Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)

Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022

ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q. No. 1 Define the validity and reliability of test. Further explain their relationship.

ANS.

Reliability is the extent to which test scores are consistent, with respect to one or more sources of
inconsistency—the selection of specific questions, the selection of raters, the day and time of
testing.

Reliability refers to how dependably or consistently a test measures a characteristic. If a person

takes the test again, will he or she get a similar test score, or a much different score? A test that
yields similar scores for a person who repeats the test is said to measure a characteristic reliably.

How do we account for an individual who does not get exactly the same test score every time he or
she takes the test? Some possible reasons are the following:

Test taker's temporary psychological or physical state. Test performance can be influenced by a
person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For example, differing levels of
anxiety, fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's test results.

Environmental factors. Differences in the testing environment, such as room temperature, lighting,
noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an individual's test performance.

Test form. Many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each form, but each form
is supposed to measure the same thing. Different forms of a test are known as parallel forms or
alternate forms. These forms are designed to have similar measurement characteristics, but they
contain different items. Because the forms are not exactly the same, a test taker might do better on
one form than on another.

Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of the test taker's
performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and frame of reference among raters
can produce different test scores for the test These factors are sources of chance or random
measurement error in the assessment process. If there were no random errors of measurement, the
individual would get the same test score, the individual's "true" score, each time. The degree to
which test scores are unaffected by measurement errors is an indication of the reliability of the test.

Reliable assessment tools produce dependable, repeatable, and consistent information about
people. In order to meaningfully interpret test scores and make useful employment or career-
related decisions, you need reliable tools. This brings us to the next principle of assessment.

Interpretation of reliability information from test manuals and reviews

 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
Test manuals and independent review of tests provide information on test reliability. The following
discussion will help you interpret the reliability information about any test.

Types of reliability estimates

There are several types of reliability estimates, each influenced by different sources of measurement
error. Test developers have the responsibility of reporting the reliability estimates that are relevant
for a particular test. Before deciding to use a test, read the test manual and any independent
reviews to determine if its reliability is acceptable. The acceptable level of reliability will differ
depending on the type of test and the reliability estimate used.

Validity.
Validity is the most important issue in selecting a test. Validity refers to what characteristic the test
measures and how well the test measures that characteristic.

Validity tells you if the characteristic being measured by a test is related to job qualifications and
requirements.

Validity gives meaning to the test scores. Validity evidence indicates that there is linkage between
test performance and job performance. It can tell you what you may conclude or predict about
someone from his or her score on the test. If a test has been demonstrated to be a valid predictor of
performance on a specific job, you can conclude that persons scoring high on the test are more likely
to perform well on the job than persons who score low on the test, all else being equal.

Validity also describes the degree to which you can make specific conclusions or predictions about
people based on their test scores. In other words, it indicates the usefulness of the test.

It is important to understand the differences between reliability and validity. Validity will tell you
how good a test is for a particular situation; reliability will tell you how trustworthy a score on that
test will be. You cannot draw valid conclusions from a test score unless you are sure that the test is
reliable. Even when a test is reliable, it may not be valid. You should be careful that any test you
select is both reliable and valid for your situation.

A test's validity is established in reference to a specific purpose; the test may not be valid for
different purposes. For example, the test you use to make valid predictions about someone's
technical proficiency on the job may not be valid for predicting his or her leadership skills or
absenteeism rate. This leads to the next principle of assessment.

Similarly, a test's validity is established in reference to specific groups. These groups are called the
reference groups. The test may not be valid for different groups. For example, a test designed to
predict the performance of managers in situations requiring problem solving may not allow you to
make valid or meaningful predictions about the performance of clerical employees. If, for example,
the kind of problem-solving ability required for the two positions is different, or the reading level of
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
the test is not suitable for clerical applicants, the test results may be valid for managers, but not for
clerical employees.

Test developers have the responsibility of describing the reference groups used to develop the test.
The manual should describe the groups for whom the test is valid, and the interpretation of scores
for individuals belonging to each of these groups. You must determine if the test can be used
appropriately with the particular type of people you want to test. This group of people is called
your target population or target group.

Using validity evidence from outside studies

Conducting your own validation study is expensive, and, in many cases, you may not have enough
employees in a relevant job category to make it feasible to conduct a study. Therefore, you may find
it advantageous to use professionally developed assessment tools and procedures for which
documentation on validity already exists. However, care must be taken to make sure that validity
evidence obtained for an "outside" test study can be suitably "transported" to your particular
situationlevel, cultural differences, and language barriers.

