Q.1.What is computer?

What are the advantage and

disadvantage of computer.
A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry
out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer
programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of
operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an
extremely wide range of tasks. A "complete" computer including the hardware,
the operating system (main software), and peripheral equipment required and used
for "full" operation can be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be
used for a group of computers that are connected and work together, in particular
a computer network or computer cluster.
Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer
devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave
ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-
aided design, and also general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile
devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects
hundreds of millions of other computers and their users.
Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient times,
simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in
the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long
tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated
electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The
first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The
first semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the silicon-
based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip
technologies in the late 1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer
revolution in the 1970s. The speed, power and versatility of computers have been
increasing dramatically ever since then, with MOS transistor counts increasing at a
rapid pace (as predicted by Moore's law), leading to the Digital Revolution during the
late 20th to early 21st centuries.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element,
typically a central processing unit (CPU) in the form of a metal-oxide-
semiconductor (MOS) microprocessor, along with some type of computer memory,
typically MOS semiconductor memory chips. The processing element carries out
arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the
order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include
input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens,
printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the
2000s-era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from
an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.

Advantages of computer
Multitasking: Multitasking is one of the major advantage of computer. Person can
perform multiple task, multiple operation, calculate numerical problems within few
seconds. Computer can perform trillion of instructions per second.
Speed:Now computer is not just a calculating device. Now a day’s computer has very
important role in human life. One of the main advantages of computer is its
incredible speed, which helps human to complete their task in few seconds. All the
operations can be performed very fast just because of its speed elsewise it takes a
long time to perform the task.

Cost/ Stores huge amount of data :It is a low cost solution. Person can save
huge data within a low budget. Centralized database of storing information is the
major advantage that can reduce cost.

Accuracy :One of the root advantage of computer is that can perform not only
calculations but also with accuracy.

Data Security :Protecting digital data is known as data security. Computer provide
security from destructive forces and from unwanted action from unauthorized users
like cyber attack or access attack.

Disadvantages Of Computer

The use of computer has also created some problems in society which are as follows.
Unemployment :Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers.
It reduces the need of people and increases unemployment in society.
Wastage Of Time And Energy: Many people use computers without positive
purpose. They play games and chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of
time and energy. Young generation is now spending more time on the social media
websites like Facebook, Twitter etc or texting their friends all night through
smartphones which is bad for both studies and their health. And it also has adverse
effects on the social life.
Data Security: The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized
persons through networks. It has created serious problems for the data security.
Computer Crimes: People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the
credit card numbers of the people and misuse them or they can steal important data
from big organizations.
Privacy Violation: The computers are used to store personal data of the people.
The privacy of a person can be violated if the personal and confidential records are
not protected properly.
Health Risks: The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries
or disorders of hands, wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid
health risks by using the computer in proper position. They must also take regular
breaks while using the computer for longer period of time. It is recommended to take
a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of computer usage.
Impact On Environment: The computer manufacturing processes and computer
waste are polluting the environment. The wasted parts of computer can release
dangerous toxic materials. Green computer is a method to reduce the electricity
consumed and environmental waste generated when using a computer. It includes
 recycling and regulating manufacturing processes. The used computers must be
donated or disposed off properly.

Q.2.Explain the classification of computer.

There are the different types of computers available these days. The function of each
type of computer is to process the data and provide some output to the users.
However, the methods or techniques used by these computers to process and handle
the data may be different. We can classify the computer according to the following
three criteria:

1. Based on operating principles

2. Based on applications
3. Based on size and capability

1) Based on Operating Principles

On the basis of the operation performed and methods used to store and process the
data information, computers can be classified into the following categories:

1. Analog computers
The analog computers represent data in the form of continuous electrical
signals having a specific magnitude. These computers are very fast in their
operations to be carried out at the same time. They are a powerful tool to solve
differential equations.
2. Digital Computers
The digital computer is also known as the digital information processing
system, is a type of computer that stores and processes data in the digital
form. Therefore each type of data is usually stored in these computers in terms
of 0s and 1s. The output produced by these computers is also in the digital
form.
3. Hybrid Computers
The hybrid computer is a combination of analog computer and digital
computer because it encompasses the best features of both these computers.
Therefore the hardware components of hybrid computers are usually the
mixture of analog and digital components. The hybrid computer is also less
expensive than the digital computers.

2) Based on Application

Different computers are designed for a different purpose so that they can perform
their tasks according to their capabilities. On the basis of different applications or
purpose, computers can be classified into the following categories:

1. General purpose computers

They are designed in such a manner that they can work in all environments.
The general purpose computers are versatile and can store a number of
 programs meant for performing distinct tasks. The general purpose computers
are not efficient and consume a large amount of time in generating the results.
2. Special purpose computers
They are designed in such a manner that they can perform only a specified
task. The special purpose computers are not versatile and their speed and
memory size depend on the task that is to be performed. The special purpose
computers are efficient and consume less amount of time in generating the
results.

