Wave Loads On Small Bodies

9/18/2009
Offshore Structures – Loads
WAVE FORCES ON SMALL

BODIES
17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

1
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36

Wave and Current Loads
Methodology
In applying design waves load on to the offshore

structures there are two ways of applying it
structures,
Design Wave method
Spectral Method
In design wave method, a discrete set of design waves
(maximum) and associated periods will be selected
to generate loads on the structure. These loads will
be used to compute the response of the structure.
In the spectral method

method, a energy spectrum of the sea-
sea
state for the location will be taken and a transfer
function for the response will be generated. These
transfer function will be used to compute the
stresses in the structural members

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Design Wave Method
The forces exerted by waves are most dominant in
governing the jacket structures design especially the
foundation piles. The wave loads exerted on the
jjacket is applied
pp laterally
y on all members and it
generates overturning moment on the structure.
Period of wind generated waves in the open sea can be
in the order of 2 to 20 seconds. These waves are
called gravity waves and contain most part of wave
energy.
Maximum wave shall be used for the design of offshore
structures. The relationship between the significant
wave height (Hs) and the maximum wave height
(Hmax) is
Hmax= 1.86 Hs
The above equation correspond to a computation based
on 1000 waves in a record.

3

The design wave height for various regions is
tabulated below
Region 1 year 100 year Maximum
Bay of Bengal 8 18 design waves in
Gulf of Mexico 12 24 various regions
South China Sea 11 24
Arabian Sea 8 18
Gulf of Thailand 6 12
Persian Gulf 5 12
North sea 14 22
API RP2A requires both 1 year and 100 year recurrence wave
shall be used for the design of jacket and piles. Appropriate
combination of loads with these waves shall be used in the
design. A one-third increase in permissible stress is allowed for
100 year storm conditions.
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Current Profile

5
Tidal Current Profile

The wind driven current variation with depth can
be expressed as:
1
⎛ y⎞ 7
VT = VoT ⎜ ⎟
⎝h⎠
Where VT is the tidal current at any height from
sea bed, VoT is the tidal current at the surface, y
is the distance measure in m from seabed and h
is the water depth

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Wind Driven Current Profile

The current variation with depth can be expressed as:
y
VW = VoW
h
Where VW is the wind driven current at any height
from sea bed, VoW is the wind driven current at the
surface, y is the distance measure in m from
seabed and h is the water depth

7

Morison Equation
Flow is assumed to be not disturbed by the
presence of the structure
Force calculation is empirical
p calibrated by
y
experimental results
Suitable Coefficients need to be used
depending on the shape of the body
Validity range shall be checked before use
and generally suitable for most jacket type
structures
u u where D/L
/ << 0.2
0 where D is the
diameter of the structural member and L is
the wave length

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9/18/2009

Morison Equation
Wave and current loading can be calculated by Morison
equation
Morison equation can be written as:
1 πD 2
FT = C D ρ w D V V + CM ρW a
2 4
Where FT is the total force, ρw is the density of water, CD and
CM are the drag and inertia coefficients respectively, D is the
diameter of the member including marine growth, V is the
velocity and a is the acceleration.
The first
Th fi t term
t in
i the
th equation
ti is
i drag
d componentt (FD) and
d the
th
second term is the inertia component (FI). This can be
expressed as:
FT = FD + FI
9
Wave Load on a Member

Morison equation is a general form and can not be
pp
applied to all members in the offshore structure. It
was developed specifically for a surface piercing
cylinder like pile of a structure. But in reality, the
members of the offshore structure may be
horizontal or inclined in space and can not used
without modification

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STEPS
Establish Wave Height, Period and Current
Distribution along the depth
Establish Wave Theory applicable for H,T,d
HTd
Estimation of Water particle kinematics
including wave current interaction
Establish Cd and Cm
Establish Marine Growth
Establish Wave Kinematics factor
Conductor Shielding (if applicable)
Current Blockage factor
Morison Equation used to estimate the forces

11
WAVE CURRENT INTERACTION

Presence of current either stretches the wave
or shortens it depending on the direction of
current. This is called Doppler shift.
f
The apparent wave period need to be
calculated to use in the load calculation
Drag term is nonlinear and hence the water
particle velocities due to wave and current
needs to be added Vectorialy before using it
in Morison equation.

