5

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

5.0 Introduction
The terms column and pillar are usually applied to any material, such as timber,
stone, concrete, reinforced concrete or steel. The word post is usually confined to timber.
Stanchion is often used for rolled steel I-sections and channel sections.
Strut has a more general significance than stanchion or post, and is often used for
compression members of roof truss, whether material is timber or steel.
When a long thin flexible rod is loaded longitudinally in compression, it deflects
readily near the centre of its length with a considerable amount of displacement (or
deflection) called buckling. This occurs when the stresses in the rod are still well below
those required to cause shear type of failure.
If length of the thin rod is gradually reduced while still applying the axial load, a
length is eventually reached below which the tendency is for the rod to fail by shearing,
without buckling.
Columns and struts are described as short (sometimes stocky) or slender depending
on the mode of failure most likely to occur.
Short column: A short column is described as that whose length is less than the
critical buckling length, and will fail by shearing. The column will be subjected to a
uniform compressive force so that, σ = P/A, and will fail as the load is increased.
Slender column: This may also be described as a long strut. Slender columns are
those whose lengths are greater than the critical buckling length and will fail by buckling.
Slender columns have one of their lateral dimensions very small compared with the
length. The load which causes instability has to be determined.
The critical buckling length depends upon a number of factors:
(i) Shape and size of section.
(ii) Relationship between length of column and lateral dimensions.
(iii) The end conditions (i.e. degree of fixity at the ends).
(iv) The load producing failure.

The formulae for long slender columns are due to Euler, Rankine, Perry Roberts (his
formula is the most practical and was used to prepare some tables such as BS 449, now
superseded), amongst others.

5.1 Euler’s Buckling Load

At critical load causing neutral equilibrium, a compression member may buckle in
any direction if its second moment of area (IXX or IYY) is the same about both axes.
Generally, a compression member does not posses equal flexural rigidity (EI) in all
directions. Hence the significant flexural rigidity of a column depends on the minimum I,
and the column will buckle about the plane (or axis) with minimum I.

Sign convention: Although there are different signs used for the bending of columns by
different authors, the following sign conventions which are quite common have been
recommended.
 2

(a) Positive: This is due to a moment which tends to bend the column with convexity
towards its initial centre line, as shown in Fig 5.1 (a).
(b) Negative: This is due to a moment which tends to bend the column with its
concavity towards its initial centre line, as shown in Fig 5.1 (b).

(a) Positive (convex) (b) Negative(concave)

Fig 5.1

The strength of a strut to resist buckling is greatly affected by the condition of the
ends, either fixed or free, hence different cases of end conditions have to be considered.

Columns with different end conditions:

Case (a): Both ends hinged
Consider a pin-ended strut AB of uniform cross-section, constant flexural rigidity
(EI) and of actual length l subjected to end compressive load P as shown in Fig
5.2.Suppose that for a specified reason, the strut deflects so that at any section, distance x
from A, the deflection is y.
The general differential equation for deflection is; P
d2 y B
EI 2 = M Y
dx
The bending moment at distance x from A, y l X X
d2 y
M x = -Py = EI 2 x
dx
A Y
The negative sign has been taken, because the column Plan
has been bent concave to its original centerline. P
Rearranging the above equation, we get
d2 y P  P  Fig 5.2
2
+ y=0  Note : May take, = μ
dx EI  EI 
This is a standard differential equation, the solution of which is;
P P
y = C1 cos x + C 2 sin x
EI EI
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and can be found by applying end
conditions.
At A, x = 0 and y = 0;  C1 = 0
P
At B, x = l and y = 0;  0 = C2 sin l
EI
 3

This is possible if C2 is zero, in which case the column has not bend at all, or
P
sin l  0.
EI
P
 l = 0, π, 2π....
EI
Taking the least significant value, we get
π 2 EI
P= 2
l
We shall call this critical load as “Euler’s load, PE ”
π 2EI
Hence, PE = …(5.1)
l2

Case (b): One End Fixed, Other End Free

For the strut shown in Fig 5.3, let end A be direction fixed as well as position fixed,
and end B be free. Let ‘a’ be the deflection of the free end.
At any distance x from A, let y be the deflection.
The bending moment at the section is,
Mx = P a - y P
B
d2 y a
Hence, EI 2 = P  a - y  y
dx
2
d y P Pa x l
Or 2
+ y=
dx EI EI
The solution of the above differential equation is; A
P P
y = C1 cos x + C 2 sin x +a
EI EI
l
At A, x = 0 and y = 0;  C1 = -a
dy
Also at A, x = 0 and =0
dx
Fig 5.3
dy P P P P
Slope, = -C1 sin x + C2 cos x
dx EI EI EI EI
dy P
At A,  = 0 = C 2
dx EI
Hence, C2  0, since P is not zero.
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 , we get
P  P 
y = -a cos x + a = a 1- cos x 
EI  EI 
Again at B, x=l , and y=a
 4

