Photonics

Matrix Formulation of Geometric Optics

Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur

JURUSAN FISIKA UNIVERSITAS ANDALAS

 Geometrical optics (ray optics)
Geometrical optics (ray optics) is the
It’s the roughest
simplest version of optics
approximation of
optical reality.

It’ll handle reflection

and refraction, but not
interference or
Ray diffraction.
optics
However, when it
does work, it will
handle complex
problems much more
easily than, say, wave
optics.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 2

 Ray Optics
Optical system

Light ray
Optic axis

❑ We'll define light rays as directions in space, corresponding, roughly, to

k-vectors of light waves.
❑ Each optical system will have an optic axis, and all light rays will be
assumed to propagate at small angles to it. This is called the Paraxial
Approximation.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 3

 Choosing the optic axis
We always try to choose the optic axis to make the problem as simple
as possible. Fortunately, we have the freedom to do so.
Here, the beam propagates back and forth inside a laser, so we can
use two different coordinate systems, one for the beam propagating
to the right with z increasing to the right, and another for the beam
propagating to the left with z increasing to the left.

Mirrors

Laser medium
z 0
0 z
Ray
Optic axis

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 4

 Ray Vectors
Optic
xin , qin
z0 axis

0 xout , qout

At every position, z, along the optic axis, a light ray can be defined by
two co-ordinates:

its position, x q

its slope, q x

z0 z
Optic axis

These parameters define a ray vector, which will

change with distance, z, as the ray propagates  x
q 
through optics.  
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 5
 Ray Matrices
❑ For many optical components, we can define 2 x 2 ray matrices.
❑ An optical element’s effect on a ray is found by multiplying the ray
vector by the element’s ray matrix.

xin , qin

xout , qout
Lens ↔ 2 x 2 ray matrix
Distance ↔ 2 x 2 ray matrix

We can do the same

 xafter lens   A B   xbefore lens 
=
for the other lenses
q  
 after lens  C D  qbefore lens  and the distances.

Ray vector after Ray matrix for Ray vector before

lens lens lens
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 6
 Ray Matrices as Derivatives
xout xout
Since the displacements, xin and xout, xout = xin + qin
xin qin
and angles, qin and qout, are all
assumed to be small, we can think in
q out q out
terms of partial derivatives. q out = xin + q in
xin qin

xout xout
Spatial
magnification xin q in

 xout   A B   xin  We can write these

q  = C D  q  equations in matrix
 out     in  form.
q out q out
Angular
xin q in magnification
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 7
 Cascaded elements
For cascaded elements, we simply multiply together all the individual ray
matrices.

Component #1 Component #2 Component #3

 xin   xout 
q  O1 O2 O3 q 
 in   out 

 xout     xin     xin 

q  = O3 O2  O1 q    = O3 O2 O1 q 
 out     in     in 

Notice that the order looks opposite to what it should be, but it makes
sense when you think about it.
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 8
 Ray Matrix for Free Space or a Medium
If xin and qin are the position and slope upon entering, let xout and qout be
the position and slope after propagating an arbitrary distance, z.

xout = xin + z qin

xout , qout
qout = qin
xin , qin
Rewriting these expressions
in matrix notation:
0 z
 xout  1 z   xin 
q  = 0 1  q 
 out     in 
1 z 
Ospace =  
 0 1 
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 9
 Ray Matrix for an Interface

At the interface: qout

qin
xin xout
xout = xin
n1 n2
Now calculate qout:

Snell's Law says: n1 sin(qin) = n2 sin(qout)

which, for small angles, becomes: n1 qin = n2 qout

 qout = [n1 / n2] qin 1 0 

Ointerface = 
 0 n1 / n2
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 10
 Ray Matrix for a Curved Interface
At the interface, again:
R
xout = xin. qs qout
q1 q2
To calculate qout, we must qs
calculate q1 and q2. qin xin
qs = xin /R
qs is the surface slope at z
the height xin. n1 n2
q1 = qin+ qs and q2 = qout+ qs
q1 = qin+ xin / R and q2 = qout+ xin / R
Snell's Law: n1 q1 = n2 q2  n1 (qin + xin / R) = n2 (qout + xin / R)
 qout = (n1 / n2 )(qin + xin / R) − xin / R
 1 0 
Ocurved =  
 qout = (n1 / n2 )qin + (n1 / n2 − 1) xin / R interface  1 2
( n / n − 1) / R n1 / n2

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 11

Lenses are two consecutive curved interfaces

Most attractive shape for eyeglasses

Lens nomenclature

Which type of lens to use (and how to orient it) depends on the aberrations
and application.
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 12
 Lens Curvature Definitions
Sign convention: R > 0 if the sphere center is to the right (z > 0), and R <
0 if the sphere center is to the left (z < 0).

z z
R1 > 0 R1 < 0
R2 < 0 f>0 R2 > 0 f<0

If f > 0, the lens deflects rays If f < 0, the lens deflects rays
toward the axis. away from the axis.