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9/18/2009

Dispersion Relationship
gT 2π 2
L= tanh( d )
2π L
2πL
T = 2
2π
g tanh( d )
L

13

Apparent Wave Period
Following three equations needs to be solved to obtain the Tapp
L L
= +V I
T T app
2πL
=
2
Tapp
2π
g tanh( d )
L
(4π / L) 0
V = ∫ U ( z ) cosh(4π ( z + d ) / L) dz
sinh( 4πd / L)
I c
−d
Uc(z) – is the current profile elevation z

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9/18/2009

Nonlinear Drag Term in Morison equation
1 πD 2
F = C ρ DVV+ C ρ a
2 4
T D w M W
V = Vc + Vw
Vc = Current Velocity
Vw = Wave Water Particle Velocity
Example
Lets assume Vc=2m/sec, Vw=3m/sec
If we calculate the drag forces separately,
separately add,
add we will get 2*2 +
3*3 = 13
If we add the velocities first and compute the loads, we get
(2+3)*(2+3) = 25
It under predicts the forces as much as by 50%
15
Source : API RP 2A

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9/18/2009
Water Wave Kinematics

Airy wave theory is considered in the calculation of
wave kinematics. Consider a progressive wave with
water surface elevation depicted by cosine curve,
curve
H
η= cos(kx − ωt )
2
and the corresponding velocity potential is given by:
H ω cosh k (h + z )
φ =− sin(kx − ωt )
2 k sinh kh
17

Selection of wave theory for load calculation
Source : API RP 2A

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9/18/2009
Source : API RP 2A

19

Marine Growth
Marine growth around submerged structural
members increases the wave/current loads
as the diameter is increased
It varies from 50mm to 150mm thickness
along the depth from seabed
At also adds to additional weight
This is to be modelled such that the above is
taken in to account
Density of marine growth is around 1300
kg/m3

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Current Blockage Factor
Source : API RP 2A

21

Conductor Shielding Factor
Source : API RP 2A

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9/18/2009
SELECTION OF SUITABLE DRAG

AND INERTIA COEFFICIENTS

23
Cd and Cm
These are empirical Coefficients to be used in
Morison equation
q and they
y have been corelated with
experimental data
These coefficients vary due to shape of the structure,
surface roughness, flow velocity and direction of flow
Extensive research on various shapes available
API RP 2A has enough information for circular
cylinders
DNV recommendation can be used for non-circular
shapes

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9/18/2009
Cd and Cm
For Smooth cylinders Cd = 0.65, Cm=1.6
For rough cylinders Cd = 1.05, cm
cm=1.2
1.2
The values shall be used only if UT/D > 30

For other region of flow, charts available literature
shall be used

25
Keulegan-Carpenter Number
2U mT2
K=
D
Where K is Keulegan-Carpenter Number, Um is the maximum
velocity including current and T2 is the duration of half wave
cycle and D is the diameter of the member

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Reynold’s Number
U D
R= m
ν
Where R is Reynold’s Number, Um is the maximum velocity
including current and D is the diameter of the member
ν is the kinematic viscosity

27

Inertia Coefficient
Source : API RP 2A

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Drag Coefficient
Source : API RP 2A

29

Non-circular shapes

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The horizontal and vertical velocity and acceleration of
water particle can be calculated using the following
equations. ∂φ H cosh k (h + z )
Vh = = ω cos(kx − ωt )
∂x 2 sinh kh
∂φ H sinh k (h + z )
Vv = = ω sin( kx − ωt )
∂z 2 sinh kh
∂V H cosh k (h + z )
ah = h = ω 2 sin( kx − ωt )
∂t 2 sinh kh
∂V H sinh k (h + z )
av = v = ω 2 cos(kx − ωt )
∂t 2 sinh kh
Where k is the wave number defined by 2π/T, ω is the wave
circular frequency defined by 2π/T, L is the wave length, and
x is the distance of the point in consideration from origin.
31