3) Based on size and Capabilities

Computers differ from each other in terms of their size, shape, and weights. Each
type of computers perform some unique functions and can be employed in the fields
suited to them. On the basis of size, shape the computers can be classified into the
following categories.

1. Microcomputers
A microcomputer is a small and cheap digital computer that is designed to be
used by individuals. It is built around a microprocessor, a storage unit, and an
I/o channel. The microcomputers are generally in the form of PCs,
workstations and notebook computers.
2. Mini computers
A minicomputer was first introduced in the year 1960 by Digital Equipment
Corporations(DEC). They were called minicomputers because of their smaller
size than the other computers of those time.
3. Mainframe computers
A mainframe computer is a very large computer that is employed by the large
business organization for handling major applications such as financial
transaction processing.
4. Super computers
A super computer is the fastest type of computers that can perform complex
operations at a very high speed. The super computer was first presented in the
year 1960s by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation(CDC). They are
more expansive than the other categories of computers.

Q.3.Functional units of computer system.

Computer: A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources
which integrate together and provides various functionalities to the user. Hardware
are the physical components of a computer like the processor, memory devices,
monitor, keyboard etc. while software is the set of programs or instructions that are
required by the hardware resources to function properly.
There are a few basic components that aids the working-cycle of a computer i.e. the
Input- Process- Output Cycle and these are called as the functional components of a
computer. It needs certain input, processes that input and produces the desired
output. The input unit takes the input, the central processing unit does the processing
of data and the output unit produces the output. The memory unit holds the data and
instructions during the processing.
Digital Computer: A digital computer can be defined as a programmable machine
which reads the binary data passed as instructions, processes this binary data, and
displays a calculated digital output. Therefore, Digital computers are those that work
on the digital data.
Details of Functional Components of a Digital Computer

 Input Unit :The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to
the computer. These devices take input and convert it into binary
language that the computer understands. Some of the common input
devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU0 : Once the information is entered
into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it. The
CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control center of
the computer. It first fetches instructions from memory and then
interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If required, data is
fetched from memory or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or
performs the required computation and then either stores the output or
displays on the output device. The CPU has three main components
which are responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : The ALU, as its name suggests
performs mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions.
Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Logical decisions involve comparison of two data items to see
which one is larger or smaller or equal.
 Control Unit : The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow
in and out of CPU and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory
registers and also input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying
out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes the fetched
instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output
devices until the required operation is done properly by ALU and
memory.
 Memory Registers : A register is a temporary unit of memory in the
CPU. These are used to store the data which is directly used by the
processor. Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so
on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific function like storing
data, storing an instruction, storing address of a location in memory etc.
The user registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for
storing operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the
main register in the ALU and contains one of the operands of an
operation to be performed in the ALU.
  Memory : Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and
instructions and is called internal memory The internal memory is
divided into many storage locations, each of which can store data or
instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has an
address. With the help of the address, the computer can read any
memory location easily without having to search the entire memory.
when a program is executed, it’s data is copied to the internal memory
ans is stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The internal
memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This
memory is also called as RAM, i.e. Random Access Memory. The time of
access of data is independent of its location in memory, therefore this
memory is also called Random Access memory (RAM). Read this
for different types of RAMs
 Output Unit : The output unit consists of output devices that are
attached with the computer. It converts the binary data coming from
CPU to human understandable form. The common output devices are
monitor, printer, plotter etc.

Q4.what is software and also explain different types of

Software.
Software is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how
to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and
actually performs the work. In computer science and software engineering, computer
software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data.
Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-
executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware
and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.
At the lowest programming level,[clarification needed] executable code consists of machine
language instructions supported by an individual processor—typically a central
processing unit (CPU) or a graphics processing unit (GPU). A machine language
consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the
state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may
change the value stored in a particular storage location in the computer—an effect
that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also invoke one of
many input or output operations, for example displaying some text on a computer
screen; causing state changes which should be visible to the user. The
processor executes the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is
instructed to "jump" to a different instruction, or is interrupted by the operating
system. As of 2015, most personal computers, smartphone devices
and servers have processors with multiple execution units or multiple processors
performing computation together, and computing has become a much
more concurrent activity than in the past.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages. They are
easier and more efficient for programmers because they are closer to natural
languages than machine languages.[1] High-level languages are translated into
machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two.
Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language, which has strong
correspondence to the computer's machine language instructions and is translated
into machine language using an assembler.

