PSYCHOLOGY FOR HEALTH AND WELLBEING (BPCG 173)

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA)

Course Code: BPCG173

Assignment Code: Asst /TMA /July 2021
Total Marks: 100

NOTE: All assignments are compulsory.

Instructions:
1. Have a title page. Include details like Name, Enrolment number, Email id, Regional Centre,
Study Centre, Programme Title and code, Course title and code.
2. Use A4 size paper for the tutorial (ruled/ bank).

IN
3. For making tables, blank pages can be used and tables/ graphs (if any) to be drawn in pencil.
4. Content should not be plagiarised.

S.
Assignment I

50 NT
Answer the following questions in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks.
2 x 20 = 40
1. Describe the nature and sources of stress.

2.
80 E
Discuss the illness related to food, diet and obesity.
26 NM
Assignment II
91 G

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each. Each question carries 10 marks.
10 x 3 = 30
SI

3. Define health and describe the cross cultural perspectives on health.

AS

4. Describe type A personality and hostility as factors contributing to stress proneness.

5. What is substance use?
U
98
O

Assignment III
Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 6 marks.
N

5 x 6= 30
IG

6. Holistic model of health

7. Goals of coping
8. Yoga
9. Diabetes
10. Hope theory
 ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2021-22)
BPCG-173: PSYCHOLOGY FOR HEALTH AND WELLBEING
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions
given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private
Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can
answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accuracy of these sample
answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample
answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions
given in the assignment. As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so
the chances of error or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though

IN
every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own
Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data

S.
and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the
university.

50 NT
Assignment I
80 E
Answer the following questions in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks.
Q1. Describe the nature and sources of stress.
26 NM
Ans. Stress as such is like salt and pepper and a life without stress would be without motivation, as
stress often motivates us to work in certain direction. Thus, without any stress in life, any individual
will not be motivated to perform or carry our varied activities. As more salt than required can make
food taste bad. In a similar manner, stress beyond optimal level can have a negative effect on the
91 G

individual and will interfere with his/ her day today functioning. When stress experienced exceeds
SI

the optimal level of an individual, the individual may find it exceedingly difficult to cope with it and
it can have detrimental effects on the wellbeing (both psychological and physiological) and
performance and productivity of the individual. Stress is not altogether negative and does have
AS

numerous advantages.
Types of Stress: Stress can be categorised into different types as follows:
• Eustress: Stress can be good stress that is explained as ‘Eustress’. Eustress can be defined as
U
98

“good stress, caused by a positive response to a desired stressor, such as a wedding or a new
job”.
O

• Neustress: When stress is not helpful nor harmful, it can be described as ‘Neustress’.
N

• Distress: This is the third category of stress that most people commonly relate stress with.
‘Distress’ occurs when the arousal experienced by the individual is very high or very low.
IG

Distress can also be categorised into acute and chronic stress. Acute stress can be termed as
stress that is intense but does not last for a prolonged period of time. Whereas, chronic stress
may not be as intense but may exist for a prolonged period of time.
• Hyperstress: Excessive stress is termed as ‘Hyperstress’.
• Hypostress: Insufficient stress is termed as ‘Hypostress’.
Symptoms of Stress: Stress can have an impact on various aspects of life that include behaviour,
cognition, emotions as well as physical health. Though stress will have a different effect on different
individuals and each individual will react to stress in a different way, there are certain symptoms that
can be related with stress. These are discussed as follows:
Physical symptoms: The physical symptoms of stress include low levels of energy, stomach upset,
headaches and migraines, pain and aches, chest pain, rapid heartbeats, lack of sleep, dryness in
mouth, experiencing tension in muscles, frequent infections and so on.

1
Emotional symptoms: The emotional symptoms include, displaying frustration, getting irritated or
agitated easily, feelings of worthlessness, feeling lonely and even depressed.
Psychological symptoms: The cognitive symptoms related to stress include worrying constantly,
experiencing racing thoughts, lack of organisation in thinking, forgetting, not able to focus, lack of
judgement or poor judgement and also pessimism.
Behavioural symptoms: The behavioural symptoms of stress include deterioration in performance
effectiveness, indulgence in substance use, prone to accidents, nervous mannerism, poor time
management, displaying checking rituals, changes in appetite, procrastination, eating faster, even
talking or walking faster, impaired speech and so on.
Sources of Stress
Frustration: Frustration can be described as occurring when a goal oriented behaviour of an
individual is thwarted. As stated by Mangal “a wide range of environmental obstacles, both physical
and social and the internal factors in the form of personal limitations, biological conditions and