We’ll find a quantity, f, which is the focal length of the lens.

It’s the single most important parameter of a lens. It can be positive or

negative.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 13

 A thin lens is just two curved interfaces
We’ll neglect the glass in between (it’s a R1 R2
really thin lens!), and we’ll take n1 = 1.

 1 0  n2 = n ≠ 1
Ocurved = 
interface  1 2
( n / n − 1) / R n1 / n2
n1 = 1 n1 = 1

 1 0  1 0 
= Ocurved Ocurved = 
n  [(1/ n) − 1] / R1 1/ n 
Othin lens
interface 2 interface 1 (n − 1) / R2
 1 0   1 0
=  = 
 ( n − 1) / R2 + n[(1/ n ) − 1] / R1 n (1/ n )   ( n − 1) / R2 + (1 − n ) / R1 1 
 1 0  1 0
=  This can be written:
 ( n − 1)(1/ R − 1/ R ) 1   −1/ f 1 
2 1


where: 1/ f = (n − 1)(1/ R1 − 1/ R2 ) The Lens-Maker’s Formula

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 14
 A lens focuses parallel rays to a point one focal length away
For all rays,
xout = 0!
A lens followed by propagation by one focal length:

 xout  1 f   1 0  xin   0 f   xin   0 

q  = 0 1   −1/ f 1   0  =  −1/ f    =
1   0   − xin / f 
 out      
Assume all input
f rays have qin = 0

At the focal plane, all rays converge

to the z axis (xout = 0) independent of
f
input position.
Parallel rays at a different angle focus
at a different xout.

Looking from right to left, rays diverging from a point are made parallel.
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 15
 Lenses can simultaneously map angle to position and position to angle.

f
From input to output, use:
1) A distance f
2) A lens of focal length f
3) Another distance f f f

 xout  1 f   1 0  1 f   xin  So this arrangement maps input

q  = 0 1   −1/ f 1  0 1  q  angle to position:
 out       in 
independent of
1 f   1 f   xin  xout  q in input position
=   −1/ f 0  q 
 0 1    in  And it maps input position
to angle:
 0 f   xin   f qin 
=    =  q out  xin independent of
 − 1/ f 0 q
  in   in − x / f input angle

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 16

 Spectrometers
To best distinguish different wave-
lengths, a slit confines the beam to
the optic axis. A lens collimates the
Camera beam, and a diffraction grating
disperses the colors. A second
lens focuses the beam to a
point that depends on its
f beam input angle (i.e.,
the wavelength).
f
Entrance q  l−l0
slit There are many
types of
spectrometers. But
f most are based on
this principle.
Diffraction
grating
f
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 17
 Lenses and Phase Delay
Ordinarily phase isn’t considered in geometrical optics, but it’s worth
computing the phase delay vs. x and y for a lens.
It turns out that all paths through a lens to its focus have the same phase
delay, and hence yield constructive interference there!

Equal phase
delays

Focus

f
f

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 18

 Lenses and Phase Delay
 ( x, y )
d
First consider variation (the x
and y dependence) in the path
through the lens.

lens ( x, y ) = (n − 1)k ( x, y )  ( x, y ) = R12 − x 2 − y 2 − d

Extra phase
delay due to
lens ( x, y ) = (n − 1)k  R12 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) − d 
the glass  

x 2
+ y 2
But: R12 − x 2 − y 2 = R1 1 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) / R12  R1 −
2 R1
neglecting phase delays
lens ( x, y)  −(n − 1)(k / 2 R1 )( x 2 + y 2 ) independent of x and y.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 19

 Lenses and Phase Delay
Now compute the total phase delay x,y (x,y)
in the air after the lens:

air ( x, y ) = k x 2 + y 2 + z 2 0 Focus
f z
x 2
+ y 2
If z >> x, y: x2 + y 2 + z 2  z +
2z
So the extra phase delay is: air ( x, y)  (k / 2 z )( x 2 + y 2 )

lens ( x, y) + air ( x, y )  −(n − 1)(k / 2 R1 )( x 2 + y 2 ) + (k / 2 z )( x 2 + y 2 )

1 1 Recalling the Lens

= 0 if = (n − 1) that is, if z = f ! Maker’s Formula
z R1
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 20
 Ray Matrix for a Curved Mirror
Consider a mirror with radius of curvature, R, with its optic axis perpendicular
to the mirror:

q1 = qin − q s q s  xin / R
R

qout
q1 qout = q1 − q s = (qin − q s ) − q s
qs q1  qin − 2 xin / R
qin xin = xout
z  1 0
 Omirror =  
 −2 / R 1 

Like a lens, a curved mirror will focus a beam. Its focal length is R/2.
Note that a flat mirror has R = ∞ and hence an identity ray matrix.
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 21
 Laser Cavities
Mirror curvatures matter in lasers.

