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Evaluation of Roughing and Slow Sand Filters for Water Treatment

Article  in  Water Air and Soil Pollution · May 2000

DOI: 10.1023/A:1005252900175

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 EVALUATION OF ROUGHING AND SLOW SAND FILTERS FOR
WATER TREATMENT

GAMILA E. EL-TAWEEL∗ and GAMILA H. ALI

Water Pollution Control Department, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt
(∗ author for correspondence)

(Received 25 June 1998; accepted 28 May 1999)

Abstract. The present study examined the potential of some roughing filter media, prepared from
locally available materials in removing organic matter and turbidity from surface water. Also, the
study included testing the efficiency of roughing filter followed by slow sand filter in minimizing
the suspended load on the subsequent water treatment steps. Based on microorganisms removal and
turbidity data, filter media consisted of three layers of gravel ranked top among six of the media
tested, showing 84–100% removal for chlorophyll ‘a’, green algae, blue-green algae, diatoms, total
algal count, bacterial count (at 22 and 37 ◦ C), total coliforms, faecal coliform, faecal streptococci,
yeast and Candida albicans. Using slow sand filter after roughing filter improved the percentage
removal of turbidity, where it reached up to 83% after roughing filter while it reached 92% after slow
sand filter. From the view point of aesthetic quality of the filtered water, the results of the analyzed
physico-chemical parameters showed no change before and after the use of the roughing and slow
sand filters.

Keywords: basalt, blast furnace slag, gravel, leca, percentage removal, roughing filter, slow sand
filter

1. Introduction

A slow sand filtration system is one of the earliest processes used for removing
contaminants from surface waters to produce drinking water (Rachwal et al., 1986;
Montiel et al., 1988). Slow sand filters because of their simplicity, efficiency and
economy are appropriate means of water treatment, particularly for community
water supply in developing countries (Visscher, 1988).
Slow sand filters (SSF) operate at very low filtration rates (0.1 mL h−1 ); us-
ing very fine sand (0.2 mm) and usually operate without prechlorination. The
purification of water in passing through such filters is principally the result of
straining through the developed filter skin at the top few millimeters of sand, to-
gether with biological activity. Therefore, both physical and biological mechanisms
are important in particulate capture in slow sand filtration (Haarhoff and Cleasby,
1991).
From the shortcomings of conventional slow sand filters a significant reduction
in filter run lengths which decreases the efficiency of filters to remove turbidity,
algal content, organic matter, and relatively long filter cleaning and ripening period

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 120: 21–28, 2000.

© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
22 GAMILA E. EL-TAWEEL AND GAMILA H. ALI

TABLE I
The filter bed of roughing filters

Description of filter No. of Range of Thickness of

layers grain size filter m−1

1. Blast furnace slag 2 5–10, 10–20 mm 0.9

2. Basalt 2 4–10, 6–20 mm 0.9
3. Gravel + basalt + sand 3 10–20, 4–10, 0.6–2 mm 0.9
4. Gravel 3 2–5, 5–10, 10–20 mm 0.9
5. Gravel + leca + sand 3 10–20, 2-10, 0.6–2 mm 0.9
6. Gravel + gravel + sand 3 10–20, 5–10, 0.6–2 mm 0.9

N.B.: The filtration rate was 10 m3 m−2 day−1 .

(Collins et al., 1991). Studies were carried out to optimize the performance of a
slow sand filter by pretreatment methods that have been used to extend the period
of SSF usage. The pretreatment methods include long-term or short term sedi-
mentation, roughing filters, upflow, downflow and horizontal flow roughing filters
(Cleasby, 1991).

The main objectives of this study include: Optimization of roughing filter media as
a pretreatment step in water treatment by using local materials; and examination of
the ability of roughing filter followed by sand filters to improve the performance of
the filtration step.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. ROUGHING FILTER

A circular steel tank 2.0 m high and 0.4 m in diameter was used as a container
for the roughing filter media. The filter bed is composed of different kinds of local
materials in different layers placed in the order of decreasing sizes in the direction
of flow (Table I). The roughing filters utilize raw water from river Nile directly
through the intake pipe of the pilot plant.