Different Types of Software

Typically, there are two major classifications of software, namely System
Software and Application Software.

1. System Software

A system software aids the user and the hardware to function and interact with
each other. Basically, it is a software to manage computer hardware behavior so
as to provide basic functionalities that are required by the user. In simple
words, we can say that system software is an intermediator or a middle layer
between the user and the hardware. These computer software sanction a
platform or environment for the other software to work in. This is the reason
why system software is very important in managing the entire computer system.
When you first turn on the computer, it is the system software that gets
initialized and gets loaded in the memory of the system. The system software
runs in the background and is not used by the end-users. This is the reason why
system software is also known as ‘low-level software’.

Some common system software examples are:

 Operating System: It is the most prominent example of System

Software. It is a collection of software that handles resources and
provides general services for the other applications that run over them.
Although each Operating System is different, most of them provide a
Graphical User Interface through which a user can manage the files and
folders and perform other tasks. Every device, whether a desktop, laptop
or mobile phone requires an operating system to provide the basic
functionality to it. As an OS essentially determines how a user interacts
with the system, therefore many users prefer to use one specific OS for
their device. There are various types of operating system such as real-
time, embedded, distributed, multiuser, single-user, internet, mobile, and
many more. It is important to consider the hardware specifications before
choosing an operating system.

 Device Drivers: It is a type of software that controls particular

hardware which is attached to the system. Hardware devices that need a
driver to connect to a system include displays, sound cards, printers,
mice and hard disks. Further, there are two types of device drivers:
Kernel Device Drivers and User Device Driver.
 Firmware: Firmware  is the permanent software that is embedded into a
read-only memory. It is a set of instructions permanently stored on a
hardware device. It provides essential information regarding how the
device interacts with other hardware. Firmware can be considered as
 ‘semi-permanent’ as it remains permanent unless it is updated using a
firmware updater.
 Programming Language Translators: These are mediator programs
on which software programs rely to translate high-level language code to
simpler machine-level code.
 Utility: Utility software is designed to aid in analyzing, optimizing,
configuring and maintaining a computer system. It supports the
computer infrastructure. This software focuses on how an OS functions
and then accordingly it decides its trajectory to smoothen the functioning
of the system. Softwares like antiviruses, disk cleanup & management
tools, compression tools, defragmenters, etc are all utility tools. 2.
Application Software

Application Software , also known as end-user programs or productivity

programs are software that helps the user in completing tasks such as doing
online research, jotting down notes, setting an alarm, designing graphics,
keeping an account log, doing calculations or even playing games. They lie
above the system software. Unlike system software, they are used by the end-
user and are specific in their functionality or tasks and do the job that they are
designed to do. For example, a browser is an application designed specifically
for browsing the internet or MS Powerpoint is an application used specifically
for making presentations. Application Software or simply apps can also be
referred to as non-essential software as their requirement is highly subjective
and their absence does not affect the functioning of the system. All the apps that
we see on our mobile phones are also examples of Application Software. There
is certain software that is exclusively made for app development  like Meteor
and Flutter. These are examples of Application software too.

There are various types of application software:

 Word Processors: These applications for documentation. Along with

that it also helps I storing, formatting and printing of these documents.
Database Software: This software is used to create and manage a
database. It is also known as the Database Management System or DBMS.
They help with the organization of data. Multimedia Software: It is the
software that is able to play, create or record images, audio or video files.
They are used for video editing, animation, graphics, and image
editing,Education and Reference Software: These types of software
are specifically designed to facilitate learning on a particular subject.
There are various kinds of tutorial software that fall under this category.
They are also termed as academic software.

 Graphics Software: As the name suggests, Graphics Software has been

devised to work with graphics as it helps the user to edit or make changes
in visual data or images. It comprises of picture editors and illustration
software.
 Web Browsers: These applications are used to browse the internet.
They help the user in locating and retrieving data across the web. Some
Q5. What is Programming Language? Describe different type of
programming language.

A programming language is a formal language comprising a set of

instructions that produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used
in computer programming to implement algorithms.
Most programming languages consist of instructions for computers. There are
programmable machines that use a set of specific instructions, rather than general
programming languages. Early ones preceded the invention of the digital computer,
the first probably being the automatic flute player described in the 9th century by
the brothers Musa in Baghdad, during the Islamic Golden Age.[1] Since the early
1800s, programs have been used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard
looms, music boxes and player pianos.[2] The programs for these machines (such as a
player piano's scrolls) did not produce different behavior in response to different
inputs or conditions.
Thousands of different programming languages have been created, and more are
being created every year. Many programming languages are written in
an imperative form (i.e., as a sequence of operations to perform) while other
languages use the declarative form (i.e. the desired result is specified, not how to
achieve it).
The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components
of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). Some languages are defined by a
specification document (for example, the C programming language is specified by
an ISO Standard) while other languages (such as Perl) have a
dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both,
with the basic language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the
dominant implementation being common.