IN
psychological barriers may lead to frustration of our needs, motives and efforts”. For example, Ravi
expected his promotion, however, when he did not receive the same, he experienced frustration.
Conflict of Motives: The next source is conflict of motives that can cause stress as an individual has

S.
to choose between alternatives and decision making in this regard can lead to stress. Conflict of
motives can be of four different types, approach - approach conflict, avoidance - avoidance conflict,

50 NT
approach - avoidance conflict and double approach - avoidance conflict.
(1) Approach-approach conflict: In this type of conflict the individual has to choose between
two goals that are positive and are similar. For example, an individual may have to choose

(2)
80 E
between two similar job opportunities.
Avoidance- avoidance conflict: The next type of conflict of motives is avoidance-
26 NM
avoidance conflict. Here again there are two goals that are similar but as opposed to
approach- approach conflict, the goals here are negative. For example, an individual may
have to take decision whether he/ she wants to remain unemployed or take up a mediocre
91 G

job that he/ she is not interested in.

(3) Approach- avoidance conflict: Here there is a single goal which is both positive and
SI

negative. For example, an individual taking up a job abroad may be excited about the
opportunity but also has to face the fact that he/ she will have to stay away from the family.
AS

Thus, this goal has both negative and positive consequences and thus the individual may
experience stress.
(4) Multiple approach-avoidance conflict: It may so happen that the conflicts faced by us are
quite complex and they are combinations of approach and avoidance conflicts. In this
U
98

conflict the individual has to choose between the options that have both positive and
O

negative consequences. For example, a student may have to choose between two
educational opportunities, one of pursuing music that he/ she is interested in which will
N

make his/her parents unhappy and the other of pursuing engineering, which will make his/
her parents happy but he/ she is really not interested in it.
IG

Pressure: Pressure is yet another source of stress that can be external or internal. External pressure are
pressures that could be as a result of demands from the environment, responsibilities and obligations
that are mainly social in nature as well as demands and expectations of the significant persons in our
lives. With regard to internal pressures, Mangal (1984, pg 46) states that “Internal pressures are
caused by our own self for maintaining the picture of ourselves - as we think we could and should
be”. An example of external pressure is when a child is pressurised by parents to do well in
examination and an example of internal pressure is when a child himself/ herself feels that he/ she
needs to study and do well in examination.
Specific sources of stress
Life events: Stress can be caused due to varied life events. These could be death of a loved one,
divorce or separation, losing one’s job, marriage and so on. These could be termed as significant life
events in one’s life that may put pressure on the adjustment and coping resources of the person as

2
they expose the individual to certain new and unique challenges. Thus, life events can lead to stress
which in turn can have detrimental effects on the day to day functioning as well as physical and
psychological health of the individual.
Daily hassles: Similar to life events, daily hassles can also create stress. Daily hassles like lack of time,
work overload, daily roles, responsibilities and duties and so on can lead to stress.
Interpersonal relationships: Stress can also be caused due to issues related to interpersonal
relationships. Interpersonal relationships could be in the context of family, work or it could be with
peer groups. Conflicts could occur between individuals that can have an impact on the interpersonal
relationship, which in turn may lead to stress. Issues in interpersonal relationship could range from
misunderstandings to violence and abuse and can have negative impact on the physical and
psychological wellbeing of the person.
Stress as a result of social conditions: Social conditions in which the individual exists can also lead to
development of stress. These social conditions can be related to crowding, discrimination,

IN
technological developments and changes, pollution and so on. The individual today exists in a world
that is much more complex. There is globalisation, increased competition, and high amount of social
pressure. These have a negative impact on the individual and makes him/ her prone to stress.