Q. No. 2 Develop a scoring criteria for essay type test items for sixth grade.

ANS.

Essay test is a test containing questions that requires the examinee to write several paragraphs in
their own words. Generally, essay tests are designed to measure the different abilities of examinees
such as factual knowledge, language proficiency with legible handwriting, organizing answer and
time management.

Introduction to Essay Test:

The essay tests are still commonly used tools of evaluation, despite the increasingly wider
applicability of the short answer and objective type questions.

There are certain outcomes of learning (e.g., organising, summarising, integrating ideas and
expressing in one’s own way) which cannot be satisfactorily measured through objective type tests.
The importance of essay tests lies in the measurement of such instructional outcomes.

An essay test may give full freedom to the students to write any number of pages. The required
response may vary in length. An essay type question requires the pupil to plan his own answer and
to explain it in his own words. The pupil exercises considerable freedom to select, organise and
present his ideas. Essay type tests provide a better indication of pupil’s real achievement in learning.
The answers provide a clue to nature and quality of the pupil’s thought process.

That is, we can assess how the pupil presents his ideas (whether his manner of presentation is
coherent, logical and systematic) and how he concludes. In other words, the answer of the pupil
reveals the structure, dynamics and functioning of pupil’s mental life.
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
The essay questions are generally thought to be the traditional type of questions which demand
lengthy answers. They are not amenable to objective scoring as they give scope for halo-effect,
inter-examiner variability and intra-examiner variability in scoring.

Types of Essay Test:

There can be many types of essay tests:

Some of these are given below with examples from different subjects:

1. Selective Recall.

e.g. What was the religious policy of Akbar?

2. Evaluative Recall.

e.g. Why did the First War of Independence in 1857 fail?

3. Comparison of two things—on a single designated basis.

e.g. Compare the contributions made by Dalton and Bohr to Atomic theory.

4. Comparison of two things—in general.

e.g. Compare Early Vedic Age with the Later Vedic Age.

5. Decision—for or against.

e.g. Which type of examination do you think is more reliable? Oral or Written. Why?

6. Causes or effects.

e.g. Discuss the effects of environmental pollution on our lives.

7. Explanation of the use or exact meaning of some phrase in a passage or a sentence.

e.g., Joint Stock Company is an artificial person. Explain ‘artificial person’ bringing out the concepts
of Joint Stock Company.

8. Summary of some unit of the text or of some article.

9. Analysis

e.g. What was the role played by Mahatma Gandhi in India’s freedom struggle?

10. Statement of relationship.

e.g. Why is knowledge of Botany helpful in studying agriculture?

11. Illustration or examples (your own) of principles in science, language, etc.

e.g. Illustrate the correct use of subject-verb position in an interrogative sentence.

 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
12. Classification.

e.g. Classify the following into Physical change and Chemical change with explanation. Water
changes to vapour; Sulphuric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide react to produce Sodium Sulphate and
Water; Rusting of Iron; Melting of Ice.

13. Application of rules or principles in given situations.

e.g. If you sat halfway between the middle and one end of a sea-saw, would a person sitting on the
other end have to be heavier or lighter than you in order to make the sea-saw balance in the middle.
Why?

14. Discussion.

e.g. Partnership is a relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business
carried on by all or any of them acting for all. Discuss the essentials of partnership on the basis of
this partnership.

15. Criticism—as to the adequacy, correctness, or relevance—of a printed statement or a

classmate’s answer to a question on the lesson.

e.g. What is the wrong with the following statement?

The Prime Minister is the sovereign Head of State in India.

16. Outline.

e.g. Outline the steps required in computing the compound interest if the principal amount, rate of
interest and time period are given as P, R and T respectively.

17. Reorganization of facts.

e.g. The student is asked to interview some persons and find out their opinion on the role of UN in
world peace. In the light of data thus collected he/she can reorganise what is given in the text book.

18. Formulation of questions-problems and questions raised.

e.g. After reading a lesson the pupils are asked to raise related problems- questions.

19. New methods of procedur

e.g. Can you solve this mathematical problem by using another method?

Advantages of the Essay Tests:

1. It is relatively easier to prepare and administer a six-question extended- response essay test than
to prepare and administer a comparable 60-item multiple-choice test items.