Types of Programming Languages

The different types of programming languages are discussed below.

Procedural Programming Language:The procedural programming language is

used to execute a sequence of statements which lead to a result. Typically, this type of
programming language uses multiple variables, heavy loops and other elements,
which separates them from functional programming languages. Functions of
procedural language may control variables, other than function’s value  returns. For
example, printing out information.

Functional Programming Language:Functional programming language

typically uses stored data, frequently avoiding loops in favor of recursive
functions.The functional programing’s  primary focus is on the return values of
functions, and side effects and different suggests that storing state are powerfully
discouraged. For example, in an exceedingly pure useful language, if a function is
termed, it’s expected that the function not modify or perform any o/p. It may,
however, build algorithmic calls and alter the parameters of these calls. Functional
languages are usually easier and build it easier to figure on abstract issues, however,
they’ll even be “further from the machine” therein their programming model makes
it difficult to know precisely, but the code is decoded into machine language (which
are often problematic for system programming).

Object-oriented Programming Language:This programming language  views

the world as a group of objects that have internal data and external accessing parts of
that data. The aim this programming language  is to think about the fault by
separating it into a collection of objects that offer services which can be used to solve
a specific problem. One of the main principle of object oriented programming
language  is encapsulation that everything an object will need must be inside of the
object. This language also emphasizes reusability through inheritance and the
capacity to spread current implementations without having to change a great deal of
code by using polymorphism.

Scripting Programming Language:These programming languages are often

procedural and may comprise object-oriented language elements, but they fall into
their own category as they are normally not full-fledged programming languages with
support for development of large systems. For example, they may not have compile-
time type checking. Usually, these languages require tiny syntax to get started.

Logic Programming Language: These types of languages let programmers  make

declarative statements and then allow the machine to reason about the consequences
of those statements. In a sense, this language doesn’t tell the computer how to do
something, but employing restrictions on what it must consider doing.To call these
groups ” types  of language ” is really a bit confusing. It’s easy to program in an
object-oriented style in C language. In truth, most of the languages include ideas and
features from various domains, which only helps to increase the  usefulness of these
types of languages. Nevertheless, most of the programming languages do not best in
all styles of programming.

Q6.What do you mean computer memory? Types of computer

memory.
In computing, memory refers to a device that is used to store information for
immediate use in a computer or related computer hardware device.[1] It typically
refers to semiconductor memory, specifically metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS)
memory,[2][3] where data is stored within MOS memory cells on a silicon integrated
circuit chip. The term "memory" is often synonymous with the term "primary
storage". Computer memory operates at a high speed, for example random-access
memory (RAM), as a distinction from storage that provides slow-to-
access information but offers higher capacities. If needed, contents of the computer
memory can be transferred to secondary storage;[a] a very common way of doing this
is through a memory management technique called virtual memory. An archaic
synonym for memory is store.[4]
The term "memory", meaning "primary storage" or "main memory", is often
associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits
consisting of silicon-based MOS transistors,[5] used for example as primary storage
but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are
two main kinds of semiconductor memory, volatile and non-volatile. Examples
of non-volatile memory are flash memory (used as secondary storage)
and ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM memory (used for storing firmware such
as BIOS). Examples of volatile memory are primary storage, which is
typically dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory,
which is typically static random-access memory (SRAM) that is fast but energy-
consuming, offering lower memory areal density than DRAM.
Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bistable flip-flops,
each storing one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per
memory cell and multiple bits per cell (called MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory
cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or
128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible to
store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies that processor
registers normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and
do not include an addressing mechanism.
Types of Computer Memory
 Primary Memory (Storage Device)
 Secondary Memory (Storage Device)

What is Primary memory :

Primary memory is known as “Main Memory” or “Internal Memory” or “Primary
Storage Device” or “Internal Storage Device” as well as they play vital role
in computer, because those memories are capable to access all data directly
from CPU with the help of various buses. These memories have limited capacity for
storage and made by integrated circuits (IC) or semiconductor components.Primary
storage devices are available in two variance such as volatile and non volatile.
Volatile memory is called temporary memory because all data deleted when power
get turn off mode but its access time and response time much fine to secondary
memory. Non volatile memory is permanent memory in which nothing data erase
when system is turn off.The operating system and launched all application are loaded
into primary storage device (memory) while turn on the computer because firstly
CPU search all data in primary memory (storage device). In this process, data
transfer rate is very fastly from CPU to RAM compare to transfer rate between CPU
to Hard drive.  