S.
Q2. Discuss the illness related to food, diet and obesity.

50 NT
Ans. “Eat to live, don’t live to eat.” said Benjamin Franklin. But we often do it the other way round.
Food is essential for our survival and development, but with innumerable variety of food that is
easily accessible, literally on our finger tips, we often indulge in eating stuff that may not be right for
80 E
our health and wellbeing. And with technological advancement, fast pace of life, we often do not get
an opportunity to shed the extra calories and fat that gets accumulated, making us susceptible to
26 NM
various health related issues.
Food has a relevant impact on our day to day functioning, the way we look and behave and feel. Food
has five main components that are necessary for metabolic process of our body. These five
91 G

components are discussed as follows:

• Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates constitute sugars, both simple (like glucose and fructose) and
SI

complex sugars (like sucrose, lactose and starch). It is a major source of energy. Some of the
sources of carbohydrates include wheat, potatoes and maize.
AS

• Lipids: These constitute the saturated and polyunsaturated fats, and cholesterol. These are
also a source of energy. Some of the sources of lipids are butter and cooking oils.
• Proteins: Proteins are made up of amino acids that are organic molecules and they are
important for our development as well as functioning mainly because they play a role in
U
98

synthesis of new cell material. Some of the sources of protein include milk, eggs, fish, cheese
O

and lean meat.

• Vitamins: These can be termed as chemicals that are organic. They not only play a role in
N

regulation of metabolism but in physiological functioning as well. They also play a role in
conversion of nutrients in to energy and production of hormones. Waste products and toxins
IG

are also broken down with the help of vitamins. Vitamins can be fat soluble, that is they
dissolve in fats that are then stored in the fat tissue of the body, like vitamins A, D, E and K
and they can also be water soluble, like vitamins B and C that are stored in the body in little
quantities and any excess amount is flushed out of the body as waste. Vitamin B is found in
dairy products, poultry, seafood, eggs, leafy vegetables etc. Vitamin C is found in lime,
oranges, tomatoes etc. Vitamin D is found in milk, fish, eggs etc. Vitamin E is found in leafy
vegetables, milk, butter, tomatoes etc. Vitamin K is found in cabbage, soya bean, spinach etc.
• Minerals: Minerals constitutes calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, iron, iodine, and
zinc, that are inorganic in nature. These also play an important role in physiological
functioning and development. Sources of calcium include milk and milk products, beans,
leafy vegetables etc. Sources of phosphorus include ragi, nuts, bajra, milk etc. Sources of
potassium include banana, sweet potato, peas, mushrooms etc. Sources of sodium include

3
 celery, milk etc. Sources of iron include eggs, liver etc. Sources of iodine include seafood,
iodised salt etc. And sources of zinc include oysters, poultry, whole grains etc.
Our diet thus needs to include all of the above but in right proportions. Diet in this context can be
explained as what we eat. And what we eat is determined by a number of factors (Sarafino and Smith,
2011). Some of these factors have been discussed as follows:
• Inborn processes: In born processes can determine our preference for certain types of food.
The chemicals in our brains may play a role in what we eat and often pleasure centres are
activated when fatty foods are consumed.
• Environmental factors: These include exposure to food, culture, SocioEconomic Status,
accessibility to junk and fast foods, influence of media (advertisements about food products
that may not exactly be healthy for us but are attractive and mouth watering) and so on.
• Ability to manage and control ones food buying and eating habits: This is also an important
factor that determines what kind of food we buy and eat. It is necessarily a skill as we

IN
determine the food that we eat based on whether it is nutritious or not and thus make healthy
choices. Though, if we lack such control, we would indulge in consumption of food that may
not necessarily be healthy or as per requirement of our body.

S.
There are various factors that can be associated with obesity (Ghosh, 2015), these are discussed as
follows:

50 NT
• The type of food that we eat can be associated with our weight gain. Frequent indulgence in
junk food and sugary treats (coupled with lack of physical activity such as exercise) can lead
to obesity. Food is more than just a source of nutrition, it is a part and parcel of our culture.
80 E
And whether it is a festive season or when expecting guests, individuals are encouraged to
eat and food is many a times also consumed as courtesy. And thus individuals may often end
26 NM
up eating more than they should, in terms of calories as well as the amount of food.
• The number and the size of fat cells (attributed to genetics as well as eating habits) also
determines obesity. Thus, a moderately obese person will have larger size of fat cells and an
91 G

extremely obese person will have both large amount as well as size of fat cells. The large
number of fat cells also enables a person to store more fat, thus leading to obesity.
SI

• Obesity also has genetic basis and obese parents are more likely to have obese children. The
metabolism rate (rate at which the calories are burned) is also determined by genes and
AS

persons with obesity have lower rate of metabolism.

