CELLS

Introduction:
oThe function of Batteries / cells is the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
✔It is made up of two electrodes (anode & cathode) and electrolyte solution
Definition:
✔Cell is an arrangement of two electrodes dipped into a solution of electrolyte or electrolytes.
oCathode – Positive terminal – Electrochemical reduction occurs (gain electrons)
oAnode – Negative terminal – Electrochemical oxidation occurs (lose electrons)
oElectrolytes – Allow Ions to move between electrodes
oTerminals– Allows Current to flow out of the battery to
perform work
 List of invented cells / Batteries
Alessandro Volta invented the first true battery
 Importance of Cells / Batteries /

o Due to increasing human activity in technology, a number of battery dependent appliances

have come into existence.
o It is used in wrist watches, electric calling bells, space vehicles and missile firing units.

Types of Cells
There are two types of cells, 1. Electrolytic cell 2. Electrochemical cell

1. Electrolytic cell - Electrical energy is used to bring about the chemical reaction.

At anode : Oxidation takes place

(Ni → Ni2+ +2e-)

At cathode : Reduction takes place

( Ni2+ +2e- → Ni )
2. Electrochemical / Galvanic cell
o Electrical energy is generated due to chemical reactions, which takes place inside the cells
o Examples: Daniel cell, Zn / ZnSO4 // CuSO4 / Cu

At anode,
Zn → Zn2+ +2e- (Oxidation)
At cathode,
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (Reduction)
The overall reaction,
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
 BATTERIES

✔ A battery is an arrangement of several electrochemical cells connected in series /

parallel to get required amount of electrical energy.
✔ The battery contains several anodes and cathodes.
Criteria for any cells to be commercial cells
✔ Should be cheap
✔ Light weight and portable
✔ should have long life cycle and high self life.
✔ should be continuous and constant sources of EMF over a long interval of time.
✔ It should be a rechargeable unit.
Selection of battery depends on the conditions of working, the suitability of a battery
depends on the following characteristics:
o Type
o Voltage
o Discharge curve
o Capacity
o Energy density
o Specific energy density
o Power density
o Temperature dependence
o Service life
o Physical requirements
o Charge/discharge cycle
o Cycle life
o Cost
o Ability to deep discharge
o Application requirements
 Cycle life:
oIt is defined as number of times the discharging and charging operations can be alternated till
such time it performs as designed.
oIt is applicable only to secondary cells. The EMF of cell decrease during discharging.
oA good cell should have high cycle life.
osome times cycle life would be lower than expected level due to,
The active materials at the electrodes may whither off due to rapid charging conditions.
May be irregular deposition of the products during discharging.
Over charging, the corrosion may occur.
Shelf life:
✔ A good battery should possess a long shelf life.
Self -discharge:
o It is defined as the loss of active materials of the cell due to localized action on the
electrode even the cell is not in discharge mode.
o Longer the life self-discharge, good battery
 Discharging and Charging of a battery
o A cell is a battery that is packed that active materials at anode and cathode, redox reaction occur spontaneously.
Discharging: Charging:
❖The electrons liberated at the anode flow ❖The cell reaction is reversed if the
to the cathode through the external wire external current is passed in the reverse
and take part in the reduction. This direction.
process in which spontaneous redox ❖This process of conversion of an inactive
reaction occurs is called discharging. material back into active materials in a
❖During discharging , the active materials cell is called charging.
are converted into inactive materials. ❖It is a non-spontaneous process.
❖The cell becomes inactive once the active ❖External energy > Cell energy
material is consumed.
❖External energy < Cell energy
 Types of Batteries
The batteries are classified into
o Primary batteries
o Secondary batteries
1. Primary battery (Non-rechargeable)
✔The electrode and its reaction cannot be reversed by passing electrical energy externally.
✔During discharging the chemical compounds are permanently changed and electrical energy is
released until the original compounds are completely exhausted.
✔In such batteries the reaction occurs only once and it is not rechargeable
✔Lower discharge rate than secondary batteries
✔Examples: Dry Leclanche cell - Zinc Carbon – Used in flashlights, toys
Heavy Duty Zinc Chloride – Used in radios, recorders
Alkaline – Used in all of the above
Lithium – Used in photoflash
Silver Mercury Oxide – Used in Hearing aid, watches, calculators,
Silver button cell – Small devices like above
 2. Secondary battery (Chargeable)
oThe electrode reactions can be reserved by passing electrical energy externally.
oDuring discharging the chemical compounds which are changed can be reconstituted by the
application of an electrical potential between the electrodes – “electrochemical reaction is
reversible”
oThey can be recharged by passing electrical current and used endlessly.
oUsed when short periods of storage are required
oHigher discharge rate than primary batteries.
oThus such cells can be Rechargeable and used many times.
oExamples: Lead Acid Battery
Nickel Cadmium Battery
Nickel Metal Hydride Battery
Lithium Ion Battery
 Primary battery - Silver button battery
What is a Button battery?
oA Button battery or button cell is a small single cell battery,
oCylindrically shaped about 5 to 25 mm in diameter and 1 to 6 mm high
Structure
✔Button batteries are formed by compacting metals and metal oxides on either side of an
electrolyte-soaked separator.
✔The unit is then placed in a 2-part metal casing held together by a plastic grommet
✔The grommet electrically insulates the anode from the cathode.
✔The metal undergoes oxidation on one side of the separator,
while the metal oxide is reduced to the metal on the other side,
producing a current when a conductive path is provided.
✔Uses: In small portable electronic devices - wrist watches, pocket calculators, artificial cardiac
pacemakers, implantable cardiac defibrillators, hearing aids, toys, etc
 Importance
oButton-type silver oxide batteries gives high-energy per
unit volume and stable operating voltage.
oAlso, it is designed to use zero mercury.
oMaxell is the first company in Japan to successfully
market button-type silver oxide batteries.
Construction and working:
oThis cell consist of silver oxide as cathode
and zinc metal as the anode.
oThese electrodes are separated by
semi-permeable membranes and
pottasium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide
is used as an electrolyte
oCell representation
Zn , ZnO / Electrolyte / Ag2O , Ag
 Cell reactions:
At the anode : Zn + 2OH- → ZnO + H2O + 2e-
At the cathode : Ag2O + H2O +2e- → 2Ag + 2OH-
Overall cell reaction : Zn + Ag2O → ZnO + 2Ag
✔The cell gives a voltage of 1.3-1.5 V.
Advantages:
oDuring discharge, supplies a stable voltage until the end of the discharge life.
oA silver oxide battery’s gives twice the amount of energy capacity as button-type alkaline batteries.
oDepending on the composition of the electrolyte, two models are available; a low-drain type (SW
type) for analog watches and a high-drain type (W type) for multi-function watches (which
incorporate an alarm and a light), medical equipment.
oDesigned without using mercury and lead and also long lasting, superior leakage - resistant
characteristics
The button-type silver oxide battery uses silver oxide (Ag2O) as its positive active
material and zinc (Zn) as its negative active material. Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
(W-type) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (SW-type) is used as an electrolyte.