 P 
 a = a  1- cos l 
 EI 
P
Or cos l =0
EI
P π 3π 5π
Hence, l = , ,
EI 2 2 2
Taking the least significant value, we get
P π
l =
EI 2
 Euler’s load ‘ PE ’ is given by,
π 2EI
P = PE = …(5.2)
4l 2

Case (c): Both ends Fixed

Let both ends A and B be direction as well as position fixed, with the deformed shape
as shown in Fig 5.4. The column is convex for a length l /4 from either ends and concave
for the middle half. At any distance x from A, we have;
d2 y
EI 2 = M - Py
dx
where M is fixed moment at the ends, as in the case of a fixed beam.
Re-arranging the above equation, we get
d2 y P M P
2
+ y= M
dx EI EI
The solution of the above differential equation is;
B
P P M l/4
y = C1 cos x + C 2 sin x + …(i)
EI EI P
l/2
Differentiating it, we get y l
dy P P P P
= -C1 sin x + C2 cos x …(ii) x l/4
dx EI EI EI EI
M A
At A, x = 0 and y = 0;  C1 = -
P M
dy P
Also at A, x = 0 and = 0;  C 2 = 0
dx Fig 5.4
M
Substituting the values of and C2 in (i), we get
P
P  P 
y = C1 cos x - C1 = C1  cos x -1 
EI  EI 
 P 
At B, x = l and y = 0 = C1  cos l -1
 EI 
 5

P
Either C1  0, in which case the column has not bend at all, or cos l -1 = 0
EI
P
 cos l =1
EI
P
Or l = 0, 2, 4.... …(iii)
EI
dy
Also at B, x = l and = 0.
dx
Hence from Equation (ii);
P P
0 = -C1 sinl
EI EI
P
Or sinl =0
EI
P
 l = 0, π, 2π, 3π..... …(iv)
EI
P
The minimum significant value of l consistent both with (iii) and (iv) is 2π .
EI
P
 l = 2π
EI
Thus, Euler’s load ‘ PE ’ is given by,
4π 2EI
P = PE = …(5.3)
l2

Case (d): One End Fixed, the Other End Hinged

The deflected shape of the column will be as shown in Fig 5.5, and a bending
moment M is induced at A. Since end B is direction fixed, there will be a force R at right
angles to AB to maintain equilibrium.
Hence we have,
d2 y
EI 2 = -Py + R  l - x 
dx
2
d y P R
Or 2
+ y = l  x 
dx EI EI
The solution of the above differential equation is;
P P R
y = C1 cos x + C 2 sin x + l  x …(i)
EI EI P
d2 y P P P P R
 = -C1 sin x + C2 cos x 
dx 2 EI EI EI EI P
Rl
At A, x = 0 and y = 0;  C1 = -
P
 6

dy P R P
Also at A, x = 0 and = 0 = C2 -
dx EI P
B R
R EI
 C2 
P P l
l
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in (i), we get 2

Rl P R EI P R
y=- cos x + sin x + l - x  y
P EI P P EI P x
A
Now at B, x = l and y = 0 M
Rl P R EI P P
 0=- cos l + sin l Fig 5.5
P EI P P EI
P P
Or tan l =l
EI EI
P
Thus, the value of l has to be such that its tangent is equal to the angle itself.
EI
The smallest root of the above equation is, therefore;
P
= 4.49 radians
EI
P
Or l 2 = 20 = 2π 2  approximately 
EI
Hence, Euler’s load ‘ PE ’ is given by,
2π 2 EI
P = PE = …(5.4)
l2
Note: The empirical formulae used in many books are based on similar relationship
and either give critical buckling stress or allowable stress in terms of measurable factors
such as; yield stress of material, or slenderness ratio of the strut.