• Every individual has a ‘set point’ that determines his/ her weight range (thus indicating that
obesity could also be attributed to the ‘set point’, that could be of higher weight range in
individuals with obesity). This is referred to as the ‘Set point theory of weight’. This ‘set
U
98

point’ regulates one’s weight and individual difference exists in this set point. Though it
O

needs to be kept in mind that besides physiological factors and environmental factors also
play a role.
N

• Obesity can also be attributed to stress as it not only has an impact on one’s metabolism but
also influences eating habits.
IG

• Obesity leads to slow metabolism, which in turn works in order to maintain the increased
weight. Increased weight makes it difficult for the individual to indulge in physical activities,
which in turn will lead to more gain in weight. So, it is like a vicious circle, till the person
cannot do much about it as he/ she feels no way out and could become negligent.
Some of the feeding and eating disorders, as per DSM 5 are pica, rumination disorder,
avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge-eating
disorder.
• Pica: Pica includes consumption of items that are not thought of as food and as such do not
have any nutritional value. For example, hair.
• Rumination disorder: Regular regurgitation (bringing up the swallowed food) of food
occurring for minimum one month.

4
 • Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder: This disorder was earlier referred to as Selective
Eating Disorder and involves limiting the amount/ type of food that is consumed. Though
this can be differentiated from Anorexia as the individual does not experience any anxiety or
distress related to shape and size of his/ her body or have fear of being fat.
• Anorexia nervosa: This involves loss of weight or inability to gain weight due to avoiding
food, difficulty in maintenance of weight as per one’s height, age and stature. Further
individuals any also have body image that is distorted.
• Bulimia nervosa: This involves binge eating that is followed by compensatory behaviours
like vomiting that is self-induced so as to undo the effects of binging.
• Binge-eating disorder: This involves repeated episodes of consuming large amount of food
(often quickly and even causing discomfort), having feelings of loss of control during binging,
and experiences of shame, guilt and distress after the binging. There may not be regular use
of compensatory behaviours that are unhealthy, like purging.

IN
It is important to note here that these disorders are to be diagnosed by a trained professional like a
clinical psychologist and cannot be diagnosed based on mere observation of symptoms. As with any
other disorder, these disorders can also cause psychological distress and can have a negative impact

S.
on physical health of the individual as he/ she is not eating healthy or appropriately and in some
cases unhealthy compensatory behaviour is also involved. Some of these disorders can also be life

50 NT
threatening.

Assignment II
80 E
Answer the following questions in about 250 words each. Each question carries 10 marks.
Q3. Define health and describe the cross cultural perspectives on health.
26 NM
Ans. Many studies have been conducted to understand what common people think and understand
by health. In a study done by Bauman (1961), she asked people to explain ‘what does being healthy
mean for them?’ Majority of the participants reported either of the following three types of responses:
91 G

• health means a ‘general sense of wellbeing.’

• health is identified with ‘the absence of symptoms of disease’ and,
SI

• health can be seen in ‘the things that a person who is physically fit is able to do’.
Thus, according to layperson health has three components; feeling, symptom orientation and
AS

performance. In another study, Benyamini, Leventhal, and Leventhal (2003) found that according to
500 elderly participants, health is an ability to perform physical functions and vitality. Krause and Jay
(1994) also conducted a study to understand the frame of reference for judging one’s health. They
found that for older participants the frame of reference was the absence or presence of health
U
98

problems. Whereas, for the younger participants, health promoting behaviour was the frame of
O

reference. These studies suggest that the meaning of health is very subjective and it changes with
social factors and factors like age group can also play a role.
N

Health has also been described in terms of a person’s ability to adjust to the environmental influences.
Thus, if he/ she is not able to adapt then he/ she may experience some illness or develop a disease.
IG

Most of the modern definitions define health as not mere absence of disease but an increased capacity
for realisation and fulfilment of self. It has been explained as a state in which the individual is able to
adequately function at physical, mental, social as well as spiritual level and is able to express his/ her
potentials in the context of the environment within which he/ she exists.
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Health
The way in which health is defined or perceived may vary based on culture. Since cultural beliefs are
intricately woven into the health beliefs of patients, therefore to understand any health-related
behaviour it is essential to acknowledge and understand the role of culture and society first. Karma
refers to the metaphysical principle of cause and effect. It is a belief that the accumulated effects of
your deeds of last birth have an effect on the events of present life. Studies have suggested that in
India patients with life-threatening chronic diseases such as AIDS, heart disease, and cancer tend to
attribute the cause to karmic factors more. Whereas, in western countries very few patients attribute