Types of Primary Memory(Storage Devices)

  Register
 Cache Memory
 RAM
 ROM
Register: Registers are included in the CPU. They have low capacity for storing the
instructions, and data only on before and after processing mode.
Cache Memory:This cache memory has higher speed for accessing data, and allows
to computer for storing piece of data in temporary nature. Cache memory is place at
near the CPU and RAM. Cache memory speed is very fast because its travel distance
is short between RAM to Cache memory.
RAM: RAM is primary memory and RAM stands for “Random Access Memory“.
Ram is capable to access any data randomly any time as well as from any location
to computer. This is volatile storage memory means to temporary memory in nature,
because entire data goes delete while computer get turn off mode. RAM regains all
data from CPU in run-time and sends to control unit, and it is a fastest memory to
hard disk.
ROM:ROM is primary memory and ROM stands for “Read Only Memory”. This
memory is able to store data in permanently means to have non-volatile in nature.
ROM is programmable chip because in which stored all instructions that are most
required when to start computer. This process is known as “Bootstrap”. ROM is not
limited for computer because these chips use in other equipment like as washing
machine and microwave as well.
 
What is Secondary Memory:
Definition – Secondary Memory is also called “storage device” and “auxiliary
memory“, “external memory“. Secondary storage devices are volatile in nature, it
means that data does not discard while power turn-off, in which all data store for
long time. Secondary memory has the speed of access of data is very slow compare
to primary memory, and cheaper as well. Without primary memory, those secondary
storage devices are useless because for processing the secondary memory must be
needed the primary memory, first of all data are transferred into primary
memory then these data make for executable.
Secondary memory (Storage Devices) can be used in computer either internally or
externally.
Secondary memory types:
 Magnetic Storage Devices
 Optical Storage Devices
 Flash Memory Devices
 Online Cloud System
Magnetic Storage Devices:In the Magnetic storage devices, all data are stored
with using magnetized medium, and those types of data saved in that medium in the
binary form like as 0 and 1. This magnetic storage has also non-volatile storage
nature. Today’s, mostly people are preferred to magnetic medium because on the
magnetic storage devices can be performed read/write activities very easily. Magnetic
storage devices have huge capacities for storing data that it’s more attractive point.
These storage devices are not more costly but their data accessing power is slow, but
this magnetic mechanism also to be used in the RAM that have good data accessing
power to other.
Optical Storage Devices : In the optical storage devices, all read and write
activities are performed by light. All recording information stores at an optical disk.
As per the opinions of data scientist that compact space is most useful for huge data
storage. Their big advantages are not more costly, light weight, and easy to transport
because
Flash Memory Devices : Flash Memory was introduced by Dr. Fujio Masuoka in
1980. Flash memory is also known as electronically erasable programmable read
only memory (EEPROM), because in which piece of  code like as programming can
be write and erased by electrically. Flash memory also uses for the storing data to
computers as well as electronic devices such as USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital
cameras and solid-state drives. Flash memory is non volatile in nature because all
data are persisted in the memory when power is turn-off.
Online Cloud System: Clouding is systematically model for storing data in
computer, and in which entire data are stored in logically nature. Those clouding
system are managed by other hosting companies. With the help of online clouding,
all data can be access by couples of users anytime and anywhere. Big advantages are
not place limitation as well as no need carry any storage device.

Q.7.write shorts notes on

1.) Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer
networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between
networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a
broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-
linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide
Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.
The origins of the Internet date back to the development of packet switching and
research commissioned by the United States Department of Defense in the 1960s to
enable time-sharing of computers.[1] The primary precursor network, the ARPANET,
initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military
networks in the 1970s. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a
new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial
extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking
technologies, and the merger of many networks.[2] The linking of commercial
networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of the transition
to the modern Internet,[3] and generated a sustained exponential growth as
generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the
network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the
1980s, commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually
every aspect of modern life.
Most traditional communication media, including telephony, radio, television, paper
mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet,
giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephony, Internet
television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites.
Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or
are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The Internet has
enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant
messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services. Online shopping has
grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses, and entrepreneurs, as it
enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar" presence to serve a larger market or
even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial
services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.
The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological
implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its
own policies.[4] The overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the
Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name
System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and
standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants
that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.[5] In November
2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of New Seven Wonders.[6]

2.) Input /output device

Input and Output Devices of Computer
The devices which are used to input the data and the programs in the computer are
known as “Input Devices“. or  Input device can read data and convert them to a
form that a computer can use. Output Device can produce the final product of
machine processing into a form usable by humans. It provides man to machine
communication. Some of the I/O devices are explained below:
(1) Keyboard : Keyboard is used in the input phase of a computer-
based information system. Keyboard is most common input device is used today. The
data and instructions are input by typing on the keyboard. The message typed on the
keyboard reaches the memory unit of a computer. It’s connected to a computer via a
cable. Apart from alphabet and numeral keys, it has other function keys for
performing different functions.