5.1.1 The Equivalent Length

In all the four cases considered, Euler’s crippling load was deduced. Generally,
π 2EI
Euler’s crippling load may be expressed in the form: PE = , in which C is a
Cl 2
constant, taking into account the method of fixing the ends.
When a column is hinged at both ends, C = 1 , and hence may be taken as the
standard case. For case (b), C = 4; for case (c), C = 14 ; and for case (d), C = 12 .
Instead of using the actual length l of the column, we can use that length of the
column which is equivalent to that of a pin-jointed column. Thus,
π 2EI
PE = 2 …(5.5)
LE
 7

Eq. (5.5) is applicable to all end conditions. LE in the equation is equal to l C, and
is known as ‘equivalent length’. The equivalent length of the different columns
discussed above is tabulated in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Equivalent lengths of columns

Case End conditions Crippling load Relation between equivalent

length  L E  and actual length  l 
(a) Both ends π 2 EI π 2 EI LE  l
hinged PE = 2 = 2
l LE
(b) One end fixed, π 2 EI π 2 EI L E  2l
other end free PE = =
 2L E 
2
4l 2
(c) Both ends 4π 2 EI π 2 EI l
fixed PE = 2 = LE 
l  LE 
2
2
 
 2 
(d) One end fixed, 2π 2 EI π 2 EI l
other hinged PE = 2 = LE   0.7l
l  LE 
2
2
 
 2

If π 2 EI π 2 EI , or Cl 2  L2E ,  L E  l C
Note: L E =Equivalent length =
L2E Cl 2
l =Actual length of column

The concept of equivalent length is useful in practical applications since actual

compression members are seldom truly hinged or completely fixed. In many cases, the
equivalent length or effective length (effective length may be defined as that length of the
column which is subject to buckling) is estimated or based on results of tests.
It is to be noted that no factor of safety is included in Euler’s equations.

5.1.2 Limitations of Euler’s Formulae

Euler’s formula is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The axis of the strut is perfectly straight when unloaded.
(ii) The line of thrust coincides exactly with the unstrained axis of the strut.
(iii) The flexural rigidity EI is uniform.
(iv) The material is isotropic.
(v) The buckling value of P=PE is assumed to obtain for all degrees of flexure.
(vi) The strut is very long in comparison with its cross-sectional dimensions.
(vii) The assumptions made in the theory of simple bending hold good (i.e. EI
uniform, material isotropic, etc).
(viii) The load is applied axially.
(ix) Shortening of column due to direct compression (being very small) is
neglected.
 8

A strut may have initial curvature, distortion or crookedness. Therefore, the theory
refers to an ideal strut, not to a real one.
It is interesting to note that no strength property of the material appears in the
Euler’s formulae, yet they determine the carrying capacity of a column. The only the
material property involved is the elastic modulus E, which physically represents the
stiffness characteristic of the material. The effect of the imperfection is to convert the
strut problem of stability to a problem of stresses, of which Euler’s theory takes no
account.
The critical stress, which is defined as an average stress over the cross-section is
given by,
P 2 EI 2 E
E  E   …(5.6)
A Al 2  l /k 2
I
for the standard case, where radius of gyration, k  or 'r' = . In Eq. 5.6, l /k is known
A
as the slenderness ratio.

CR Euler stress

Actual failure stress

E
LE / r
Fig 5.6

5.1.3 Slenderness Ratio

Slenderness ratio is a ratio based on the effective length of a column and its least
radius of gyration.
effective length of column l  L LE 
Slenderness ratio = = ,  or E , or 
least radius of gyration rleast  rleast k least 

The radius of gyration of a column is a geometric property depending on the second

I
moment of area of the column and its cross-sectional area, i.e, r = .
A
l
A long column has greater value of and losses its strength at a very small
r
compressive stress. For example, if the yield stress  E  of mild steel is 310 N/mm2, and
l
E is 210 kN/mm2, the limitation of can be found as follows:
r
l 2 E 2  210 103
   81.8
r E 310
 9

l
Thus, Euler’s law is applicable only if is greater than 81.8 for mild steel column
r
hinged at both ends.
A graphical interpretation of Eq.5.6 is shown in Fig 5.7 for mild steel.

800 A
E, N/mm2

600

310 C
300

B
0 D
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
l /r

Fig 5.7
Example 5.1: (a) State Euler’s formula for long pinned struts. Define all the symbols
used and state the assumptions upon which the theory is based. (b) An alloy tube of
20mm external diameter and 12.5mm bore, 3m long extended by 1mm under a steady
axial load of 460kg. Using Euler’s formula, determine the crippling load for this member
used as a pin-ended strut.

Solution
(a) Refer to the theory.