2.2. S AND FILTER

It consists of one circular steel tank 2.0 m high and 0.3 m in diameter. The filter
media consist of graded granular sand layer (50–75 cm) thick placed on a gravel
layer of 35 cm thick. The experimental study included three sand filters which
consist of 50, 60 and 75 cm deep sand (0.6–2 mm). The fourth sand filter consisted
of 50 cm deep sand with 0.5 mm membrane.
 EVALUATION OF ROUGHING AND SLOW SAND FILTERS FOR WATER TREATMENT 23

2.3. C HEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER

All measurements (pH; turbidity; electrical conductivity; total dissolved solids at

105 ◦ C, total alkalinity; total hardness, calcium and magnesium hardness; chloride;
sulphate; silica; ammonia; nitrite; nitrate; phosphorus; iron and manganese were
conducted according to Standard Methods (APHA, 1995).

2.4. M ICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER

2.4.1. Algal Biomass Determination

Algal count (Org. mL−1 ) and chlorophyll ‘a’ content were determined according
to Standard Methods (APHA, 1995).

2.4.2. Bacteriological Examination

Water samples were shaken and serial decimal dilutions were prepared. In the
case of pour plate, two plates were prepared for each dilution, while for surface
plate count 0.1 mL was spread on the plate or more water volume (10–100 mL)
was filtered by 0.45 µm membrane filter. The most probable number (MPN) was
determined by using five tubes of liquid medium inoculated from each dilution
with three set, MPN figures were obtained from MPN tables (APHA, 1995).

2.4.2.1. Total Bacterial Count Total bacterial count was determined by using
plate count agar medium for both incubation temperatures of 22 and 37 ◦ C for 24
and 48 h, respectively.

2.4.2.2. Faecal Indicators Total coliforms, faecal coliform and faecal strepto-
cocci were determined by MPN technique according to APHA (1995).

2.4.3. Yeasts and Candida Albicans

Enumeration of yeasts was made by littman oxgall agar (PH 6.5) supplemented
with chloramphinicol (5 mg L−1 ), penicillin (50 000 units L−1 ) and streptomycin
(30 mg L−1 ) with a surface plate streaking or membrane filter techniques (El-
Hawaary and Khalafalla, 1987). For enumeration of Candida albicans surface
streak or membrane filtration techniques were applied. The plate of Candida se-
lective agar medium (Merck) was inoculated and incubated for 2–3 days at 22 ◦ C,
brown to black, smooth developed colonies were counted.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. O PTIMIZING PRETREATMENT CONDITIONS

Removal of microorganisms and suspended particles from raw water to minimize

the load on the subsequent treatment steps, was the objective of this study.
24 GAMILA E. EL-TAWEEL AND GAMILA H. ALI

TABLE II
Chlorophyll ‘a’, algal group and total algal count removal in roughing filter

Filter bed. % Removal

Chl. ‘a’ green blue-green Diatoms Total algal
algae algae count

1. Blast furnace slag 63 55 69 72 71

2. Basalt 46 35 56 69 68
3. Gravel + basalt + sand 57 48 71 88 74
4. Gravel (3 layers) 84 71 86 87 91
5. Gravel + leca + sand 95 74 69 75 75
6. Gravel(2 layer) sand 94 56 57 72 71
N.B.: The data are the mean values of three experiments.
Intake water: Chlorophyll ‘a’: 8.8–30.3 µg L−1 green algae: 771–1881 (Org. mL−1 ),
Blue-green algae: 100–1038 Org. mL−1 . Diatoms: 28441-58715 Org. mL−1 .

All filter media used showed a distinct percentage removal. Filter media which
consist of gravel in 3 layers yielded a higher percentage (84–100%) removal for
chlorophyll ‘a’ content, green algae, blue-green algae, diatoms, total algal count,
bacterial count (at 22 and 37 ◦ C), total coliforms, faecal coliform, faecal strepto-
cocci, yeasts and Candida albicans (Tables II and III).
The most important finding was that all roughing filter media used in this in-
vestigation have no effect on physico-chemical characteristics that may affect the
aesthetic quality of drinking water. The pronounced percentage removal was ob-
served in turbidity and iron (Table IV). Filter media which consist of gravel (two
layers) + sand gave maximum removal of turbidity which reached up to 86%. In
the case of iron, maximum percentage removal (83%) was detected in filter media
composed of gravel in three layers.
Prasad and Malay (1989) stated that Fe-lignite used as filter bed showed 100%
removal of Escherichia coli and produced filtered water with turbidity not ex-
ceeding 5 NTU. Also, Watson (1989) reported that granular activated carbon per-
formed marginally less well than anthracite / sand or anthracite / sand / garnet
in the removal of algae, particulate organic carbon, iron and turbidity. Datta and
Bandyopadhyay (1992) showed that the average total coliforms reduction in the
horizontal flow roughing filter was about 90%, and turbidity removal was 70–75%.

