EU-Lebanon Relations

Content
Introduction ……………………………………………………… 2

History of EU-Lebanon Relations ………………………………. 3

Theory of External Governance ………………………………… 5

Europeanization of Neighbors: The Case of Lebanon ………… 9

Conclusion ………………………………………………………... 12

References ………………………………………………………… 13

Introduction

Although EU-Lebanon relations were not established formally until the

beginning of the 2nd millennium, Lebanon’s relations with European countries, which

1
are member-states of EU today, were cultivated decades ago. Lebanon has been under

the mandate of France from 1919 to 1943. Thus, Lebanon has relatively been more

exposed to European culture, politics and governance since the early 20th century than

any other country in the Middle East.

Besides its historical encounter with European countries, Lebanon’s

strategically important geographical position in the Middle East as well as its

proximity to Europe, have attracted both regional and remote super powers to invest

in the country’s internal and external affairs. Most recently, the withdrawal of the

Syrian military troops from Lebanon in 2005, de jure ended Syria’s interference in

Lebanon’s political affairs. The withdrawal of Syrian forces also created a relatively

free platform for other powers to fill the created vacuum. Besides regional powers,

EU in tune with its “Europeanization” process beyond its formal borders has been

successful in entering the new platform through its “European Neighborhood Policy”.

In some spheres EU has been successful in implementing its external governance

policies in Lebanon, but in others the work is still in progress.

Both Lebanon and the EU have mutual benefits from the bilateral relations

they have established. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the history of EU-

Lebanon relations as well as apply the Europeanization theory of external governance

in discovering the mutual benefits of the EU-Lebanon relations.

History of EU-Lebanon Relations

Most of the neighbors included in the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP),

including Lebanon, have engaged with the EU on trade, development, and economic

matters many years before the conception of the ENP. Lebanon’s relation with EU

2
dates back to 1965 with the establishment of Trade and Technical Cooperation

Agreement (Action Plan for EU-Lebanon Partnership and Cooperation 2013-2015).

But the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP), also known as the Barcelona Process

(Pace, 2007; Kausch & Youngs, 2009), created more intense relations . The Barcelona

Declaration and the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (1995) emphasizes the

importance of political dialogue of the participating neighbors and aim to create peace

and stability in the region through the establishment of democracy, rule of law,

sustainable development, and human rights. In the sphere of economic and financial

partnership, it emphasizes the gradual establishment of free trade, and sustainable

socio-economic development. Finally, in the sphere of social, cultural, and human

partnership the agreement emphasizes on establishing intercultural dialogue, which

includes different people, cultures, and religions (Barcelona declaration, 1995).

With the above-mentioned three dimensions, the Barcelona Process was

launched in November 1995 with the participation of the Foreign Affairs Ministers of

27 countries, 15 of which were member states of EU. The rest were countries in the

region of the Mediterranean, such as Lebanon (www.eeas.europa.eu).

After the widest round of enlargement of the European Union, the European

Neighborhood Policy (ENP), which was launched in 2004 and put in force in 2006 (in

Lebanon), provided an explicit framework for EU’s further Europeanization beyond

its newly enlarged borders (Aydin, 2012; Lavenex, 2011). The European

Neighborhood Policy (ENP) is directed towards sixteen neighbors to the South and

the East surrounding the EU’s new borders (Aydin, 2012). With the establishment of

the ENP, EU seeks to promote democracy, political stability, and socio-economic

sustainable development in Lebanon. The EU-Lebanon Association Agreement,

which was part of the Euro-Mediterranean Agreement, laid the ground for political

dialogue and enhanced trade between the EU and Lebanon (www.eeas.europa.eu).

3
The detailed actions of the objectives mentioned in the EU-Lebanon Association

Agreement was provided in first EU-Lebanon Action Plan. After the uprisings in the

Arab World, a revised version of the Action Plan was published in 2011 to address

the consequences of the spillover of Arab Spring into Lebanon.

The ENP reflects a bilateral policy between EU and the partner country based

on mutual benefits, obligations, and incentives. The motives behind these bilateral

relations include primarily liberalization of market and economic integration, which

allow free movement of goods, capital, and persons, as well as contribute to

sustainable development (Aydin, 2012).

Besides organizating developmental programs and promotion of welfare and

democracy, EU also aids Lebanon through annual financial assistance. Lebanon

yearly receives around 50 million Euros from the European Neighborhood Instrument

(www.eeas.europa.eu).

Theory of External Governance

Europeanization, which is the core principle of the European Union, has

extended outside the formal borders of the Union. Besides the member states, the

quasi-member countries, the candidate countries, the neighborhood countries, the

OECD world, as well as other regions have also been and continue to be exposed to

some sort of Europeanization by the EU each on different levels and scopes

4
(Schimmerflennig, 2010). The phenomenon of externalization, that is the effort the

EU makes to cross its own borders in promoting its principles and policies, proves to

be multilateral with a unique theory of governance with several components

(Schimmelflennig, 2010). Over the past few decades, EU has created institutions,

which aid in implementing its governance beyond the borders of the member states.