(2) Mouse : It’s a pointing device. The mouse is rolled over the mouse pad, which in
turn controls the movement of the cursor in the screen. We can click, double click or
drag the mouse. Most of the mouse’s have a ball beneath them, which rotates when
the mouse in moved. The ball has 2 wheels of the sides, which in turn mousse with
the movement of the ball. The sensor notifies the speed of its movements to the
computer, which in turn moves the cursor/pointer on the screen.

(3) Scanner : Scanners are used to enter information directly in to the

computers memory. This device works like a Xerox machine. The scanner converts
any type of printed or written information including photographs into digital pulses,
which can be manipulated by the computer.

(4) Track Ball : Track ball is similar to the upside- down design of the mouse. The
user moves the ball directly, while the device itself remains stationary. The user spins
the ball in various directions to effect the screen movements.

(5) Light Pen : This is an input device which is used to draw lines or figures on a
computer screen. It’s touched to the CRT screen where it can detect raster on the
screen as it passes.
(6) Optical Character Rader : It’s a device which detects alpha numeric
characters printed or written on a paper. The text which is to be scanned is
illuminated by a low frequency light source. The light is absorbed by the dark areas
but reflected from the bright areas. The reflected light is received by the photocells.

(7) Bar Code Reader : This device reads bar codes and coverts them into electric
pulses to be processed by a computer. A bar code is nothing but data coded in form of
light and dark bars.

(8) Voice Input Systems : This devices converts spoken words to M/C language
form. A micro phone is used to convert human speech into electric signals. The signal
pattern is then transmitted to a computer when it’s compared to a dictionary of
patterns that have been previously placed in a storage unit of computer. When a close
match is found, the word is recognized.
(9) Plotter : Plotter is an O/P device that is used to produce graphical O/P on
papers. It uses single color or multi color pens to draw pictures as blue print etc.
(10) Digital Camera : It converts graphics directly into digital form. It looks like an
ordinary camera, but no film is used therein, instead a CCD (changed coupled
Divide) Electronic chip in used. When light falls, on the chip though the lens, it
converts light waves into electrical waves.

Q8. What is an operating system and what are the functions of an

operating system and types of operating system.

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer

hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer
programs.
 Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and
may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass
storage, printing, and other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the
operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer
hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the
hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is interrupted by it.
Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from
cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
The dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share
of around 76.45%. macOS by Apple Inc. is in second place (17.72%), and the varieties
of Linux are collectively in third place (1.73%).[3] In the mobile sector (including
smartphones and tablets), Android's share is up to 72% in the year 2020.[4] According
to third quarter 2016 data, Android's share on smartphones is dominant with 87.5
percent with also a growth rate of 10.3 percent per year, followed by Apple's iOS with
12.1 percent with per year decrease in market share of 5.2 percent, while other
operating systems amount to just 0.3 percent.[5] Linux distributions are dominant in
the server and supercomputing sectors. Other specialized classes of operating
systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications.
Functions of an operating System:

1. Security –The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar
other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.
2. Control over system performance –Monitors overall system health to help improve
performance. records the response time between service requests and system response to
have a complete view of the system health. This can help improve performance by providing
important information needed to troubleshoot problems.
3. Job accounting –Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks
and users, this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group
of user.
4. Error detecting aids –Operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and
avoid the malfunctioning of computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users –Operating systems also coordinate and
assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.
6. Memory Management –The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Main memory is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or
word is assigned a certain address. Main memory is a fast storage and it can be accessed
directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it should be first loaded in the main
memory. An Operating System performs the following activities for memory management:
It keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory addresses
of the memory that has not yet been used. In multi programming, the OS decides the order in
which process are granted access to memory, and for how long. It Allocates the memory to a
process when the process requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has
terminated or is performing an I/O operation.
7. Processor Management –In a multi programming environment, the OS decides the order in
which processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each process
has. This function of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating System performs the
following activities for processor management.
Keeps tracks of the status of processes. The program which perform this task is known as
traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is processor to a process. De-allocates processor
when a process is no more required.
8. Device Management –An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers.
It performs the following activities for device management. Keeps tracks of all devices
connected to system. designates a program responsible for every device known as the
Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets access to a certain device and for how
long. Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are
no longer required.
9. File Management –A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy
navigation and usage. These directories may contain other directories and other files. An
Operating System carries out the following file management activities. It keeps track of
where information is stored, user access settings and status of every file and more… These
facilities are collectively known as the file system.