3.2. O PTIMIZING SLOW SAND FILTER CONDITIONS

Filtered water produced from a roughing filter with gravel in three layers, was
passed to different slow sand filters tested in this study. The capacity of the four
types of slow sand filters to remove organic matter and turbidity showed a distinct-
ive removal to all items discussed in this investigation (Table V). A pronounced
 EVALUATION OF ROUGHING AND SLOW SAND FILTERS FOR WATER TREATMENT
TABLE III
Bacterial indicators, total bacterial counts, yeasts and Candida albicans removal in roughing filter

Filter bed % Removal

Total bacterial Bacterial indicator
counts at
22 ◦ C 37 ◦ C Total Faecal Faecal Yeasts Candida
coliforms coliform streptococci albicans

1. Blast furnace slag 71 60 59 55 55 69 56

2. Basalt 54 66 84 84 78 59 38
3. Gravel + basalt + sand 78 67 83 83 85 80 90
4. Gravel (3 layer) 90 91 93 92 85 95 100
5. Gravel + leca + sand 68 77 75 48 49 46 70
6. Gravel (2 layer)+ sand 79 94 93 74 96 100 100

N.B.: The data are the mean values of three experiments.

Intake water: Total bacterial counts at 22 ◦ C: 1.5 × 104 –6.6 × 105 CFU 1 mL−1 , at 37 ◦ C: 1.0 × 103 –6.4 × 105 CFU
1 mL−1 ; Total coliforms: 1.3 × 102 –1.6 × 104 MPN 100 m−1 ; Faecal Coliform: 1.1 × 10–5.0 × 103 MPN 100 mL−1 ;
Faecal streptococci: 9.0 × 10–1.4 × 103 MPN 100 mL−1 . Yeasts: 6.1 × 10–3.3 × 104 CFU 100 mL−1 ; Candida albicans:
2.0 × 10–2.3 × 103 CFU 100 mL−1 .

25
26 GAMILA E. EL-TAWEEL AND GAMILA H. ALI

TABLE IV
Turbidity and iron removal in roughing filter

Filter bed % Removal

Turbidity NTU Iron mg L−1

1. Blast furnace slag 37 57

2. Basalt 61 62
3. Gravel + basalt 66 78
4. Gravel (3 layers) 67 83
5. Gravel + leca + sand 51 54
6. Gravel (2 layers) + sand 86 57
N.B.: The data are the mean values of three experiments.
Intake water: Turbidity: 2.2–33 NTU, iron: 0.23–1.3 mg L−1 Fe.

TABLE V
Biological characteristics of filtered water produced by slow sand filters

Parameter Pretreatment Sand filter depth

step 50 cm 60 cm 75 cm 60 cm sand
sand sand sand + membrane

Chlorophyll ‘a’ 84 98 92 80 98
Green algae 71 68 74 57 63
Blue-green algae 86 100 86 100 100
Diatoms 81 93 90 98 99
Total algal count 91 92 89 96 98
Total bacterial
Counts at 22 ◦ C 90 71 99 96 98
37 ◦ C 91 91 98 95 91
Total coliforms 93 93 93 93 98
Faecal coliform 92 92 92 96 100
Faecal streptococci 85 93 85 93 90
Yeast 95 98 99 97 95
Candida albicans 100 100 100 100 100

N.B.: The data are the mean values of three experiments.

lower percentage removal was observed with green algae (from 57 to 74%). This
may be due to that most species belonging to this group are characterized by their
coccoid form, so it can pass easily through the sand filters.
From the results (Table V) it was found that the sand filter bed having a depth of
60 cm was more efficient than that of 50 cm depth. Increasing the depth to 75 cm,
however, has no effect on the percentage removal. Also, the data showed that, the
 EVALUATION OF ROUGHING AND SLOW SAND FILTERS FOR WATER TREATMENT 27
TABLE VI
Physico-chemical characteristics of raw and filtered water