(b) Euler’s crippling load, PE

π 2 EI
Euler’s formula is: PE =
l2
π2
Cross-sectional area of tube, A =
4
 202  12.52  = 191.44mm 2
P 460  9.81
Stress in tube,  =   23.57N / mm 2
A 191.44
dl 1
Strain in tube,   
l 3000
stress    23.57
E   70710N / mm 2
strain    1/ 3000

I of tube 
64
 204  12.54   6.656 103 mm 4
π 2 EI π 2  70710  6.656 103
Crippling load, PE = 2   516 N  or 52.6kg 
l 30002
 10

5.2 Rankine’s formula for struts

Euler’s formula gives correct results only for long columns ( l / r higher than about
80.4 for mild steel). For columns intermediate between very long and short ones, Euler’s
formula though applicable does not give correct results.
Rankine proposed an empirical formula for columns which covers all cases ranging
from very short to very long struts. He proposed the following relation:
1 1 1
= 
P Pc Pd
where P = actual load to cause strut to fail
Pc = load given by Euler’s formula to cause buckling (Note: P c=PE)
Pd = force to cause direct compression failure.
1 P + P 1+ Pd /Pc
Thus, = d c = (after dividing by Pc)
P Pc Pd Pd
Pd
Or P= (taking reciprocals)
1+ Pd /Pc
2 EI
But Pd  f c A, and Pc 
l2
fc A
 P=
1+  f c Al 2 /2 EI 
Also, I = Ak 2
fcA fcA fcA
 P=  
1+  f c Al 2 /2 EAk 2  1+ f c  l /k 2 1+ a  l /k 
2

2 E
fc A
 P= , termed Rankine’s formula. …(5.7)
1 + a  l /k 
2

where P = actual load to cause strut to fail,

f c = crushing stress for the material,
A =area of cross-section,
l=actual length of strut,
k =least radius of gyration for the cross-section,
a =Rankine’s constant, which depends on the material of the strut, and may
be given in tables for pin jointed struts. a = f c /2 E. The constant is not
calculated from values of f c , 2 , and E, but is determined experimentally.
Some common values of f c for materials widely used for struts and columns are
listed in Table 5.2.
 11

Table 5.2: Common values of Rankine’s constant, ‘a’.

S/N Material f c (kg / m 2 ) a: For hinged ends

1 Wrought iron 2550 1/9000
2 Cast iron 5670 1/1600
3 Mild steel 3300 1/7500
4 Strong timber 500 1/750

Eq. 5.7 is the Rankine’s formula for the standard case of two-hinged columns, and is
sometimes known as Rankine-Gordon formula. For columns with other end conditions,
the value of the constant will be changed accordingly. However, since ‘a’ is a constant
for a particular material used as a hinged column, it is not convenient to remember the
values of a for other end conditions. It is therefore better to modify Rankine's formula
and remember it in the form:
fc A
P= …(5.8)
1 + a  L E /k 
2

in which a is the Rankine constant for the standard case of column and L E is the
equivalent length of the column. Since equivalent length is generally known, it can be
substituted in the above formula to get Rankine’s formula for a particular case of end
conditions. Eq. 5.7 and 5.8 do not include the factor of safety.
Another formula, similar to Eq.5.8 was proposed by Ritter, and his expression for
“an average axial stress” is,
P f
= …(5.9)
A 1 + a  L E /k  2
in which f is the allowable stress and a = f c /2 E. The only difference between Eq.5.8, and
Eq.5.9 is that the later includes a factor of safety.

Example 5.2: Compare the crippling loads given by Euler’s and Rankine’s formula for a
tubular steel strut 2.3m long, having outer and inner diameters of 38mm and 33mm
respectively, and loaded through pin joints at each end. Take the yield stress as
325N/mm2, the Rankine’s constant, a=1/7500 and E=200kN/mm2. For what length of the
strut of this cross-section does the Euler formula cease to apply?

Solution
π π
I XX =  D 4 - d 4  =  384 - 334  = 44.14×103 mm 4
64 64
π 2 2 π
A =  D - d  =  382 - 332  = 279mm 2
4 4
I 44.14  103
k=   12.58mm
A 279
Length of strut, l = 2300mm
 12

π 2 EI π 2  200  103  44.14 103

PE =   16470N  16.47kN
l2 23002
fc A 325  279
PR = 2
 2
N  16.62kN
l  1  2300 
1 a   1  
k 7500  12.58 
PE 16.47
   0.99
PR 16.62
PE 2 Ek 2
Also,  325N / mm 2 
A l2
l 2 E 200 103
 Validity limit of    77.93
k 325 325
Or l  980mm

5.3 Design of Columns and Struts

The procedure is that of trial and error, except for circular section in which l / r is
directly known in terms of diameter. However, for other sections, a suitable value l / r is
assumed, to start with. Using any suitable formula, the value of P/A is calculated. Since
P is known and P/A is also known, the area of section A is known. From the standard
steel tables, a suitable section is chosen having the area of section A calculated above and
l / r nearer to the assumed value. The calculations are then repeated with the new value of
l / r and a new A is found.