Types of operating systems

Single-tasking and multi-tasking:A single-tasking system can only run one
program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating system allows more than one
program to be running in concurrency. This is achieved by time-sharing, where the
available processor time is divided between multiple processes. These processes are
each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task-scheduling subsystem of the
operating system. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-
operative types. In preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices
the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating
systems, such as Solaris and Linux—as well as non-Unix-like, such as AmigaOS—
support preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on
each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-
bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking; 32-bit versions of
both Windows NT and Win9x used preemptive multi-tasking.
Single- and multi-user:Single-user operating systems have no facilities to
distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem.[6] A multi-
user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with facilities that
identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to multiple users, and
the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time. Time-
sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also
include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage,
printing, and other resources to multiple users.
Distributed:A distributed operating system manages a group of
distinct, networked computers and makes them appear to be a single computer, as all
computations are distributed (divided amongst the constituent computers).[7]
Templated:In the distributed and cloud computing context of an
OS, templating refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating
system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines. The technique
is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in
large server warehouses.[8]
Embedded;Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded
computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines with less
autonomy (e.g. PDAs). They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, and
are able to operate with a limited amount of resources. Windows CE and Minix 3 are
some examples of embedded operating systems.
Real-time:A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to
process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system
may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized
scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. Such an
event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external
events, whereas time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on
clock interrupts.
Library:A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical
operating system provides, such as networking, are provided in the form
of libraries and composed with the application and configuration code to construct
a unikernel: a specialized, single address space, machine image that can be deployed
to cloud or embedded environments.

Q.9.What is loop structure (looping) is QBASIC or FOX PRO?

Loop Structures (Visual Basic)

1. While Loops
2. Do Loops
3. For Loops
4. For Each Loops

Visual Basic loop structures allow you to run one or more lines of code repetitively.
You can repeat the statements in a loop structure until a condition is True, until a
condition is False, a specified number of times, or once for each element in a
collection.

The following illustration shows a loop structure that runs a set of statements until a
condition becomes true:
While Loops : The While...End While construction runs a set of statements as long
as the condition specified in the While statement is True. For more information,
see While...End While Statement.

Do Loops : The Do...Loop construction allows you to test a condition at either the

beginning or the end of a loop structure. You can also specify whether to repeat the
loop while the condition remains True or until it becomes True

For Loops : The For...Next construction performs the loop a set number of times. It

uses a loop control variable, also called a counter, to keep track of the repetitions.
You specify the starting and ending values for this counter, and you can optionally
specify the amount by which it increases from one repetition to the next.

For Each Loops : The For Each...Next construction

runs a set of statements once
for each element in a collection. You specify the loop control variable, but you do not
have to determine starting or ending values for it.

Q.10.What is DBMS? ? What are the advantage and disadvantage of

DBMS.
DBMS software primarily functions as an interface between the end user and the
database, simultaneously managing the data, the database engine, and the database
schema in order to facilitate the organization and manipulation of data.
Though functions of DBMS vary greatly, general-purpose DBMS features and
capabilities should include: a user accessible catalog describing metadata, DBMS
library management system, data abstraction and independence, data security,
logging and auditing of activity, support for concurrency and transactions, support
for authorization of access, access support from remote locations, DBMS data
recovery support in the event of damage, and enforcement of constraints to ensure
the data follows certain rules.
A database schema design technique that functions to increase clarity in organizing
data is referred to as normalization. Normalization in DBMS modifies an existing
schema to minimize redundancy and dependency of data by splitting a large table
into smaller tables and defining the relationship between them. DBMS Output is a
built-in package SQL in DBMS that enables the user to display debugging
information and output, and send messages from subprograms, packages, PL/SQL
blocks, and triggers. Oracle originally developed the DBMS File Transfer package,
which provides procedures to copy a binary file within a database or to transfer a
binary file between databases.
A database management system functions through the use of system commands, first
receiving instructions from a database administrator in DBMS, then instructing the
system accordingly, either to retrieve data, modify data, or load existing data from
the system. Popular DBMS examples include cloud-based database management
systems, in-memory database management systems (IMDBMS), columnar database
management systems (CDBMS), and NoSQL in DBMS.

Advantage and Disadvantages of DBMS

Advantage of DBMS

1. Improved data sharing:

 The DBMS helps create an environment in which end users have better access to more and
better-managed data.
 Such access makes it possible for end users to respond quickly to changes in their environment.

2. Improved data security:

 The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data security breaches.Corporations
invest considerable amounts of time, effort, and money to ensure that corporate data are used
properly.
 A DBMS provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy and security policies.

3. Better data integration:

 Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of the organization’s
operations and a clearer view of the big picture.
 It becomes much easier to see how actions in one segment of the company affect other
segments.

