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Classification and assessment of geothermal resources

Chapter · June 1990

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Manfred P. Hochstein
University of Auckland
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Geophysics: Resistivity traversing (DC-methods) different depth penetration; DC-resistivitv
soundings (one station per km2); temperature logging in 10 to 30 m deep holes (one per km1)
over areas with low apparent resistivity; simple structural investigations (gravity survey for
example); complete delineation of suspected outflows.
High Temperature Prospects
The foregoing studies listed in the above paragraph can also be used to explore high
temperature prospects. The following programmes can be added:
Geology: Analysis of regional. tectoni.cs �u. sing satel�te imagery); geohydrological studies;
collection of data related to reg10nal se1snuc1ty, volcanic hazards, slope stability.
Geochemistry: Gas sampling of all steam vents; Hg, As and gases in soils.
Geophysics: Complete heat loss survey; investigation of resistivity structure near suspected
boundaries.
Many o.ther geophysical methods �i. e. seismic surveys micro-earthquake studies, airborne
magnetic surveys, magnetoteUunc and controlled source magnetotelluric surveys, etc.)
have been used to explo!e the stru�ture of geothermal reservoirs (see Goldstein, 1989);
most of these are expensive or reqmre contractors. They can be used in follow-up studies
if expansion of any small scale utilization is to be considered.
When exploration studies are completed a pre-feasibility study of the whole prospect is
�ttempted. If the �pe of system and its hydrological setting has been properly recognized, an
mtegrated exploration model can be constructed that explains the main findings of all earth
science studies. Using inferred physical properties of the reservoir rocks, an assessment of the
power. potential of the exploration model could be attempted (see Fig. 2.5, steps 3a,b).
Expenence has shown, however, that there are too many uncertainties; it is now common
practice to defer such an assessment until results from exploration wells become available. The
pre-feasibility study should also contain a cost analysis of any possible utilization scheme using
th� ·:ene!gy replacement. c�st". concept, and clear recommendations a� to whether exploration
dnllmg 1s feasible. If drillmg 1s recommended the study should contain information about the
sites of . these wells, details related to site preparation, the casing programme, and suggested
completion tests.
Development of an adequate exploration model at the pre-feasibility stage has always
been a difficult task. Many examples show that inadequate exploration models have been used
in the past to locate expensive exploration wells. Two major sources of error leading to
inadequate exploration models are:
(a) misidentification of reservoir type (often due to incorrect estimates of likely reservoir
temperature); and
(b) misinterpretation of discharge features and of geophysical anomalies over outflow
structures.
A detailed discussion of both types of error has been given by Hochstein (1988) together
with recommendations as to how these errors can be avoided.
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Classification assessment
ASSESSMENT GEOTIIERMAL RESOURCES DRILLING)
There is not much information in the literature that discusses how many exploration wells
should be drilled to explore a geothermal prospect. For small plant development the number of
these wells has to be kept to a minimum to maintain economic viability and to reduce "sunken"
costs.
For exploration of fracture zone reservoirs spring systems, fracture zone systems
with narrow fracture zone reservoir and fracture zone systems with high temperatures at
sweep base) at least two deeper wells (usually about 0.5 km depth) are required. For
exploration of wider fracture zones (fracture zone syst.em wide fracture �o� and
larger systems interme�iate temperatures) and of high temperature reservo!rs m flat
terrain, at least three non-aligned (commonly about 1 to 1.5 km depth) exploration wells
are required. Less ex�nsive, small diameter wells of about 0.5. km dept� h.av� been used
in the past to explore high temperature prospects; however, their productivity 1s often not
sufficient for later utilization. Because of this, exploration wells now have the same
specifications as production wells. In mountainous terr.ain the top of .the h?t fluids can
lie a few hundred meters beneath the surface; exploration wells m this setting are now
drilled to at least 2 km depth. Exploration of inferred outflows might require only two
wells if they can be sited along the axis of the concealed outflow; since thickness of the
outflow is limited, depth of exploration wells is determined by the thickness of the
outflow.
Spacing between exploratory wells should be such that a significant portion of t�e
inferred reservoir is covered; on the other hand, the distance should be not so large that fluid
transmission costs are too high if any productive exploration well were tied into the fluid­
gathering network of the plant. A distance of 1 to 1.5 km between adjacent exploration wells
appears to be a good compromise.
Once an exploration well has been drilled and produces thermal fluids (discovery well),
the exploration model is reviewed to incorporate all important reservoir characteristics as
indicated by the discovery well. If there ar� any uncertainties �n the explor�tion model as �o the
type of system, the discovery well solves this problem. The revised exploration model constitutes
the first conceptual reservoir model (see step 5 in Fig. 2.5). Important features of adequate
conceptual models have been summarized by Grant et al. (1982) and Grant (1983). The first
conceptual reservoir model is commonly used to assess a minimum potential of the prospect.
Two methods have often been used in the past, namely, the recovery method and the planar
fracture method.
The inferred recovery method (volume n:iethod) has been discussed in de�l by �uffler
and Cataldi (1978) and Muffler (1981). For this method, the stored energy estimate 1s used,
together with assumptions about the efficiency (recovery factor) with which heat stored in the
fluids and in the reservoir rocks can be extracted. The efficiency is controlled by the average
permeability structure inside and outside the reservoir.
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 M. P. Hochstein

Table 2.1 Assessment of minimum power and mass flow potential of two geothermal
reservoirs
Fuzhou (China) Wairakei (NZ)

Reservoir type: low temperature, high temperature,

fracture zone reservoir hot water reservoir
Surface characteristics:
Manifestations minor warm springs boiling springs,
fumaroles
steaming ground
Onat(MWJ/T0( ° C) = 5/22 = 300/12
Nat. upflow rate (kg/s)
at bottom of prod. reservoir = 18 = 270
Parameters ofproductive reservoir (conservative estimates):
Area (km2)/volume (km3) 2.251>/0.18 � 102>1� 5
Bottom depth (m)/initial T ( ° C) 500 / 90 800 / = 255
Top depth (m) /initial T ( ° C) 50 I 65 300 / = 235
Porosity/recovery factor � 0.1 / 0.75 = 0.25 I 0.5
Utilization characteristics:
Utilization industrial heat/baths electricity plant
Endpoint Tt ( ° C) 45 180
Minimum thermal power potential (relative to TJ:
Fracture method (MWJ 7 � 3003>
Recovery method (MWJ 14 � 5004>
Av. produced (MWJ = 25 1500-2000
Indicated mass flow potential:
Fracture method (kg/s) 75 n.a.
Recovery method (kg/s) 150 n.a.
Av. produced (kg/s)/period (yr) = 200/12 1500-20Q05>/30
Note: the following parameters are common to both reservoirs: matrix density
of reservoir rocks: 2600 kg/m3 ; heat capacity: 0.9 kJ/kg K; assumed life
of plant 30 yr.
l) given area relates to that of vertical fracture zone (80 m width) between 0.05 and 0.5 km depth
2) inferred horizontal extent of productive aquifer (Waiora Formation);
3) four stacked aquifers assumed (125 m each), intergranula flow model;
4) includes ""'50 MW, from naturally transferred heat;
5) two-phase mixture.

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