Parameters Raw water Roughing filter Slow sand

filter

pH 7.5 7.25 7.2

Turbidity NTU 6.5 1.1 0.5
Electric conductivity Micromoh 370 370 370
Total dissolved solids mg L−1 225 225 225
Total residue 105 ◦ C mg L−1 294 258 240
550 ◦ C mg L−1 189 173 158
Total alkalinity as CaCO3 mg L−1 134 134 134
Total hardness as CaCO3 mg L−1 138 136 134
Calcium hardness as CaCO3 mg L−1 82 82 82
Magnesium hardness as CaCO3 mg L−1 56 54 52
Chloride mg L−1 Cl 18 18 18
Sulphate mg L−1 SO4 25 25 25
Silica mg L−1 SiO3 4.9 4.9 2.9
Ammonia mg L−1 N 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nitrite mg L−1 N 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nitrate mg L−1 N 0.13 0.12 0.05
Total organic nitrogen mg L−1 N 1.12 0.0 0.0
Total phosphorus mg L−1 P 0.16 0.13 0.05
Iron mg L−1 Fe 0.55 0.22 0.12

N.B.: The data are the mean values of three experiments.

use of membrane layer (gauze) before the 60 cm filter bed depth did not improve
the removal efficiency.
Bellamy et al. (1985) concluded that, a new sand bed will remove 85% of the
coliform bacteria in the influent. As the sand bed matures biologically, the percent
removal improves to more than 99% for coliform bacteria. Disturbance of sand
bed causes a reduction in the removal of coliforms. Also, they stated that, coliform
removals averaged 97% for a filter bed depth 3.18 ft. (98 cm) and declined to
95% for a filter bed depth of 1.57 ft (48 cm). So the bed depth can be reduced
to 1.57 ft by repeated schmutzdecke without significant impairment of filtration
removal efficiency.
In general, all types of slow sand filters tested in this investigation were accept-
able and found capable of substantially reducing microorganisms (algae, bacteria,
yeast and Candida albicans) as well as turbidity from raw surface water. From
the view point of aesthetic quality of the filtered water, the results of the analyzed
 28 GAMILA E. EL-TAWEEL AND GAMILA H. ALI

physico-chemical parameters showed no change before and after the use of the
roughing and slow sand filters (Table VI).
Prasad and Malay (1989) stated that, ferric hydroxide impregnated lignite showed
the least change in chemical characteristics of the filtered water and was found cap-
able of substantially reducing coliform and plate count bacteria as well as trubidity
from raw surface water. It is likely that such media may prove useful for domestic
water filters in rural areas of the developing countries.

Acknowledgement

This study would not have been possible without the cooperation of Dr. Badr El-
Din Higazzi, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University.

References

APHA: 1995, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Bellamy, D. W., Silverman, P. G., Hendricks, W. D. and Logsdon, S. G.: 1985, J. AWWA, February,
1985.
Cleasby, J. L.: 1991, ‘Source Water Quality and Pretreatment Options for Slow Sand Filters’, in Slow
Sand Filtration, American Society of Civil Engineers, N.Y.P., p. 69.
Collins, M. R., Eighmy, T. T., Malley, J. P.: 1991, J. AWWA 83(9), 62.
Datta, A. K. and Bandyopadhyay, P.: 1992, ‘Combined Horizontal- Flow Roughing Filter- Slow Sand
Filter System in the Treatment of Turbid Water from River Hooghly’, 1st Middle East Conf. on
Water Supply and Sanitation for Rural Areas, Cairo, Egypt.
El-Hawaary, S. and Khalafalla, G. M.: 1987, Assuit Vet. Med. J. 18, 166.
Haarhoff, J. and Cleasby, J. L.: 1991, ‘Mechanisms in Slow Sand Filteration’, in Slow Sand Filtration,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, p. 19.
Montiel, A., Welte, B. and Barbier, J. M.: 1988, Improvement of Slow Sand Filtration: Application to
the Ivry Rehabilitation Project, Slow Sand Filtration: Recent Developments in Water Treatment
Technology. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 47.
Prasad, V.S. and Malay, C.: 1989, Wat. Sci. Tech. 21(3), 67.
Rachwal, A. J., Bauer, M. J. and West, J. T.: 1988, Advanced Techniques for Upgrading Large Scale
Slow Sand Filters, Slow Sand Filtration: Recent Developments in Water Treatment Technology,
John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., p. 331.
Watson, A.: 1989, J. IWME 3(5), 443.

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