Chemistry Study Notes

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HSC Chemistry Dot Point Study Notes – www.EasyChem.com.au Sold to

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Contents
Extract from HSC Chemistry Syllabus.................................................................................................. 3
Module 5: Equilibrium and Acid Reactions ....................................................................................... 13
Static and Dynamic Equilibrium .................................................................................................... 13
Factors that Affect Equilibrium ..................................................................................................... 17
Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq) .................................................................................. 21
Solution Equilibria ......................................................................................................................... 27
Module 6: Acid/Base Reactions ........................................................................................................ 33
Properties of Acids and Bases ....................................................................................................... 33
Using Brønsted–Lowry Theory ...................................................................................................... 40
Quantitative Analysis .................................................................................................................... 46
Module 7: Organic Chemistry ........................................................................................................... 57
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................... 57
Hydrocarbons ................................................................................................................................ 64
Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons ............................................................................ 70
Alcohols ......................................................................................................................................... 72
Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases........................................................................................... 80
Polymers ....................................................................................................................................... 87
Module 8: Applying Chemical Ideas .................................................................................................. 92
Analysis of Inorganic Substances .................................................................................................. 92
Analysis of Organic Substances ..................................................................................................... 99
Chemical Synthesis and Design ................................................................................................... 101
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HSC Chemistry Dot Point Study Notes – www.EasyChem.com.au
Extract from HSC Chemistry Syllabus
Module 5: Equilibrium and Acid Reactions
Outcomes
A student:
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a
range of appropriate media CH11/12-4
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information CH11/12-5
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes CH11/12-6
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific
audience or purpose CH11/12-7
› explains the characteristics of equilibrium systems, and the factors that affect these systems
CH12-12
Content Focus
Chemical systems may be open or closed. They include physical changes and chemical reactions that
can result in observable changes to a system. Students study the effects of changes in temperature,
concentration of chemicals and pressure on equilibrium systems, and consider that these can be
predicted by applying Le Chatelier’s principle. Students also analyse the quantitative relationship
between products and reactants in equilibrium reactions to determine an equilibrium constant.
From this calculation, they predict the equilibrium position, either favouring the formation of
products or reactants in a chemical reaction.
This module also allows students to understand that scientific knowledge enables scientists to offer
valid explanations and make reliable predictions. Students make reliable predictions by comparing
equilibrium calculations and equilibrium constants to determine whether a combination of two
solutions will result in the formation of a precipitate.
Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on processing data to determine patterns and trends that enable
them to solve problems and communicate scientific understanding of ideas about equilibrium
reactions. Students should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working
Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Content
Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Inquiry question: What happens when chemical reactions do not go through to completion?
Students:
● conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of chemical reactions, for example:
3
– cobalt(II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated
– iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
– burning magnesium
– burning steel wool (ACSCH090)
● model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the differences between open and closed
systems (ACSCH079, ACSCH091)
● analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the effect of entropy and enthalpy, for
example:
– combustion reactions
– photosynthesis
● investigate the relationship between collision theory and reaction rate in order to analyse
chemical equilibrium reactions (ACSCH070, ACSCH094)
Factors that Affect Equilibrium

Inquiry question: What factors affect equilibrium and how?
Students:
● investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume and/or pressure on a system at
equilibrium and explain how Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict such effects, for
example:
– heating cobalt(II) chloride hydrate
– interaction between nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide
– iron(III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of ions (ACSCH095)
● explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of the collision theory (ACSCH094)
● examine how activation energy and heat of reaction affect the position of equilibrium
Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)

Inquiry question: How can the position of equilibrium be described and what does the equilibrium
constant represent?
Students:
● deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of Keq) for homogeneous reactions occurring in
solution (ACSCH079, ACSCH096)
● perform calculations to find the value of Keq and concentrations of substances within an
equilibrium system, and use these values to make predictions on the direction in which a
reaction may proceed (ACSCH096)
● qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of Keq (ACSCH093)
● conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical equilibrium system, for example:
– Keq of the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium (ACSCH096)
● explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical reactions, including but not limited to:
– dissociation of ionic solutions
– dissociation of acids and bases (ACSCH098, ACSCH099)
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Solution Equilibria
Inquiry question: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?
Students:
● describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution of ionic compounds in water
● investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples when
removing toxicity from foods, for example:
– toxins in cycad fruit
● conduct an investigation to determine solubility rules, and predict and analyse the composition
of substances when two ionic solutions are mixed, for example:
– potassium chloride and silver nitrate
– potassium iodide and lead nitrate
– sodium sulfate and barium nitrate (ACSCH065)
● derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in terms of Ksp and calculate the solubility
of an ionic substance from its Ksp value
● predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard reference values for Ksp
Module 6: Acid/Base Reactions
Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation CH11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and
information CH11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-3
› describes, explains and quantitatively analyses acids and bases using contemporary models
CH12-13
Content Focus
Students analyse how and why the definitions of both an acid and a base have changed over time,
and how the current definitions characterise the many chemical reactions of acids. Acids react in
particular ways to a variety of substances. These reactions follow a pattern that students identify
and explore in detail.
Acids and bases, and their reactions, are used extensively in everyday life and in the human body.
The chemistry of acids and bases contributes to industrial contexts and the environment. Therefore,
it is essential that the degree of acidity in these situations is continually monitored. By investigating
the qualitative and quantitative properties of acids and bases, students learn to appreciate the
importance of factors such as pH and indicators.
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In this module, students focus on developing questions and testing hypotheses through designing,
evaluating and conducting investigations to process and analyse data from acid/base reactions.
Students should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills
throughout the course.
Content
Properties of Acids and Bases