5
illness to karmic factors. What do you think, why there is a difference in their causal attribution? The
reason could be ‘cultural differences’ in the conception of the role of Karma in life-events. This
example suggests that cultural notions significantly affect our conception of health.
Western Perspective: Culture never remains constant. It changes with time. Therefore, cultural
conception about health also changes with time. For instance, ancient Greek culture (a western
civilisation) believed in the role of four humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) in our
health and investigated health as a whole. Hippocrates, one of the renowned scholars of ancient
Greek civilisation had described in his writings about how mind, body, and spirit are interrelated and
work together to maintain our health. However, with the passage of time and especially after the
Renaissance, the scientific revolution led to considerable development in the physical medicine. The
explanation of the illness became more scientific and physiological based. Further, during the
seventeenth century, French philosopher René Descartes’s philosophies about the dualism of mind
and body influenced contemporary and later philosophers and scholars alike. As a result of this,

IN
western medicine started considering the mind and body as entirely separate entities, and this
philosophy still dominates their medical theories.
Eastern Perspective on Health: Eastern perspective refers to the viewpoint of eastern civilisation such

S.
as India and China on health and its related issues. The basic premise of all eastern civilisations is that
health is more than just an absence of disease or its symptoms. If you are healthy, then you will

50 NT
experience happiness, wellbeing, satisfaction with life, be able to function optimally as a member of
your social community and, will be able to set goals and achieve them. Thus, you will be able to
function as a whole. So, it can be suggested that the WHO definition of health supports eastern view
80 E
more. In contrast to the western view, all eastern civilizations primarily view health as a whole and,
not in parts. Seeing health as a whole means health is made up of many interrelated components such
26 NM
as physical, social, mental and spiritual, and any imbalance among them will manifest itself in the
form of disease or illness. The eastern viewpoint underpins the holistic model of health and illness.
Indian Perspective on Health: As culture plays a significant role in Indian life, it is important to
91 G

understand the traditional Indian view on health. The Sanskrit word for health is Swastha, ‘swa’
means ‘inner self’ and ‘-sth’ means ‘conscious’. Thus, in Indian tradition, being healthy has been
SI

considered equivalent to being conscious of your innerself. Dalal and Mishra (2011) have also pointed
out the inner- directedness of Indian view about health. It means the cause of all illnesses lie within
AS

ourselves and if we became conscious of our inner selves, only then, we can achieve optimal health.
All traditional Indian systems like Ayurveda and Siddha consider “physical, psychological,
philosophical, ethical and spiritual wellbeing of mankind” and harmony with the cosmos, nature, and
science is a necessary condition for wellbeing. Conceptualisation of health in traditional Indian
U
98

system is in contrast to the contemporary bio-medical health model. Instead of only treating
O

symptoms of the disease, all traditional Indian treatments aim to heal and improve the wellbeing of
the person.
N

Q4. Describe type A personality and hostility as factors contributing to stress proneness.
IG

Ans. Type A Personality: Personality traits can be said to determine not only the way an individual
reacts to stress but also how he/ she will cope with the stressful situation. Type A personality is often
linked to high levels of stress as individuals with type A personality perceive stress as threatening
and their reactions to stressful situations are intense and faster. On the other hand, individuals with
type B personality display lower stress reactivity. Thus, individuals with type A personality are more
prone to varied physical and psychological problems that may occur as a result of stress experienced
by them.
Individuals with this type of personality are in a hurry to achieve certain objectives. They often like
competition, they are highly alert and display perfectionism. They want to achieve much more than it
may be possible within a certain time frame. Such individuals are also likely to be irritable, they lack
patience and may also get angry faster. Some of the components of type A behaviour as stated by
Schafer (2004) are as follows:

6
Status insecurity: Individuals with type A behaviour may display status insecurity, which is likely to
stem from low self-esteem. Such individuals will constantly compare themselves with others and will
find themselves to be inferior in their own eyes. They are also constantly striving to enhance their
self-esteem. These individuals often have a very high expectation from themselves and are also highly
critical about self. This will often drive them to achieve and accomplish as much as possible.
Urgency of time: The insecurities and low self-esteem experienced by a person with type A
personality often leads him/her to gasp with time. Such individuals want to do many things within a
certain period of time. Thus, they are in constant hurry to get things done and as a result they think
faster, plan faster and carryout activities at a faster pace and this can be reflected in their day to day
functioning as well. They also engage in polyphasic thinking and behaviour that can be described as
engaging in thinking and carrying out multiple activities / things at a time.
Hyper-aggressiveness: Individuals with type A personality may also display hyper-aggressiveness
that is denoted by dominating behaviour without any regard to how others feel or any regard for

IN
their rights. This aggressiveness may also stem from low self-esteem that such individuals experience
and due to the frustration experienced by them.
Free-floating hostility: An individual with type A personality is more likely to perceive others

S.
negatively and thus will not trust others and will be suspicious of them. This free-floating hostility is
displayed by such an individual whenever he/ she feels something (coworkers laughing, slow sales

50 NT
person at a shop counter, directives by government and so on) is wrong.
Drive towards self-destruction: The lifestyle led by a type A individual can take a toll on them and
they often seek escapism and thus in a way they may drive themselves on the path of self-destruction.
Hostility 80 E
Schafer described hostility as ‘‘cynicism towards others’’ motives and values, easily and frequently
26 NM
aroused anger, and a tendency to express that anger towards others’’. Hostility in this context does
not relate to anger that leads to violent behaviour. But this is the irritability and anger experienced by
individuals who otherwise seem perfectly normal. Such a hostility may be experienced in simple
91 G

events in life, like someone spills tea on the office table, a family member does not fold clothes and
they are left in the sitting chair and so on, for which individuals who are not hostile may barely react.
SI

Such individuals often engage in blaming others, which in turn can make them express anger towards
that individual, which could lead to aggressive behaviours directed towards that person. Hostility is,
AS

thus, characterised by an attitude that is sceptical or cynical, recurring arousal of anger and
manifestation of anger in terms of aggressive behaviour. The long-term effect of such hostility is
negative as it not only affects one’s health but can also affect one’s social relationships. Links have
been found between hostility and stress. Thus, hostility can also be termed as a factor that can make
U
98

individuals more prone to stress.

O

Q5. What is substance use?

N

Ans. Substance use was earlier referred to as substance abuse. To define substance abuse, according
to Buddy (2019), it is “a pattern of harmful use of any substance for mood-altering purposes.
IG

“Substances” can include alcohol and other drugs (illegal or not) as well as some substances that are
not drugs at all. Now the term abuse has been replaced with use because, when we say ‘abuse’ we
mean that certain substance is used in a way that is not supposed to be used or recommended and it
is possible that individuals use substances but are not addicted.
Substance abuse, involves use of psychoactive substances that are harmful if consumed. These
substances could be alcohol or illegal drugs and use of these could lead to development of
dependence syndrome that includes various behavioural, cognitive and physiological repercussions
as a result of frequent use of the substance. It also includes an intense desire to consume the drug,
difficult in having control over its use despite of negative consequences and more priority is given to
the drugs than to other activities and duties. Further there is an increased tolerance and the person
may also experience physical withdrawal (WHO, 2020). The individual using such substances over a
period of time develop physical dependence. The body adjusts itself to the substance and the

7
individual will have to consume it in more quantities to achieve same effect. This is because the body
becomes tolerant to the substance. The individual will also start craving for the substance and will not
only develop physical dependence but psychological dependence as well, which eventually will lead
to addiction and if the individual stops consumption of the substance he/ she will experience
withdrawal symptoms.
Substance use can have negative repercussions not only on physical health and wellbeing of the
individual, but it has an impact on his/ her psychological health and wellbeing as well. His/ her social
relationships are also affected. Such individuals are not able to take any responsibilities in their
personal and work life and their quality of life can also get affected. The individual consuming drugs,
especially, intravenous are also at the risk of HIV infection. Other risks involve accidents when riding,
driving or handing heavy machinery under influence of alcohol and drugs. Besides a negative impact
on the individual’s, health and wellbeing, substance abuse has detrimental effect on the wellbeing
his/her family as well. Aggression can also be linked to substance use that can then lead to violent

IN
behaviour.
Some of the addictions are discussed as follows:
Tobacco: Tobacco is often consumed through smoking cigarettes or even through smokeless forms,

S.
like chewing pan, pan masala, snuff and so on. Consumption of tobacco can lead to various types of
cancer, including cancer of lungs, mouth, throat, bladder, liver, stomach, and colon and so on.