These institutions primarily serve the purpose of aligning countries with the rules and

policies of EU and thus creating interdependence between the EU and the given

country (Lavenex, 2011; Schimmelfennig, 2010).

From the perspective of the countries that consider cooperating with EU, the

assumption of “domestic analogy” is valid. This analogy presumes that these

countries seek international environment whose principles are in tune with its own

domestic policies (Schimmelfennig, 2010). On the other hand, this phenomenon also

serves the political and economic interests of the international unions such as the EU.

Among other factors, “domestic analogy” presents itself as a core motive behind the

will of cooperation (directly or indirectly), and the creation of interdependence

between polities and EU.

According to Schimmelfennig (2010), the theory of the external governance of

EU relies on two types of powers: “civilian power” and “normative power” both of

which are soft powers. “Civilian power” is the antithesis of hard power, which is

mainly implemented by the use of military force. The Author emphasizes that the EU

relies on soft powers such as civil instruments that are reflected in the EU model. The

“normative power” reflects the dominance of EU values and principles, such as peace,

human rights, liberty, etc. in the EU environment, which comprises member states

and those polities, which are affected by EU external governance (Schimmelflennig,

2010).

5
 Schimmelfennig (2010) identifies three main principles on which the

European governance is based on. The First principle is related to the formation of

supranational institutions through which the EU achieves its principle of regional and

economic integration, as well as promotion of welfare even in remote regions.

Second, EU aims at creating transnational institutions and markets to liberalize

economy (Lavenex, 2011). The final principle of EU external governance reflects the

promotion of constitutional norms compatible with democracy both in country’s

internal and external affairs. In addition to the above-mentioned principles, EU

governance also has with issue-specific policies in dealing with both member and

non-member states (Lavenex, 2011).

Schimmelflennig (2010) states that the EU takes a pro-active role in

implementing Europeanization through direct mechanisms, which rely on

conditionality and socialization. Conditionality as suggested by the word, requires the

external actors to meet the conditions set by the EU governance rules. Socialization is

based on EU’s efforts in disseminating its government principles to outside actors.

According to the author, EU also relies on indirect mechanisms of Europeanization or

external governance through indirectly affecting the behavior of external actors. In

this case, the actors voluntarily adopt EU rules, especially the ones related to market.

This process is referred to as “Externalization”. Another indirect mechanism is

“Imitation”, through which external actors idolize EU models of governance because

they believe that EU rules and policies address their own problems properly

(Schimmelfennig, 2010).

The motives behind Socialization and Imitation are based on EU’s authority

and legitimacy, as well as the uncertainty of the outside actors. While the motives

behind Conditionality and Externalization are the possible reinforcements that the

actors might receive after adopting and properly following EU governance rules. In

6
case of Conditionality the consequences are more rigorous, while the consequences of

Externalization mainly refer to market gains.

As stated by Schimmelfennig (2010), the scope of Europeanization covers five

concentric circles, three of which are governed through direct mechanisms. The

strongest economic interdependence, in the form of market regulation, exists between

quasi-members and the EU, mainly because Europeanization in this case is based on

strong conditions applied through conditionality and externalization. Another circle

comprises candidate countries, whose interdependence is not restricted to merely

market regulation, but expands to include all kinds of rules and regulations

conditioned by EU. As of 2004, EU has introduced the European Neighborhood

Policy (ENP), which is directed towards non-candidate neighboring countries and is

an alternative of membership (Lavenex, 2011). This circle later expanded to include

countries within the regions of the Middle East and North Africa. Europeanization in

these regions takes place through conditionality and socialization, which creates

medium dependence on EU, whose impact is evaluated as medium as well

(Schimmelfennig, 2010). The OECD countries are among those in which

Europeanization is implemented through externalization and mainly tackles market

regulation. In the absence of conditionality, medium interdependence rather than a

strong one is created. The final circle includes remote regions such as Latin America,

Southeast Asia, and Africa, where external governance takes place through imitation

and socialization. These regions are weakly interdependent with EU, whose impact is

evaluated to be weak as well.

7
Europeanization of Neighbors: The Case of Lebanon

EU’s bilateral relations with Lebanon can be studied within the framework of

the ENP, which brings the country closer to the Union’s aquis communautaire and

promotes democratic norms in the country (Lavenex, 2011). Besides the contractual

relations that bound Lebanon to EU, conditionality (direct) and socialization (indirect)

are the two mechanisms through which EU establishes interdependence with

Lebanon. Conditionality is dependent from the consequences Lebanon might face in

case it does not comply with the rules and regulations that are provided by EU

policies. The main reinforcement that Lebanon can receive from EU is the financial

assistance. Socialization is illustrated in Lebanon’s voluntary acceptance to adopt and

8
comply with EU rules, as well as EU’s training programs aimed at spreading its

values and model of governance in Lebanon.