2. It is the only means that can assess an examinee’s ability to organise and present his ideas in a
logical and coherent fashion.
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
3. It can be successfully employed for practically all the school subjects.

4. Some of the objectives such as ability to organise idea effectively, ability to criticise or justify a
statement, ability to interpret, etc., can be best measured by this type of test.

5. Logical thinking and critical reasoning, systematic presentation, etc. can be best developed by this
type

6. It helps to induce good study habits such as making outlines and summaries, organising the
arguments for and against, etc.

7. The students can show their initiative, the originality of their thought and the fertility of their
imagination as they are permitted freedom of response.

8. The responses of the students need not be completely right or wrong. All degrees of
comprehensiveness and accuracy are possible.

9. It largely eliminates guessing.

10. They are valuable in testing the functional knowledge and power of expression of the pupil.

Limitations of Essay Tests:

1. One of the serious limitations of the essay tests is that these tests do not give scope for larger
sampling of the content. You cannot sample the course content so well with six lengthy essay
questions as you can with 60 multiple-choice test items.

2. Such tests encourage selective reading and emphasise cramming.

3. Moreover, scoring may be affected by spelling, good handwriting, coloured ink, neatness,
grammar, length of the answer, etc.

4. The long-answer type questions are less valid and less reliable, and as such they have little
predictive value.

5. It requires an excessive time on the part of students to write; while assessing, reading essays is
very time-consuming and laborious.

6. It can be assessed only by a teacher or competent professionals.

7. Improper and ambiguous wording handicaps both the students and valuers.

8. Mood of the examiner affects the scoring of answer scripts.

9. There is halo effect-biased judgement by previous impressions.

10. The scores may be affected by his personal bias or partiality for a particular point of view, his
way of understanding the question, his weightage to different aspect of the answer, favouritism and
nepotism, etc.

Thus, the potential disadvantages of essay type questions are:

 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
(i) Poor predictive validity,

(ii) Limited content sampling,

(iii) Scores unreliability, and

(iv) Scoring constraints.

Suggestions for Improving Essay Tests:

The teacher can sometimes, through essay tests, gain improved insight into a student’s abilities,
difficulties and ways of thinking and thus have a basis for guiding his/her learning.

(A) White Framing Questions:

1. Give adequate time and thought to the preparation of essay questions, so that they can be re-
examined, revised and edited before they are used. This would increase the validity of the test.

2. The item should be so written that it will elicit the type of behaviour the teacher wants to
measure. If one is interested in measuring understanding, he should not ask a question that will elicit
an opinion; e.g.,

“What do you think of Buddhism in comparison to Jainism?”

3. Use words which themselves give directions e.g. define, illustrate, outline, select, classify,
summarise, etc., instead of discuss, comment, explain, etc.

4. Give specific directions to students to elicit the desired response.

5. Indicate clearly the value of the question and the time suggested for answering it.

6. Do not provide optional questions in an essay test because—

(i) It is difficult to construct questions of equal difficulty;

(ii) Students do not have the ability to select those questions which they will answer best;

(iii) A good student may be penalised because he is challenged by the more difficult and complex
questions.

7. Prepare and use a relatively large number of questions requiring short answers rather than just a
few questions involving long answers.

8. Do not start essay questions with such words as list, who, what, whether. If we begin the
questions with such words, they are likely to be short-answer question and not essay questions, as
we have defined the term.

9. Adapt the length of the response and complexity of the question and answer to the maturity level
of the students.

10. The wording of the questions should be clear and unambiguous.

 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
11. It should be a power test rather than a speed test. Allow a liberal time limit so that the essay test
does not become a test of speed in writing.

12. Supply the necessary training to the students in writing essay tests.

13. Questions should be graded from simple to complex so that all the testees can answer atleast a
few questions.

14. Essay questions should provide value points and marking schemes.

(B) While Scoring Questions:

1. Prepare a marking scheme, suggesting the best possible answer and the weightage given to the
various points of this model answer. Decide in advance which factors will be considered in evaluating
an essay response.

2. While assessing the essay response, one must:

a. Use appropriate methods to minimise bias;

b. Pay attention only to the significant and relevant aspects of the answer;

c. Be careful not to let personal idiosyncrasies affect assessment;

d. Apply a uniform standard to all the papers.

3. The examinee’s identity should be concealed from the scorer. By this we can avoid the “halo
effect” or “biasness” which may affect the scoring.