5.4 Gordon’s Formula

Gordon proposed the following formula:
fA
P= …(5.10)
L2
1  a 2
b
where a= Gordon constant
 ab 2 / k 2 ,
b= overall lesser dimension,
a=Rankine’s constant
Gordon’s constant a is not a mathematical constant like Rankine’s but its value
depends upon the properties of the material and shape of the section.

5.5 Johnson’s Formula

Johnson proposed the following formula:
 l 
P = Af -n  …5.11(a)
 k
 l2 
P = Af - r 2  …5.11(b)
 k 
Eq. 5.11(a) is a straight line formula, as a straight line will be obtained if P/A is
plotted against l / k . The constant ‘n’ depends on the material and upon the end
 13

conditions of the column, f is the allowable stress of the material, and therefore, P is the
safe load for the column.
For mild steel, f=1125kg/m2 and n= 5.625 for both ends hinged, and n=4.219 for
both ends fixed. Thus, Johnson’s straight line formula becomes,
 l 
P = A  1125 - 5.625  , for both ends hinged, and
 k
 l 
P = A  1125 - 4.219  , for both ends fixed.
 k
Eq. 5.11(b) is a parabolic formula, as a parabola will be obtained if P/A is plotted
against l / k . The constant ‘r’ depends on the material and upon the end conditions of the
column.

5.6 Long Columns Under Eccentric Loading

Modified Rankines formula
When a short column is subjected to an eccentric load P, the maximum compressive
stress is given by:
P Pe P P  e  yc
f = fo + fb = +
A Z
== +
A Ak 2  Z=I/y c , and I=Ak 2 

where y c =distance of extreme compressive fibre from neutral axis (N.A.)

P  e  yc 
Hence, f = 1+ 2 
A k 
If f = permissible stress for the material, the corresponding load is given by,
f A
P= …(a)
 e  yc 
1+ 2 
 k 
in which 1+ e  y c / k 2  is a reduction factor which takes into account the eccentricity of
loading.
For long column loaded with axial loading, the safe load, by Rankine’s formula is
given by,
f A
P= 2
…(b)
l 
1+ a  
k
  l  
2

in which 1+ a    is a reduction factor which takes into account the buckling of the
  k  
column.
Hence, for a long column loaded with eccentric loading, the modified Rankine’s
formula can be empirically stated as,
f A
P= …(5.12)
 yc   l2 
1 + e 2  1 + a 2 
 k  k 
 14

The above formula (Eq.5.12) is the standard case. For other cases, the constant ‘a’
can be changed accordingly.

5.6.2 The Secant Formula

For the eccentrically loaded column shown in Fig 5.8, consider any section,
distance x from A. The deflection is y with reference to the line of action of P which is
acting at an eccentricity e at the ends. The bending moment is, M = -Py.
d2 y
Hence, EI 2 = M = -Py
dx
2
d y P
Or + y=0
dx 2 EI
This is a standard differential equation, the solution of which is;
P P
y = C1 sin x + C 2 cos x …(i)
EI EI
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and can be found by applying end
conditions.
P
At A, x = 0 and y = e;  C2 = e e
B
dy P P P P
Also, = C1 cos x - C2 sin x
dx EI EI EI EI
dy
At the mid-height of the column, = 0, and x  l /2 l
dx y
P l P P l P
 0 = C1 cos e sin x
EI 2 EI EI 2 EI e A
l P
sin Fig 5.8
Or C1  e 2 EI
l P
cos
2 EI
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in (i), we get;
 l P 
 sin 
y = e 2 EI sin x P  cos x P  …(ii)
 l P EI EI 
 cos 2 EI 
l
At x  , y=y max
2
 2l P 
 sin 
 y max = e  2 EI  cos l P 
 l P 2 EI 
 cos 2 EI 
 15