4. Minimized data inconsistency:

 Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in different places.
 For example, data inconsistency exists when a company’s sales department stores a sales
representative’s name as “Bill Brown” and the company’s personnel department stores that
same person’s name as “William G. Brown,” or when the company’s regional sales office shows
 the price of a product as $45.95 and its national sales office shows the same product’s price as
$43.95.
 The probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly designed database.

5. Improved data access:

 The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries.
 From a database perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS for data
manipulation—for example, to read or update the data. Simply put, a query is a question, and an
ad hoc query is a spur-of-the-moment question.
 The DBMS sends back an answer (called the query result set) to the application.
 For example, end users

6. Improved decision making:

 Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate better-quality
information, on which better decisions are based.
 The quality of the information generated depends on the quality of the underlying data.
 Data quality is a comprehensive approach to promoting the accuracy, validity, and timeliness of
the data. While the DBMS does not guarantee data quality, it provides a framework to facilitate
data quality initiatives.
 Increased end-user productivity
 The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable information,
empowers end users to make quick, informed decisions that can make the difference between
success and failure in the global economy.

Disadvantage of DBMS

1. Increased costs:
 Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly skilled personnel.
 The cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and manage
a database system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and regulation compliance costs are
often overlooked when database systems are implemented.

2. Management complexity:
 Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a significant impact on a
company’s resources and culture.
 The changes introduced by the adoption of a database system must be properly managed to
ensure that they help advance the company’s objectives. Given the fact that database systems
hold crucial company data that are accessed from multiple sources, security issues must be
assessed constantly.

3. Maintaining currency:
 To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your system current.
 Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches and security
measures to all components.
  Because database technology advances rapidly, personnel training costs tend to be significant.
Vendor dependence.
 Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training, companies might be reluctant
to change database vendors.

4. Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles:

 DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality. Such new features
often come bundled in new upgrade versions of the software.
 Some of these versions require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades themselves cost
money, but it also costs money to train database users and administrators to properly use and
manage the new features.

Q11. What is RDBMS? Difference between DBMS and RDBMS.

Stands for "Relational Database Management System." An RDBMS is
a DBMS designed specifically for relational databases. Therefore, RDBMSes are a
subset of DBMSes.
A relational database refers to a database that stores data in a structured format,
using rows and columns. This makes it easy to locate and access specific values
within the database. It is "relational" because the values within each table are related
to each other. Tables may also be related to other tables. The relational structure
makes it possible to run queries across multiple tables at once.
While a relational database describes the type of database an RDMBS manages, the
RDBMS refers to the database program itself. It is the software that executes queries
on the data, including adding, updating, and searching for values. An RDBMS may
also provide a visual representation of the data. For example, it may display data in a
tables like a spreadsheet, allowing you to view and even edit individual values in the
table. Some RDMBS programs allow you to create forms that can streamline
entering, editing, and deleting data.
Most well known DBMS applications fall into the RDBMS category. Examples
include Oracle Database, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, and IBM DB2. Some of
these programs support non-relational databases, but they are primarily used for
relational database management.
Examples of non-relational databases include Apache HBase, IBM Domino, and
Oracle NoSQL Database. These type of databases are managed by other DMBS
programs that support NoSQL, which do not fall into the RDBMS category.

Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

The main differences between DBMS and RDBMS are given below:

No. DBMS RDBMS

1 DBMS RDBMS applications

) applications store data in a tabular
store data as form.
file.

2 In DBMS, data is In RDBMS, the tables

) generally stored have an identifier called
in either a primary key and the
hierarchical form data values are stored in
or a navigational the form of tables.
form.

3 Normalization Normalization
) is not present in is present in RDBMS.
DBMS.

4 DBMS does not RDBMS defines the

) apply any integrity constraint for
security with the purpose of ACID
regards to data (Atomocity, Consistency,
manipulation. Isolation and Durability)
property.

5 DBMS uses file in RDBMS, data values

) system to store are stored in the form of
data, so there will tables, so
be no relation a relationship between
between the these data values will be
tables. stored in the form of a
table as well.

6 DBMS has to RDBMS system supports

) provide some a tabular structure of
uniform methods the data and a
to access the relationship between
stored them to access the
information. stored information.

7 DBMS does not RDBMS supports

) support distributed database.
distributed
database.
 8 DBMS is meant to RDBMS is designed
) be for small to handle large
organization amount of data. it
and deal with supports multiple
small data. it users.
supports single
user.

9 Examples of Example of RDBMS

) DBMS are file are mysql, postgre, sq
systems, xml etc l server, oracle etc.
.

Q12.What is sorting and indexing in FOX PRO.

Q14.Write shorts notes on FOX PRO commands?