4. Check your marking scheme against actual responses.

5. Once the assessment has begun, the standard should not be changed, nor should it vary from
paper to paper or reader to reader. Be consistent in your assessment.

6. Grade only one question at a time for all papers. This will help you in minimising the halo effect in
becoming thoroughly familiar with just one set of scoring criteria and in concentrating completely on
them.

7. The mechanics of expression (legibility, spelling, punctuation, grammar) should be judged

separately from what the student writes, i.e. the subject matter content.

8. If possible, have two independent readings of the test and use the average as the final score.

Q. No. 3 Write a note on scales of measurement.

ANS’

Scales of Measurement

In Statistics, the variables or numbers are defined and categorised using different scales of
measurements. Each level of measurement scale has specific properties that determine the various
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
use of statistical analysis. In this article, we will learn four types of scales such as nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio scale.

What is the Scale?

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.

Levels of Measurements

There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the four
scales. The four types of scales are:

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale

Nominal Scale

A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or
“labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric
variables or the numbers that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement mechanism,
the answer should fall into either of the classes.
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.

The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of numbers in the
nominal scale is “counting.”

Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data
without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.” Ordinal
data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable

Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the rankings of those
variables

The interval properties are not known

The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the identified order of
variables

Interval Scale

The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative measurement
scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other words, the variables
are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values

It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables

To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between the
variables
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical values to
arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.

Example:

Likert Scale

Net Promoter Score (NPS)

Bipolar Matrix Table

Ratio Scale

The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of variable
measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The ratio scale has
a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature

It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the ratio scale.

Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit conversions like
kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.

Q. No. 4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of norm-reference testing?

ANS.

A norm-referenced test (NRT) is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of
the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being
measured. Assigning scores on such tests may be described as relative grading, marking on a
curve (BrE) or grading on a curve (AmE, CanE) (also referred to as curved grading, bell curving, or
using grading curves). It is a method of assigning grades to the students in a class in such a way as to
obtain or approach a pre-specified distribution of these grades having a specific mean and derivation
properties, such as a normal distribution (also called Gaussian distribution). The term "curve" refers
to the bell curve, the graphical representation of the probability density of the normal distribution,
but this method can be used to achieve any desired distribution of the grades – for example,
a uniform distribution. The estimate is derived from the analysis of test scores and possibly other
relevant data from a sample drawn from the population. That is, this type of test identifies whether
the test taker performed better or worse than other test takers, not whether the test taker knows
either more or less material than is necessary for a given purpose. The term normative assessment is
used when the reference population are the peers of the test taker.
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
Norm-referenced assessment can be contrasted with criterion-referenced assessment and ipsative
assessment. In a criterion-referenced assessment, the score shows whether or not test takers
performed well or poorly on a given task, not how that compares to other test takers; in an ipsative
system, test takers are compared to previous performance. Each method can be used to grade the
same test paper

Contents

1Common uses

2Other types

2.1Ipsative

2.2Criterion-referenced

3Methods

4Advantages and limitations

5See also

6References

7External links

Common uses

Many college entrance exams and nationally used school tests use norm-referenced tests.
The SAT, Graduate Record Examination (GRE), and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
compare individual student performance to the performance of a normative sample. Test takers
cannot "fail" a norm-referenced test, as each test taker receives a score that compares the individual
to others that have taken the test, usually given by a percentile. This is useful when there is a wide
range of acceptable scores, and the goal is to find out who performs better.

IQ tests are norm-referenced tests, because their goal is to rank test takers' intelligence. The median
IQ is set to 100, and all test takers are ranked up or down in comparison to that level.

Other types

As alternatives to normative testing, tests can be ipsative assessments or criterion-referenced

assessments.

Ipsative

In an ipsative assessment, the individuals' performance is compared only to their previous

performances.[4][5] For example, a person on a weight-loss diet is judged by how his current weight
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
compares to his own previous weight, rather than how his weight compares to an ideal or how it
compares to another person.

Criterion-referenced.

A test is criterion-referenced when the performance is judged according to the expected or desired
behavior. Tests that judge the test taker based on a set standard (e.g., everyone should be able to
run one kilometre in less than five minutes) are criterion-referenced tests. The goal of a criterion-
referenced test is to find out whether the individual can run as fast as the test giver wants, not to
find out whether the individual is faster or slower than the other runners. Standards-based
education reform focuses on criterion-referenced testing.[6][7] Most everyday tests and quizzes taken
in school, as well as most state achievement tests and high school graduation examinations, are
criterion-referenced. In this model, it is possible for all test takers to pass or for all test takers to fail.