50 NT
Further, when an individual indulges in smoking cigarettes around others, him / her subjects them to
passive smoking thus putting them at risk of developing health hazards as well. Other health related
risks of tobacco consumption include cardiovascular diseases and chronic obstructive pulmonary
diseases. 80 E
Alcohol consumption and addiction: Like tobacco, alcohol is yet another substance that can lead to
26 NM
addiction when consumed over a period of time. Alcohol addiction is described as a state in which
the individual becomes physically and psychologically dependent on alcohol and lack of its
consumption will lead to his/ her experiencing withdrawal symptoms. Alcohol leads to indirect
91 G

stimulation of Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), that is a neurotransmitter and when the release
of GABA is increased, the functioning of the brain is inhibited and becomes slow, thus negatively
SI

affecting the individual’s speed, reaction time as well as motor skills.

Drug abuse: Here we mainly refer to the psychoactive drugs. Consumption of these drugs can lead to
AS

dependence both physical and psychological and they also have a negative impact on the cognitive
processes and behaviour of the individuals who consume them.

Assignment III
U
98

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 6 marks.
O

Q6. Holistic model of health

Ans. In response to the various limitations of the medical model, many scholars came up with new
N

models for health and illness. One such model is known as the holistic model. The term Holistic
medicine was first used by F. H. Hoffman in 1960 (Derick, 2009). It refers to conceptualising health as
IG

a ‘whole’. Guttmacher (1979) has suggested that holistic model considers health as equivalent to “a
sense of wellbeing” and disease is not considered as a presence or absence of a pathogenic agent only.
Instead, according to the holistic model, a disharmony between social, psychological and spiritual
dimensions of one’s life causes disease. In this way, the holistic model puts responsibility for ill health
on the individual also. This model also gives equal importance to the role of practitioners and
patients. Unlike biomedical model, it considers a practitioner as a mentor and role model, whose role
is to motivate patients to be self responsible for their health instead of having blind faith in
practitioners’ efficacy.
In recent times the concept of holism has become quite popular among scholars and health care. As a
result of this, there are many associations that are promoting the concept of holistic health. Some of
these prominent associations include the American Holistic Medical Association, British Holistic
Medical Association, American Holistic Health Association and, American Holistic Nurses

8
Association. According to one such association; American Holistic Medical Association (n.d.) Holistic
medicine is “the art and science of healing that addresses care of the whole person-body, mind, and
spirit. The practice of holistic medicine integrates conventional and complementary therapies to
promote optimal health, and prevent and treat disease by addressing contributing factors”.

Q7. Goals of coping

Ans. the main goal of coping is dealing with the stressor so that its impact on the individual is
minimal. Further, individual differences exist in the coping styles adopted by the persons. Also,
different coping strategies may be effective in different situations. Thus, during the coping process
either internal resources or external resources are utilized by the individuals. Some of the major goals
of coping are as follows:
• To enhance the possibility of recovery by decreasing the negative environmental conditions.
• To be able to adjust to the negative situation.

IN
• To maintain a self-image that is positive and maintain emotional balance.
• To ensure positive interpersonal relationship.
Coping is termed as effective when it leads to recovery and when the individual is able to adapt to the

S.
stressful situation by means of maintaining a positive image about one’s self, emotional balance and
has effective interpersonal relationships. Whether a coping has been effective or not can be assessed

50 NT
based on the results of the coping. For instance, physiological and biochemical changes and
functioning can be assessed in order ascertain whether the coping has been adaptive or not. An
adaptive coping will lead to regulation of various physiological indicators. Besides the physiological
80 E
measures, if there is decrease in psychological distress displayed by the individual, then the coping
strategy can be termed as adaptive. The duration of time taken by individuals to achieve the same
26 NM
state of functioning before they experienced a negative event (for instance, divorce, job loss and so on)
or display of an improved state of functioning than before the negative event was experienced can
also be an indicator of successful coping.
91 G

Q8. Yoga
SI

Ans. You all must be aware that we celebrate International Day of Yoga on 21st June every year. Such
is the effectiveness of Yoga that it is now promoted at International level in order to create awareness
AS

and promote practice of Yoga amongst the individuals so as to help them enhance their health and
wellbeing. Yoga as a practice originated in India and the term Yoga is derived from Sanskrit meaning
‘to unite’, indicating a union of consciousness and body. The main goal of Yoga is self realisation.
Yoga finds its mention in Bhagwad Gita, where a whole chapter is devoted to it. Three main types of
U
98

yoga have been mentioned in this regard.