Two flat mirrors, the flat-flat laser

cavity, is difficult to align and
maintain aligned.

Two concave curved mirrors, the

usually stable laser cavity, is
generally easy to align and
maintain aligned.

Two convex mirrors, the unstable

laser cavity, is impossible to align!

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 22

 Unstable Resonators

The mirror curvatures determine

the beam size, which, for a stable
resonator, is small (100 mm to 1
mm).

But an unstable cavity (or unstable resonator) can be useful!

In fact, it produces a large beam, useful for high-power lasers, which
must have large beams.

An unstable resonator can have a

very large beam. But the gain
must be high. And the beam has
a hole in it.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 23

 Significance of system matrix elements
 xout   A B   xin 
q  = C D  q 
 out     in 

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 24

 The Special Cases of Zero

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 25

 Two-Lens System

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 26

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 27
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 28
 Consecutive Lenses
Consider two lenses right next to each
other (with no space in between).
f1 f2

 1 0  1 0  1 0
Otot =     = 
 −1/f 2 1   −1/f1 1   −1/f1 − 1/ f 2 1 

1/ftot = 1/f1 + 1/f 2

So two consecutive lenses act as one whose focal length is computed by

the resistive sum.
As a result, we define a measure of inverse lens focal length, the diopter:
1 diopter = 1 m-1

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 29

 A system images an object when B = 0
When B = 0, all rays from a
point xin arrive at a point xout,  xout   A 0   xin   A xin 
independent of angle. q  = C D  q  = C x + D q 
 out     in   in in 

xout = A xin When B = 0, A is the magnification.

Lens

Object Image

do di

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 30

 The Lens Law
Lens
From the object to the Image
image, we have: Object

1) A distance do f
2) A lens of focal length f
3) A distance di
do di
1 d i   1 0  1 d o  B = d o + di − d o di / f =
O=   −1/ f 1  0 1 
 0 1    d o di 1/ d o + 1/ di − 1/ f  =
1 d i   1 do  0 if
=   −1/ f 1 − d / f  1 1 1
 0 1  o  + =
d o di f
1 − di / f d o + di − d o di / f 
= 
 −1/ f 1 − d o / f  This is the Lens Law.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 31

 Imaging Magnification
Lens
Object Image
If the imaging condition,
f
1 1 1
+ =
d o di f
do di
is satisfied, then:
1 1
A = 1 − di / f = 1 − di  + 
1 − di / f 0   d o di 
O=
 −1/ f 1 − d o / f   M =−
di
do
So:
1 1
D = 1 − do / f = 1 − do  + 
 M 0 
 d o di 
O=
1/ M 
do
 −1/ f = − = 1/ M Angular
di magnification
Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 32
 Magnification Power

Often, positive lenses are rated with a

single magnification, such as 4x. Object under
observation
In principle, any positive lens can be used at an infinite number of
possible magnifications. However, when a viewer adjusts the object
distance so that the image appears to be essentially at infinity (which is a
comfortable viewing distance for most individuals), the magnification is
given by the relationship:
Magnification = 250 mm / f
Thus, a 25-mm focal-length positive lens would be a 10x magnifier.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 33

 Virtual Images
A virtual image occurs when the outgoing rays from a point on the object
never actually intersect at a point but can be traced backwards to one.
Negative-f lenses have virtual images, and positive-f lenses do also if the
object is less than one focal length away.

Virtual image Virtual image

Object
Object infinitely
far away
f<0
f>0

Simply looking at a flat mirror yields a virtual image.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 34
 F-Number
The F-number, “f / #”, of a lens is the ratio of its focal length and its
diameter.

f/# = f/d
f

d1
f d2 f

f/# =1 f/# =2
Small-f-number lenses (that is, bigger lenses) collect more light and so can
use shorter shutter speeds (are “faster”) but are harder to engineer.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 35

 Numerical Aperture
Another measure of a lens size is the numerical aperture. It’s the
product of the medium refractive index and the marginal ray angle.

NA = n sin(a)

Why this definition?

a Because the
f magnification can be
shown to be the ratio
of the NA on the two
sides of the lens.

High-numerical-aperture lenses are bigger.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 36

 Telescopes
Image plane Image plane
#1 #2
Keplerian telescope
M1 M2
A telescope should image an object, but, because the distant object has a
very small angular diameter, it should also magnify its angular diameter
significantly, so it looks bigger. So we’d like D to be large.
And use two lenses to square the effect.
 M 0 
= where M = − di / do
1/ M 
Oimaging
 −1/ f
Note that this is easy
 M2 0   M1 0  for the first lens, as
Otelescope =   −1/ f 1/ M  the object is really far
 − 1/ f 2 1/ M 2 1 1
away!

 M 1M 2 0 
= 
So use di << do
 − M 1 / f 2 − M 2 / f1 1/ M 1 M 2
for both lenses.

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 37

 Complex Lenses and Mirror

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 38

 Complex Lenses and Mirror

Photonics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 39