Methods.

One method of grading on a curve uses three steps:

Numeric scores (or possibly scores on a sufficiently fine-grained ordinal scale) are assigned to the
students. The absolute values are less relevant, provided that the order of the scores corresponds to
the relative performance of each student within the course.

These scores are converted to percentiles (or some other system of quantiles).

The percentile values are transformed to grades according to a division of the percentile scale into
intervals, where the interval width of each grade indicates the desired relative frequency for that
grade.

Consistent with the example illustrated above, a grading curve allows academic institutions to
ensure the distribution of students across certain grade point average (GPA) thresholds. As many
professors establish the curve to target a course average of a C, the corresponding grade point
average equivalent would be a 2.0 on a standard 4.0 scale employed at most North American
universities. Similarly, a grade point average of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale would indicate that the student is
within the top 20 % of the class. Grading curves serve to attach additional significance to these
figures, and the specific distribution employed may vary between academic institution

Advantages and limitations

The primary advantage of norm-reference tests is that they can provide information on how an
individual's performance on the test compares to others in the reference group.

A serious limitation of norm-reference tests is that the reference group may not represent the
current population of interest. As noted by the Oregon Research Institute's International Personality
Item Pool website, "One should be very wary of using canned 'norms' because it isn't obvious that
one could ever find a population of which one's present sample is a representative subset. Most
'norms' are misleading, and therefore they should not be used. Far more defensible are local norms,
which one develops oneself. For example, if one wants to give feedback to members of a class of
students, one should relate the score of each individual to the means and standard deviations
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
derived from the class itself. To maximize informativeness, one can provide the students with the
frequency distribution for each scale, based on these local norms, and the individuals can then find
(and circle) their own scores on these relevant distributions.

Another disadvantage of norm-referenced tests is that they cannot measure progress of the
population as a whole, only where individuals fall within the whole. Rather, one must measure
against a fixed goal, for instance, to measure the success of an educational reform program that
seeks to raise the achievement of all students.

With a norm-referenced test, grade level was traditionally set at the level set by the middle 50
percent of scores.] By contrast, the National Children's Reading Foundation believes that it is
essential to assure that virtually all children read at or above grade level by third grade, a goal which
cannot be achieved with a norm-referenced definition of grade level.[11]

Norms do not automatically imply a standard. A norm-referenced test does not seek to enforce any
expectation of what test takers should know or be able to do. It measures the test takers' current
level by comparing the test takers to their peers. A rank-based system produces only data that tell
which students perform at an average level, which students do better, and which students do worse.
It does not identify which test takers are able to correctly perform the tasks at a level that would be
acceptable for employment or further education.

The ultimate objective of grading curves is to minimize or eliminate the influence of variation
between different instructors of the same course, ensuring that the students in any given class are
assessed relative to their peers. This also circumvents problems associated with utilizing multiple
versions of a particular examination, a method often employed where test administration dates vary
between class sections. Regardless of any difference in the level of difficulty, real or perceived, the
grading curve ensures a balanced distribution of academic results.

However, curved grading can increase competitiveness between students and affect their sense of
faculty fairness in a class. Students are generally most upset in the case that the curve lowered their
grade compared to what they would have received if a curve was not used. To ensure that this does
not happen, teachers usually put forth effort to ensure that the test itself is hard enough when they
intend to use a grading curve, such that they would expect the average student to get a lower raw
score than the score intended to be used at the average in the curve, thus ensuring that all students
benefit from the curve. Thus, curved grades cannot be blindly used and must be carefully considered
and pondered compared to alternatives such as criterion-referenced grading. Furthermore, constant
misuse of curved grading can adjust grades on poorly designed tests, whereas assessments should
be designed to accurately reflect the learning objectives set by the instructor.

Q. No. 5 What are the different graphical techniques to display the results of students?
Write in detail.

Graphical Representations

Graphical representation refers to the use of intuitive charts to visualise clearly and simplify
data sets. Data obtained from surveying is ingested into a graphical representation of data
software. Then it is represented by some symbols, such as lines on a line graph, bars on a bar
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
chart, or slices of a pie chart. In this way, users can achieve much more clarity and
understanding than by numerical study alone.

Advantages of Graphical Representation

Some of the advantages of using graphs are listed below:

The graph helps us understand the data or information even when we have no idea about it.