Maximum Load on a vertical member
Consider a case of a surface piercing cylinder such as
pile of a structure or a leg of a jacket, the combined
drag and inertia force (total force) varies with time
and will be maximum only at one occasion.
occasion In order
find the maximum force, phase angle at which the
maximum force occurs shall be found first.
Let us express the total force on the pile by
substituting the velocity and acceleration components
and integrating between the limits (from surface to
seabed, i.e. 0 to –h)
1 π 2 H 2 cos θ cos θ ⎡ sinh(2kh) h ⎤
FT = C D ρD + ⎥
2 T2 sinh 2 kh ⎢⎣ 4k 2⎦
πD 2π H sin θ
2 2
- CM ρ
4 T2 k
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9/18/2009

Wave Loads on Jacket Structure
Storm Wave

33
The total force will be maximum when,

∂FT
=0
∂θ
Substituting the values of velocity and acceleration
components in to the drag and inertia force
equation and differentiating with respect to θ and
rearranging the terms, we get
⎡ πD CM 2 sinh 2 kh ⎤
θ max −1
= cos ⎢− ⎥
⎣ H C D (sinh 2kh + 2kh ⎦

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9/18/2009

Maximum Load on a horizontal member
Consider a case of horizontal cylinder such as brace of a
jacket, the combined drag and inertia force (total force) varies
with time and will be maximum only at one occasion. In order
find the maximum force,
force phase angle at which the maximum
force occurs shall be found first.
Let us express the total force on the pile by substituting the

velocity and acceleration,
1 H 2ω2 ⎡ cosh2 k(z + h) ⎤

FT = CD ρ D cosθ cosθ ⎢ ⎥
2 4 ⎣ sinhkh ⎦
πD2 Hω2 ⎡ cosh2 k(z + h) ⎤
-CM ρ sinθ ⎢ ⎥
4 2 ⎣ sinhkh ⎦
35
The total force will be maximum when,

∂FT
=0
∂θ
Substituting the values of velocity and acceleration
components in to the drag and inertia force
equation and differentiating with respect to θ and
rearranging the terms, we get
⎡ πD CM sinh kh ⎤
θ max = sin −1 ⎢− ⎥
⎣ 2 H C D (cosh k (h + z ) ⎦
36
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9/18/2009

Maximum Load on a inclined member
The resultant force on a arbitrarily oriented circular
cylinder in water waves can be calculated using
vector analysis combined with Morison equation
The total force per unit length of the cylinder can be

written as → →n →t
F =F +F
The force in normal direction an be expressed as:
→n →n →n
F = F D + F1
where FDn and F1n are the drag and inertia
forces respective ly.
37

These forces expressed as:
→ 1 n → →
F nD = C D D ρ V n Vn
2
→n 1
FD = πC Mn ID 2 ρa n→
4
where
C nD = Drag coefficien t for flow normal to the cylinder
C nM = Inertia coefficien t for flow normal to the cylinder
D = Diameter of cylinder
ρ = Density
D it off seawater
t
→
Vn = Velocity of fluid particle normal to the cylinder axis
a→
n = Accelerati on of fluid particle normal to the cylinder axis

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9/18/2009
The equation for tangential force can be

written as
→ →
F =F
t t
D
→
1 t → →
F = CD Dρ Vt Vt
t
D
2
CDn = Drag coefficient for flow tangential to the cylinder
→
Vt = Velocity of fluid particle tangential to the cylinder axis

39
These forces can be summed and expressed

in terms of cylinder local axis as below:
→ 1 t → →
Fx = C D Dρ Vt Vt
2
→ 1 n → → 1 n →
Fy = C D Dρ Vn V y + πCM IDρ a y
2 4
→ 1 n → → 1 n 2 →
Fz = C D Dρ Vn Vz + πCM ID ρ a z
2 4
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9/18/2009
Maximum Global Loads
Maximum g global loads on a p

platform
can be calculated using two
principles
Maximum Base Shear Method

Maximum Overturning Moment Method

41

Maximum Base Shear
Maximum base shear or maximum total force on a
structure has to be determined for the global analysis of
structures. As the wave propagates across structure wave
force on each member is different and all the locations will
not be attaining the maximum forces. To find the
maximum
i ttotal
t l force
f a structure,
t t following
f ll i steps
t need
d tto
be considered.
Position the wave crest at the origin of the structure as shown

in figure.
Divide one wave cycle into number of segments either in
terms of θ or in terms of length
Compute the wave forces on all members at that instant of
time using water wave velocities and accelerations computed
Sum up the forces in horizontal direction for all the members
Repeat the calculation in step 4 for all the points for one wave
cycle
The maximum of all the total forces computed in step 5 is the
maximum base shear or total force.