Watches
Calculators
Medical Instruments
Measuring Instruments

What is an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD)?

An ICD is a battery-powered device placed under the skin that keeps track of your
heart rate. Thin wires connect the ICD to your heart. If an abnormal heart rhythm is
detected the device will deliver an electric shock to restore a normal heartbeat if
your heart is beating chaotically and much too fast.
 Nickel- Cadmium batteries (NICAD)/ Secondary battery

o Rechargeable alkaline battery

o During charging and discharging, no loss of products
o Active materials used in the battery system are,
Anode : Cadmium as a mixture of metal, oxide or hydroxide
Cathode : Nickel oxyhydroxide
Electrolyte : Aquous KOH
o Cell representation
Cd , Cd(OH)2 / KOH(aq) / Ni(OH)2 , NiO(OH)

Construction
o It consists of cadium anode and a metal grid
containing a paste of NiO2 acting as a cathode
o Electrolyte in the cell is KOH it is
 Working:
During Discharging
✔When the NICAD battery operates, at the anode
cadmium is oxidised to Cd 2+ ions and insoluble Cd(OH)2 is formed

Cell reaction
At anode: Oxidation takes places at cadmium
Cd → Cd 2+ + 2e-
Cd 2+ + 2OH- → Cd(OH)2

At cathode: Reduction of nickel oxyhydroxide takes

place in this reaction
2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e- → 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH-

Net cell reaction

Cd + 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O → Cd(OH)2 + 2Ni(OH)2
 During Charging
oWhen current is passed in the opposite direction, the electrode reaction gets reversed.
oAs a result, cadmium gets deposited on the anode and
NiO(OH) gets deposited on the cathode.

At anode:
Cd(OH)2 → Cd 2+ + 2OH-
Cd 2+ + 2e- → Cd

At cathode:
2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH- → 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e-

Net cell reaction

Cd(OH)2 + 2Ni(OH)2 → Cd + 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O

✔The cell voltage of battery is 1.4 V, which is irrespective of the size of electrodes.
Applications:
Ni-Cd batteries may be used individually or assembled into battery packs containing
two or more cells.
Ni-Cd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting and
other applications.
With a low internal resistance, they can supply a high surge current. This makes
them a favourable choice for remote controlled model airplanes, boats, cars and
camera flash units.

Surge currents are the “currents that raise or fall from the normal
rated value in the short duration of time”.
Advantages:
✔ Delivers high current output
✔ Have ability to deliver full power output until end of cycle
✔ It tolerates overcharging
✔ It withstands up to 500 cycles of charging
✔ It has longer life(less than 20 years) than lead storage cell
✔ Operate in a range of temperatures.
✔ No gas evolution occurs at the active electrodes.
✔ They have low internal resistance.
✔ Like a dry cell, it can be packed in a sealed container.
Disadvantages:
o Cadmium is not an eco-friendly material - Materials are toxic and the recycling
infrastructure for larger nickel-cadmium batteries is very limited
o Less tolerance towards temperature as compared to other batteries.
o It is three to five times more expensive than lead-acid
o Self discharge up to 10% in a day.