It saves time.

It makes it easier for us to compare the data for different time periods or different kinds.

It is mainly used in statistics to determine the mean, median and mode for different data and
interpolation and extrapolation of data.

Use of Graphical Representations

The main agenda of presenting scientific data into graphs is to provide information efficiently
to utilise the power of visual display while avoiding confusion or deception. This is important in
communicating our findings to others and our understanding and analysis of the data.

Graphical data representation is crucial in understanding and identifying trends and patterns in
the ever-increasing data flow. Graphical representation helps in quick analysis of large
quantities and can support making predictions and informed decisions.

General Rules for Graphical Representation of Data

The following are a few rules to present the information in the graphical representation:

Suitable title: The title of the graph should be appropriate that indicates the subject of the
presentation.

Measurement unit: The measurement unit in the graph should be mentioned.

Proper scale: Choose a proper scale to represent the data accurately.

Index: For better understanding, index the appropriate colours, shades, lines, and designs in
the graphs.

Data sources: Data should be included wherever it is necessary at the bottom of the graph.

Keep it simple: The construction of a graph should be such a way that it is effortlessly
understood.

Neat: The correct size, fonts, colours etc., should be chosen so that the graph should be a visual
aid for presenting the information.

Types of Graphical Representation

 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
1. Line graph
2. Histogram
3. Bar graph
4. Pie chart
5. Frequency polygon
6. Ogives or Cumulative frequency graphs

1. Line Graph

A line graph is a chart used to show information that changes over time. We plot line graphs by
connecting several points with straight lines. Another name is a line chart. The line graph
contains two axes: [Math Processing Error]x−axis and [Math Processing Error]y−axis.

The horizontal axis is the [Math Processing Error]x−axis.

The vertical axis is the [Math Processing Error]y−axis.

Example: The following graph shows the number of motorbikes sold on different days of the
week.

2. Histogram

Continuous data represented on the two-dimensional graph is called a histogram. In the

histogram, the bars are placed continuously side by side without a gap between consecutive
bars. In other words, rectangles are erected on the class intervals of the distribution. The areas
of the rectangles formed by bars are proportional to the frequencies.

Example: Following is an example of a histogram showing the average pass percentage of

students.

3. Bar Graph

Bar graphs can be of two types – horizontal bar graphs and vertical bar graphs. While a
horizontal bar graph is applied for qualitative data or data varying over space, the vertical bar
graph is associated with quantitative data or time-series data.
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
Bars are rectangles of varying lengths and of equal width usually are drawn either horizontally
or vertically. We consider multiple or grouped bar graphs to compare related series.
Component or sub-divided bar diagrams are applied for representing data divided into several
components.

Example: The following graph is an example of a bar graph representing the money spent
month-wis

4. Pie Chart

The sector of a circle represents various observations or components, and the whole circle
represents the sum of the value of all the components. The total central angle of a circle
is [Math Processing Error]360o and is divided according to the values of the components.

The central angle of a component[Math Processing

Error]=valueofthecomponenttotalvalue×360o

Sometimes, the value of the components is expressed in percentages. In such cases,

The central angle of a component[Math Processing
Error]=percentagevalueofthecomponent100×360o

Example: The following figure represents a

5. Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon is another way of representing frequency distribution graphically. Follow

the steps below to make a frequency polygon:

(i) Calculate and obtain the frequency distribution and the mid-points of each class interval.
(ii) Represent the mid-points along the [Math Processing Error]x−axis and the frequencies
along the [Math Processing Error]y−axis.
(iii) Mark the points corresponding to the frequency at each midpoint.
(iv) Now join these points in straight lines.
(v) To finish the frequency polygon, join the consecutive points at each end (as the c ase may be
at zero frequency) on the [Math Processing Error]x−axis.

Example: The following graph is the frequency polygon showing the road race results.
 Course: Educational Assessment and Evaluation (8602)
Level: M.Ed/ M.A. Semester: Autumn, 2022
6. Ogives or Cumulative Frequency Graphs

By plotting cumulative frequency against the respective class intervals, we obtain ogives.
There are two ogives – less than type ogives and more than type.

Less than type ogives is obtained by taking less than cumulative frequency on the vertical axis.
We can obtain more than type ogives by plotting more than type cumulative frequency on the
vertical axis and joining the plotted points successively by line segments.

Example: The below graph represents the less than and more than ogives for the entrance
examination scores of [Math Processing Error]60 students.