 sin 2  sin 2  + cos 2  1 

 + cos  = = = sec  
 cos  cos  cos  
l P
Or y max = e sec …(iii)
2 EI
The largest bending moment M occurs at x  l /2, where y is maximum.
l P
 M max = Py max = Pe sec
2 EI
The maximum compressive stress occurring in the column may be computed by
usual formula as;
P M
f= +
A Z
l P
Pe sec
P 2 EI  I Ak 2 
= +  where Z    …(iv)
A Z  yc yc 
P e yc l P 
 f=  1 + 2 sec  …(5.13)
A k 2 EI 
Since Eq. 5.13 contains a secant term, it is known as ‘the secant formula’ for
columns.
In order to cover the cases for all end conditions, the secant formula (Eq. iv) can be
written as,
L P
Pe sec E
P 2 EI
f= + …(v)
A Z
in which LE is the equivalent length. In Eq. 5.13, ‘k’ may not be maximum since it is
obtained from the value of second moment of area, (I) associated with the axis around
which bending occurs.
It is interesting to note that in a short column with an eccentric load P, the bending
moments in all sections is ‘ P  e ’ while in the case of long columns, the maximum
L P
bending moment is increased by a factor, sec E .
2 EI

5.6.3 Perry’s Approximate Formula for Long Column With Eccentric Load
It can be observed that Eq. (iv) is quite convenient for calculating the maximum
value of stress if P and e are given. If it is required to calculate the load P for a given
stress and limit of eccentricity, Eq. (iv) is not convenient, since secant function contains
P itself. It is necessary therefore to express the above expression in a more workable
form:

sec
l P
 sec
Pl 2
= sec
P 
× 2
π 2 /4 
= sec
π P
= sec
 P
,
2 EI 4EI 4EI/l  π /4 
2
2 2
π EI/l 2
2 PE
 16

2 EI
Since PE   Eulerian load 
l2
 P 1.2PE
Prof. Perry found that sec 
2 PE PE  P
l P 1.2PE
 sec 
2 EI PE  P
Substituting in Eq. 5.13,
P  e y 1.2PE 
f = 1+ 2 c 
A k PE  P 
P P
Writing f o = , and  E  E , we get
A A
 e y 1.2E 
f = f o 1+ 2 c 
 k E  f o 
 f  1.2e yc  E 
 -1 =  
 fo  k 2  E - f o 
 f   E - f o  1.2e y c
 -1  =
 f o   E  k2
 f  f  1.2e y c
  -1 1  o  = …(13.14)
f
 o   E  k 2

Eq. 13.14 is known as Prof. Perry’s approximate formula from which f o and hence
P = f o A can easily be calculated.

Example 5.3: A mild steel column is of hollow circular section of external diameter
120mm and internal diameter 90mm. The column is 3m long, hinged at both ends, and
has to carry a load of 8 tonnes at an eccentricity of 20mm from the geometrical axis.
Determine the maximum and minimum intensities of stresses. Also determine the
maximum permissible eccentricity so that no tension is induced anywhere in the section.
Take E= 210 kN/mm2.
convenient for calculating the maximum value
Solution of stress if P and e are given.
(a) Maximum and minimum stresses:
π π
I XX =  D 4 - d 4  = 1204 - 90 4  = 6.958×106 mm 4
64 64
π 2 2 π 8000  9.81
A =  D - d  = 120 2 - 902  = 4948 mm 2
 3000
Note :  0.3476
4 4 2 210  103  6.958  106
180
I 6.958  106 0.3476   19.9160 , and cos 19.9160  0.9402
k2 =   1406 mm 2 
A 4948 1 1
sec    1.0636
cos 0.9402
 17

I 6.958 106
z=   11.6 104 mm 3
yc 120 / 2
Maximum bending moment,
l P
M max = Pe sec
2 EI
3000 8000  9.81
= 8000  9.81 20  sec
2 210 103  6.958 106
= 1.5696 106 sec 0.3476 rad  Note : sec  1/ cos; 2 rad  3600 
= 1.5696 106 1.0636
= 1.669 106 N  mm  1.669kNm
M 1.669  106
Bending stress, f b =   14.37N / mm 2
Z 11.6  10 4

P 8000  9.81
Also, f o =   15.86N / mm 2
A 4948
Maximum stress,
f max = f o  f b  15.86  14.37  30.24N/mm 2  i.e.  ve, compressive 
Minimum stress,
f min = f o  f b  15.86  14.37  1.49N/mm 2  i.e.  ve, compressive 

(b) Maximum permissible eccentricity for no tension:

For no tension, f b  f o , so that, f b  e  f o  20
f  20 15.86  20
Eccentricity, e  o   22.07mm
fb 14.37

