test:

 A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant

difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features.
 The t-test is one of many tests used for the purpose of hypothesis testing in statistics.
 Calculating a t-test requires three key data values. They include the difference between
the mean values from each data set (called the mean difference), the standard deviation of
each group, and the number of data values of each group.
 There are several different types of t-test that can be performed depending on the data
and type of analysis required.

The formula for the T-test is as follows: 

t=x-1-x-2s12n1+s22n2

Difference between means

Variance
Sample Size

where 
x-1= mean of sample 1
x-2= mean of sample 2
n1= number of subjects in sample 1
n2= number of subjects in sample 2 
s12= variance of sample 1=x1-x-12n1
s22= variance of sample 2=x2-x-22n2
c. Percentage
According to Lavracas (2008), a percentage frequency distribution is a display of data
that specifies the percentage of observations that exist for each data point or grouping of data
points. It is a particularly useful method of expressing the relative frequency of survey responses
and other data. Many times, percentage frequency distributions are displayed as tables or as bar
graphs or pie charts.
The process of creating a percentage frequency distribution involves first identifying the
total number of observations to be represented; then counting the total number of observations
within each data point or grouping of data points; and then dividing the number of observations
within each data point or grouping of data points by the total number of observations.

One of the most frequent ways to represent statistics is by percentage. Percent simply
means "per hundred" and the symbol used to express percentage is %. One percent (or 1%) is
 one hundredth of the total or whole and is therefore calculated by dividing the total or whole
number by 100.
Example: 1% of 250 = (1 ÷ 100) x 250 = 2.5
To calculate a given percentage of a number, divide the total number by 100 and then multiply
the result by the requested percentage:
Example: 12% of 250 = (250 ÷ 100) x 12 = 30
To calculate what percentage one number is of another number, change this equation around and
multiply the first number by 100 and then divide the result by the second number:
Example: 30 as a % of 250 = (30 x 100) ÷ 250 = 12%
To determine a percentage of the total from a series of numbers, add the numbers in the series to
find the total (i.e. the number equal to 100%) and carry out the above calculation for each
number in the series:
Example: Given the series 30,150,70:

The total would be 30 + 150 + 70 = 250

30 as a % of 250 = (30 x 100) ÷ 250 = 12%
150 as a % of 250 = (150 x 100) ÷ 250 = 60%
70 as a % of 250 = (70 x 100) ÷ 250 = 28%

If the percentages for each number in the series are added together, they equal the percentage for
the whole: 12% + 60% + 28% = 100%
To calculate the percentage difference between two numbers, the same basic calculations are
used.
Example: To find the percentage change from 250 to 280, the
difference between numbers is calculated:
280 – 250 = 30
and then expressed as a percentage of the first, or base, number:
(30 x 100) ÷ 250 = 12%
To determine the whole number (i.e. the value of 100%) when only the value of a given
percentage:
Example: If 280 is known to be 112%
then 1% must be 280 ÷ 112 = 2.5
and 100% must be (280 x 100) ÷ 112 = 250

MODULE 7 – DRAWING SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Summary of Findings
 Summary of findings summarizes the results based on Chapter 4. If there are four specific

research questions stated in Chapter 1 and answered in Chapter 4, there are only results

summarized in the section and no presentation of tables and graphs.

Sometimes, there are specific questions with sub questions. For instance, (1) how serious

are the job-related problems met by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo

City in relation to (a) administration of top management, (b) administration of middle

management, (c) administration of lower management, (d) communication, (e) financial

condition, (f) hospital facilities, and (g) job hazard?

Hence, in answering and summarizing research questions with sub questions, such sub

question is summarized and appeared in a, b, c, d, e, f, and g. In other words, (a) administration

of top management summarizes the results on the seriousness of the job-related problems met by

staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo City in relation to administration of top

management and so on.

Conclusions

  Conclusions should dovetail with the findings of the study. If there are four summarized

results in the findings, there are also four conclusions.

Likewise, conclusions are arranged as it appears in the findings. Rejection and acceptance

of hypothesis are explained in this section.

Recommendations

Recommendations are based on the conclusions. This is arranged as they appear in the

findings and conclusions. In addition, recommendations must include further research of the
study. If there are four research questions in Chapter 1 and answered these four questions in

Chapter 4, summarized the four findings and conclusions in Chapter 5, there are five

recommendations because the fifth recommendations is for further research. 

Generally speaking, summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations must be

consistent with each other. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography is third to the last part of a research paper, thesis or dissertation. This is a

listing of source materials used in the study which the researcher has a read or quoted brief

statements and acknowledged; the surnames of the authors are arranged in alphabetical order.

This page follows the recommendations and is placed at the middle heading of a page and in all

capital letters.

Functions of Bibliography

Bibliography has 5 functions and these are:

1. To give the reader the scope of the research paper.

2. To determine if a particular work has been used.

3. To provide the reader foundation for further research.

4. To allow the researchers to find out easily the full bibliography information for materials

referred to in parenthetical notes where only the names of the author and year are given.

For instance, (Calmorin, 2004)

5. To give necessary descriptive details for the source material as a whole in order that

original statements can be located and consulted by the reader.

APPENDICES
 An appendix is second to the last section of a research paper, thesis or dissertation.

Appendix materials in descriptive design includes the questionnaire, letter of transmittal,

verbatim comments of the respondents, original data, summary, tabulations and computations of

data, computer print-outs, table that contain data of lesser importance supporting legal

documents such as department orders, circulars, memoranda and many others. It also includes

supplementary illustrative materials, and very lengthy questions.

It is listed by letter and must be subdivided according to certain logical classification. For

instance, APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B, APPENDIX C, and so on.

On the other hand, appendix materials in experimental design include the training of

panelists, sensory evaluation sheet, computations of data, and tables that contain data of lesser

importance and many others. On the next page are illustrations of Appendix in experimental

design.

REFERENCES

Calderon, Jose F. and Gonzales, Expectacion C. (2014) Methods of Research and Thesis Writing.
National Bookstore, Mandaluyong City.
Calmorin, Laurentina P. and Calmorin, Melchor A. (2015) Research Methods and Thesis Writing
Second Edition. Rex Book Store. Manila, Philippines

Good, Carter V. (1963) Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing
Company, Inc.

Good, Carter V. and Sacte, Douglas E. (1972). Methods of Research: educational, Psychological, and
Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., (Reprinted by National Book Store).

Pagoso, Cristobal, et. al. (1978) Fundamental Statistics for College Students. Manila: Sinag-Tala
Publishers, Inc.

Perel, Cristina p. et. al (1992) Social Survey Research Design. Philippine Social Science Council. Inc.
Diliman, Quizon City

Rodriguez, Mario E. and Rodriguez, Lolita D. (1997) Readings in Research, Thesis and Dissertation
Writing.  Ivory Printing and Publishing House. Iligan City.

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. (1980) Methods and Techniques of Research. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Sevilla, C. and others. (1988). An introduction to Research Methods. Quezon City: Rex Printing
Company.