EU has been a legitimate source of democratization and efficient governance

in Lebanon through the latter’s adoption of the union’s governance model. The

universal values of human rights, rule of law, freedom and justice have been adopted

from EU’s model (Action Plan for EU-Lebanon Partnership and Cooperation, 2013-

2015).

Lebanon’s voluntary rapprochement with EU is mainly derived from the

country’s belief that EU’s model is most appropriate for addressing Lebanon’s

internal problems that are related to the weakness and inefficiency of the political

institutions, security, and conflict resolution (Programming of the ENP-2014-2020).

The civilian power of EU’s external governance is reflected in the ENP, where

it is stated that the EU will support the country’s justice sector reforms through

capacity building and training at the Judicial Studies Institute. EU also aims at

supporting the Lebanese Parliament in adopting more efficient ways of governance

and implementation of electoral reform. Among many other sectors, the bilateral

relations also aim at improving the policy research capacity of the Lebanese

government by training the staff.

The following table shows the priorities and budget allocations of EU’s

financial assistance to Lebanon which ranges from EUR 130,000,000 to EUR

150,000,000 based on the Action Plan for years 2014-2016 (Single Support

Framework for EU support to Lebanon 2014-2016).

Justice and Security System Reform 15 %

Reinforcing Social Cohesion, Promoting 40%

Sustainable Economic Development and
Protecting Vulnerable
Groups
Promotion of Sustainable and Transparent 20%
Management of Energy and Natural

9
Resources
Complementary Support for Capacity 25%
Development and
Civil Society
Table 1. Financial overview of EU’s priorities and allocations in Lebanon

EU and Lebanon have officially established their bilateral relations through

the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement, which was implemented in 2006

(Action Plan for EU-Lebanon Partnership and Cooperation, 2013-2015). Most of the

articles in this agreement either mention or revolve around the values of democracy,

human rights and fundamental freedoms. These reflect the normative power of EU’s

external governance.

The three principles of EU governance argued by Shcimmelfenning (2010) are

present in the bilateral EU-Lebanon relations. Economic integration and market

regulation plans are evident in the objectives mentioned in the Single Support

Framework for EU support to Lebanon 2014-2016. The main objectives of this

principle include creating an environment that allows the growth of investments and

businesses sin the country, harmonizing the education system with the needs of the

labor market, and improve working conditions. The reforms promoted by the EU in

Lebanon’s judiciary, social, educational, managerial, and the sphere of civil society

reflect the principle of constitutional norms promotion.

10
Conclusion

The European Neighborhood Policy allows for both parties to mutually benefit

from the experience of interdependence and cooperation in the spheres of economic

integration and promotion of democracy. The relations between EU and Lebanon

throughout history have been productive and seem to be intensifying. EU has

successfully implemented its governance beyond borders policy in Lebanon.

EU also cooperates with Lebanon on situation-specific issues, such as the

Arab Spring and the increase of the number of refugees in the country. The revised

European Neighborhood Policy, which provides a provisional plan for the years 2014-

2016, tackles the issue of Syrian refugees in Lebanon. It mainly aims at creating

better health, educational, living, and employment conditions for the refugees.

To further consolidate its relation with EU and maximize its benefit from this

11
cooperation Lebanon should comply with EU’s regulations of sustainable

development with respect to the energy resources. Lebanon should work on limiting

the hours of electricity cut in the country and develop a more efficient way of

managing its renewable energy resources (Implementation of the European

Neighborhood Policy in Lebanon Progress in 2013 and recommendations for action)

According to the annual report of progress (2013) Lebanon should also harmonize its

economic as well as trade regulations with the recommendations of ENP. Lebanon

should also put more effort in establishing political dialogue between its internal

actors.

References

Action Plan for EU-Lebanon Partnership and Cooperation 2013-2015

Action Plan for EU-Lebanon Partnership and Cooperation 2014-2016

Aydn, S. (2012). “European Neighborhood Policy: The case of Egypt, Jordan,

Lebanon, Occupied Palestine and Tunisia. The Journal of International Social
Research, 22(5).

Euro-Mediterranean Agreement. (2006). Official Journal of the European Union,

143(2).

Kausch, K. & Youngs, R. (2009). “The End of the ‘Euro-Mediterranean vision’”,

International Affairs, 85(5), 963-975

Lavenex, S. (2011). Concentric circles of flexible ‘EUropean’integration:

A typology of EU external governance relations. Comparative
European Politics,9(4), 372-393.

JOINT STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT. (2014) Implementation of the European

Neighbourhood Policy in Lebanon Progress in 2013 and recommendations
for action

12
Pace, M. (2007). “Norm shifting from EMP to ENP: the EU as a norm entrepreneur
in the south?”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 20(4)

Schimmelfennig, F. (2010). Europeanization beyond the member states.

Zeitschrisft fur Staats- und Wueopawissenschaften

www.eeas.europa.eu

13