5.6 Southwell plot and Perry-Robertson Formula

In this theory, an initially curved column is considered.
(a) Southwell plot
An alternative approach to Rankine’s theory bases a design formula on the failure of
column possessing a small initial curvature, the argument being that in practice columns
are never perfectly straight.
Consider a pin-ended column as shown in Fig 5.9. In its unloaded configuration the
column has a small initial curvature such that the lateral displacement at any value of x is
yo . Let us assume that,
x
y o = yi sinπ …(i)
l
in which yi  initial displacement of centre of column. Eq. (i) satisfies the boundary
conditions of y o  0 at x  0 and x  l and also dy o / dx  0 at x  l /2 ; the assumed
deflected shape is therefore reasonable particularly since we note the buckled shape of a
pin–ended column is also a half sine wave.
 18

Since the column is initially curved, an P

axial load P immediately produces bending B
and therefore further lateral displacements y Initial curved shape
measured from the initial displaced position. of column
The bending moment M at any section x is
EI constant
then, y y
l
M = -P  y + yO 
i c
…(ii)
If the column is initially unstressed yo y Deflected shape produced
the bending moment at any section is by compressive load, P
x
proportional to the change in curvature at
that section from its initial configuration and A
not its absolute value. P
Thus, from the equation,
Fig 5.9
d2 y
M = EI 2
dx
2
d y P
so that, 2
   y  yo  …(iii)
dx EI
Re-arranging Eq. (iii), we have
d2 y P P
2
+ y = - yo …(iv)
dx EI EI
Note that P is not, in this case, the buckling load for the column.
Substituting for yo from Eq. (i), we obtain,
d2 y P P x  d2 y x
2
+ y = - yisinπ ,or  2 + μ 2 y = -μ 2 yisinπ  …(v)
dx EI EI l  dx l
The solution of Eq. (v) is,
2 y x
y  A cos x  Bsin x  2 2 i 2 sinπ …(vi)
 / l  -  l
in which  2 = P/EI. If the ends of the column are pinned, y=0 at x=0 and y=0 at x=l.
The first of these boundary conditions gives A=0, while from the second we have,
0  Bsin l
Although this equation is identical to that derived from the boundary conditions of
an initially straight, buckled, pin-ended column, the circumstances are now different. If
sin l  0, then l   so that  2  2 /l 2 . This would then make the third term in Eq.
(vi) infinite which is clearly impossible for a column in stable equilibrium
 P < PCR , where PCR = PE = critical or buckling load  . We conclude, therefore, that B=0
and hence Eq.(vi) becomes,
μ2y x
y = 2 2 i 2 sinπ …(vii)
 π /l  - μ l
Dividing the top and bottom of Eq. (vii) by μ 2 , we obtain,
 19

x
yisinπ
y= l
 π /μ l  -1
2 2 2

P x
But μ 2 = and yisinπ  yo from Eq. (i). Thus,
EI l
y
y= 2 o …(viii)
π EI
1
Pl 2
From Euler’s equation for pin-ended strut, π 2 EI/l 2  PE , the buckling load for a
perfectly straight pin-ended column. Hence Eq. (viii) becomes,
yo
y= …(ix)
PE
1
P
It can be seen from Eq. (ix) that the effect of the compressive load P is to increase
P 
the initial deflection yo by a factor, 1/  E  1 . Clearly, as P approaches PE, y tends to
 P 
infinity. In practice this is impossible since material breakdown would occur before PE is
reached.
If we consider displacement at the mid-height of the column, we have, from Eq.
(ix),
yi P  P
yc = , or yi  y c  E  1  y c E - y c
PE  P  P
1
P
Re-arranging (taking the last yc as subject) , we obtain,
yc
y c = PE - yi …(x)
P
Equation (x) represents a linear relationship between yc and yc /P. Thus, in an
actual test on an initially curved column, a graph of yc against y c /P will be a straight
line as the critical condition is approached. The slope of the line is PE and its intercept on
the yc axis is equal to yi , the initial displacement at the mid-height of the column. The
graph (Fig 5.10) is known as the Southwell plot and gives a convenient, non-destructive
method of determining the buckling load of columns.

Compare Eq. (x) with the equation;

y = mx  C
When plotted, C is the intercept on the y axis (=yi) and m is the slope (=PE).
 20
yc

slope=PE

O
yc/P
yi

Fig 5.10: Southwell plot

(b) PERRY ROBERTSON FORMULA

The maximum bending moment in the column of Fig 5.9 occurs at mid-height and is,
M max = P  yi  y c 
yc y P 
Substituting for y c from Eq. (x), we have Note : y c = PE - yi , or yi  PE c  y c  y c  E  1
P P  P 
 