O

Karma Yoga: That is yoga related to one’s actions.

Bhakti Yoga: Yoga related to devotion.
N

Jnana Yoga: That is Yoga related to knowledge.

Yoga mainly involves bodily postures (Asanas), breathing exercises and meditation that are to be
IG

carried out in a specific manner.

Types of Asanas
There are various types of asanas, some of these have been briefly discussed as follows:
• Padmasana: This is also referred as the lotus pose that can be used during meditation.
Padmasana is practiced by sitting straight on the ground with your feet on top of your thighs.
This asana is quite difficult and may need practice before one is able to carry it out
adequately.
• Sukhasana: This involves sitting cross-legged. This is an easy asana and like Padmasana, it
can be used during meditation.
• Siddhasana: This is similar to Padmasana but less difficult. In this. you need to sit with your
toes tucked in to your thighs.

9
 • Vajrasana: Vajra is a Sanskrit term that can be translated as ‘diamond’ (Balaji, 2012). This
involves sitting on one’s heels by placing palms on the knees.
• Trikonasana: In this asana, you need to stand on the floor with legs apart and then you need
to stretch your body to the left in such a way that spine is straight and your body is facing
towards front and your arms are perpendicular to the floor, with left hand resting on the floor
and right hand straight up.

Q9. Diabetes
Ans. Diabetes is denoted by hyperglycaemia, where there is more than required glucose in an
individual’s body. The blood sugar levels in our body are controlled by insulin. But in diabetic
individuals, there is insufficient insulin, because the pancreases have not produced enough insulin or
because the body is not responding normally to the insulin. Diabetes is of following types:
Type I: This has an early onset that is during childhood or adolescence. This can be due to the

IN
destruction of cells of pancreas as a result of autoimmune processes. Individuals with type I diabetes
have to use insulin injections to keep their glucose levels in check and avoid any complications.
Type II: This mostly develops later in life, that is after 40. Though it can also develop earlier.

S.
Individuals with type II diabetes need not necessarily take insulin injections. But they do have to take
medication and make lifestyles changes and change their food habits and consumption.

50 NT
Q10. Hope theory
Ans. Hope is positively correlated with optimism. Snyder (2000) has proposed that hope consists of
80 E
two key aspects such as (a) the ability to plan pathways to desired goals despite obstacles, and (b)
agency or motivation to use these pathways. We can see that the ability to plan pathways is related to
26 NM
the positive future expectations as involved in dispositional optimism, whereas the agency is
emphasized in optimistic explanatory style. Thus, Snyder has combined these two elements of
expectation and agency in his Hope Theory.
91 G

Hope is characterized by a goal-directed behavior. The individual faces an obstacle while working
towards achieving a goal. The individual will find ways to overcome the challenges, thus exploring
SI

the possible pathways and having a positive expectation regarding the effectiveness of the pathways.
Here, the thoughts focusing on personal agency, that is, how effective one will be in following the
AS

pathways to reach the goal, also plays a role. These three aspects of a goal-directed behavior,
pathways and agency operate in the context of the thoughts/ learning experiences of the individual
acquired during the developmental stages of life. These affect the way we perceive cause and effect
relationship related to events and situations and the self as instrumental in this. Agency thoughts is
U
98

related to the efficacy expectancy and the pathways thoughts are related to the outcome expectancy.
O

Snyder (2000) suggests that hope develops in a clearly defined way over the developmental stages of
infancy, childhood and adolescence. The developmental milestones achieved in these stages help
N

them to develop goal-directed activities, plan paths to overcome barriers to valued goals, and engage
in hopeful pursuits. A secure attachment with parents, supportive family environment and consistent
IG

and structured rules at home help children develop a hopeful disposition. Optimism and hope are
related to positive outcomes. Studies have found these to be related to physical health, mental health
and well-being. Other studies have explored the role of hope in job performance. Further, Verma,
Agarwal, & Mishra (2018) found academic achievement to have significant positive correlation with
hope and optimism, and advocated for developing programmes on hope and optimism to help
students to improve their academic performance.

10