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9/18/2009
Maximum Overturning Moment
Maximum overturning moment on a

structure can be determined following the
procedure for the maximum bas shear
case. In this case, the loads on the
members shall be multiplied by the lever
arm from mud-line. This shall be summed
up
p and the pprocedure shall be repeated
p for
all the steps in the wave.

43
Hydrodynamic Factors
Wave Kinematics factor

This varies between 0.8 to 0.95. This is to be applied
since the calculated wave loading g is based two
dimensional wave theory while the actual loading is
from three dimensional wave climate.
Conductor Shielding factor
The presence of rows of conductors will provide a
shielding effect to the conductors behind and this
depends on the spacing and number of conductors
Current Blockage Factor
This
Thi currentt bl
blockage
k ffactor
t isi used
d to
t accountt for
f the
th
reduction in the current due to the presence of the
structure in a free stream.

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9/18/2009

SELECTION OF SUITABLE WAVE THEORY
Example
Water Depth d= 60m
Wave height H= 12m
Wave Period Tapp= 10 Sec
Calculate H/gTapp2 =0.012
Calculate d/gTapp2 =0.06
Refer
e e to API RP 2A and
a d the
t e Stokes
Sto es Wave
a e Theory
eo y
is applicable

45
H/gTapp2 =0.012
d/gTapp2 =0.06

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9/18/2009

Wave / Current
Direction
Wave / Current
assumed to be acting in
same direction
Wave Directions shall
be set to maximize the
total loads and pile loads
Minimum 8 directions
for 4 or 8 legged jackets
and 12 for tripods
Directional or Omni-
directional depending on
the design requirement

47

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9/18/2009

400
Shear
350 Moment
300
Shear (or) Moment (kN (or) kN-m)
250
200
150
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
200
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of a single pile along phase angle

49

700
Shear
600 Moment
500
Shear (or) Moment (kN (or) kN-m)
400
300
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of two pile group along phase angle
50
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9/18/2009

900
Shear
Moment
N (or) kN-m) 700
500
Shear (or) Moment (kN
300
100
-100
-300
-500
500
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of two pile group structure along phase angle

51

200
Shear
Moment
150
N (or) kN-m)
100
Shear (or) Moment (kN
50
-50
-100
100
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of a member in two pile group

structure along phase angle
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9/18/2009
Wave slamming Load

Wave slamming predominant in horizontal members
Needs to be taken in to account together with global
loads
Wave Slamming is computed similar to drag force
Slamming Force Co-efficient is to assumed and the
recommended value is 5.5
1
F = Cρ DV V
2
S S w s s

53
Wave Breaking Load

Wave slamming predominant in Vertical members
and vertical faces of coastal structures
The wave breaking force coefficient Cbis to assumed
as 5
5.98
98 for breaking wave and 2.74
2 74 for broken wave
The coefficient β for calculating the impact velocity is
to taken as 0.48 for breaking wave and 0.70 for
broken wave
C is the speed of breaking wave
V = βC
b
F = C ρ AV V
b b w b b
gT
C = 1.092
2π
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9/18/2009
FLOW PAST HORIZONTAL CYCLINDER

55

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9/18/2009
Assymetric Vortices

57

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9/18/2009
BOUNDARY LAYER

59
LIFT FORCES
1
F = Cρ DU U
2
L L w s s
C = 0.7C
L d

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9/18/2009
FLOW PAST HORIZONTAL PLATES

61
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9/18/2009

Offshore Structures – Loads

WAVE FORCES ON SMALL

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

In applying design waves load on to the offshore

In the spectral method

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Tidal Current Profile

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Wind Driven Current Profile

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Offshore Structures – Loads

Wave Load on a Member

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

WAVE CURRENT INTERACTION

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Uc(z) – is the current profile elevation z

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Water Wave Kinematics

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

Current Blockage Factor

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

SELECTION OF SUITABLE DRAG

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

17 May 2009 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore Structures – Loads

The values shall be used only if UT/D > 30

Maximum g global loads on a p

Maximum Base Shear Method

Position the wave crest at the origin of the structure as shown

Maximum overturning moment on a

Wave Kinematics factor