  
1   
M max = Pyi 1   or y c 
y i
; Hence M max =P  yi 
y i

PE PE PE
  1 1   1 
 P  P  P 
 P 
Or M max = Py i  E  …(xi)
 PE - P 
The maximum compressive stress in the column occurs in an extreme fibre and is,
P P  ey  P 
σ max = + , where M max =P  e y =Pyi  E  , Iyy  Ak 2 , and x  C
A Iyy / x  PE - P 
P  P  C
 σ max = + Pyi  E   2
A  PE - P  Ak
P P PE yi C
=   
A A PE - P k 2
P PE yi C 
Hence σ max = 1    …(xii)
A  PE - P k 2 
In the above equation, A is the cross-sectional area, C is the distance from the
centroidal axis to the extreme fibre and k is the radius of gyration based on I = Ak 2 , in
which I is the second moment of area of the column’s cross-section.
Equation (xii) may be written in terms of stresses, where
P P
σ= (σ is the average stress) , and σ E = E , in which PE= Euler’s buckling load.
A A
Equation (xii) then becomes:
 σ y C
σ max = σ 1  E  i 2  …(xiii)
 σE - σ k 
 21

2
PE 2 EI 1 2 E 1 2 k 2 E
In which σE =  2   2   Ak   E   
2
. The
 l   LE / K 
2
A l A l A
term yiC/k 2 is an expression of the geometrical configuration of the column and is a
constant for a given column having a given initial curvature. Therefore,
writing yi C/k 2 = η, Eq. (xiii) becomes
 σ 
σ max = σ 1+ E × η …(xiv)
 σE - σ 
Expanding Eq. (xiv), we have
 E    E -   E 
max   1+    
 E -    E -  
Or max   E -      E -    E    -  E 1       1    E -  
Or max  E   max    1    E     0
Or max  E  max    1   E  2  0
 σ 2 - σ  σ max + 1+ η  σ E  + σ max σ E = 0 …(xv)
Thus re-arranging equation (xiv), leads to equation (xv)
The solution of equation (xv)can be obtained by comparing with the quadratic
equation:
 b  b 2  4ac
For the quadratic equation, ax 2  bx  c  0, the solution is x 
2a
Comparing the quadratic equation with equation (xv) and the solution,
a=1
b  max  1    E , and
c   max  E
The solution of equation (xv) is,

 σ 
2
σ max + 1+ η  σ E   max + 1+ η  σ E  - 4 1 σ max σ E 
σ=
2 1

Or σ=
1
2
σ max + 1+ η  σ E  -
1
4
 σ max + 1+ η  σ E  - 4  σ max σ E 
2

…(xvi)

Considering the smaller value of the average stress σ (hence ignoring the positive root
of Eq. (xvi), and specifying the maximum stress to be the yield stress σ Y , Eq. (xvi)
becomes
1 1
σ = σ Y + 1 + η  σ E  - σ Y +  1 + η  σ E  - σ Y σ E
2
…(xvii)
2 4
Eq. (xvii) is the Perry formula for intensity of end loading which will cause strut to
fail. The formula is generally referred to as Perry-Robertson formula.
Robertsons’ part in the development of Eq. (xvii) was the determination of the
 22

dimensionless constant , which Robertson concluded from a wide range of tests on mild
steel to be
η = 0.003  l /k 
Substituting this value of η in Eq. (xvii), we obtain,
2
1  l   1  l  
σ = σ Y +  1 + 0.003  σ E  -  σ Y +  1 + 0.003  σ E  - σ Y σ E …(xviii)
2  k  4  k 
 π2E 
In Eq. (xviii), σ Y is a material property while σ E  σ E = 2
, depends upon
  LE /k  
Young’s modulus of elasticity, E, and the slenderness ratio of the column. The equivalent
length L E = l /k, in which k is some constant. When both ends are pinned, L E = 1.0l.
Thus Eq. (xviii) may be used to determine the safe axial loads or stresses  σ  for columns
of a given material in terms of slenderness ratio. Codes of practice tabulate maximum
allowable values of average compressive stress against a range of slenderness ratios.
Equation (xvii) may also be written as
1 1 2
σ = C- C - σ Y σ E , where C  σ Y +  η + 1 σ E
2 4

Example:
(Solve problems involving Southwell plot).

SOUTHWELL PLOT
In a test on a pin-ended strut the applied axial compressive force P, and the resulting
lateral central deflection yc, were measured as shown in Table 2:
Table 2
Central deflection yc (mm) 0.23 0.38 0.55 0.75 0.96 1.27 1.63 2.04
Load, P (kN) 6.85 8.90 9.80 10.54 11.20 11.75 12.10 12.50

Using a Southwell plot, determine the critical load.

[13.9kN]

Also determine the initial curvature of the specimen yi.