Inquiry question: What is an acid and what is a base?
Students:
● investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of common inorganic acids and
bases (ACSCH067)
● conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and use of indicators as illustrators of
the characteristics and properties of acids and bases and their reversible reactions (ACSCH101)
● predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations to represent:
– acids and bases
– acids and carbonates
– acids and metals (ACSCH067)
● investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life and industrial processes
● conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of neutralisation (ACSCH093)
● explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a base over time to explain the
limitations of each model, including but not limited to:
– Arrhenius’ theory
– Brønsted–Lowry theory (ACSCH064, ACSCH067)
Using Brønsted–Lowry Theory

Inquiry question: What is the role of water in solutions of acids and bases?
Students:
● conduct a practical investigation to measure the pH of a range of acids and bases
● calculate pH, pOH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–]) for
a range of solutions (ACSCH102)
● conduct an investigation to demonstrate the use of pH to indicate the differences between the
strength of acids and bases (ACSCH102)
● write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids and bases in water, conjugate
acid/base pairs in solution and amphiprotic nature of some salts, for example:
– sodium hydrogen carbonate
– potassium dihydrogen phosphate
● construct models and/or animations to communicate the differences between strong, weak,
concentrated and dilute acids and bases (ACSCH099)
● calculate the pH of the resultant solution when solutions of acids and/or bases are diluted or
mixed
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Quantitative Analysis
Inquiry question: How are solutions of acids and bases analysed?
Students:
● conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration of an unknown acid or base by
titration
● investigate titration curves and conductivity graphs to analyse data to indicate characteristic
reaction profiles, for example:
– strong acid/strong base
– strong acid/weak base
– weak acid/strong base (ACSCH080, ACSCH102)
● model neutralisation of strong and weak acids and bases using a variety of media
• calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa = -log10 (Ka)) to determine the
difference between strong and weak acids (ACSCH098)
● explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:
– in industries
– by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
– using digital probes and instruments
● conduct a chemical analysis of a common household substance for its acidity or basicity
(ACSCH080) , for example:
– soft drink
– wine
– juice
– medicine
● conduct a practical investigation to prepare a buffer and demonstrate its properties (ACSCH080)
● describe the importance of buffers in natural systems (ACSCH098, ACSCH102)
Module 7: Organic Chemistry
Outcomes
A student:
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes CH11/12-6
› analyses the structure of, and predicts reactions involving, carbon compounds CH12-14
Content Focus
Students focus on the principles and applications of chemical synthesis in the field of organic
chemistry. Current and future applications of chemistry include techniques to synthesise new
substances – including pharmaceuticals, fuels and polymers – to meet the needs of society.
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Each class of organic compounds displays characteristic chemical properties and undergoes specific
reactions based on the functional groups present. These reactions, including acid/base and oxidation
reactions, are used to identify the class of an organic compound. In this module, students investigate
the many classes of organic compounds and their characteristic chemical reactions. By considering
the primary, secondary and tertiary structures of organic materials, students are provided with
opportunities to gain an understanding of the properties of materials – including strength, density
and biodegradability – and relate these to proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers.
In this module, students focus on collecting, analysing and processing data and information to
identify trends, patterns and relationships to solve problems and communicate scientific
understanding of ideas about organic chemistry. Students should be provided with opportunities to
engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Content
Nomenclature
Inquiry question: How do we systematically name organic chemical compounds?
Students:
● investigate the nomenclature of organic chemicals, up to C8, using IUPAC conventions, including
simple methyl and ethyl branched chains, including: (ACSCH127)
– alkanes
– alkenes
– alkynes
– alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary)
– aldehydes and ketones
– carboxylic acids
– amines and amides
– halogenated organic compounds
● explore and distinguish the different types of structural isomers, including saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons, including: (ACSCH035)
– chain isomers
– position isomers
– functional group isomers
Hydrocarbons
Inquiry question: How can hydrocarbons be classified based on their structure and reactivity?
Students:
● construct models, identify the functional group, and write structural and molecular formulae for
homologous series of organic chemical compounds, up to C8 (ACSCH035) :
– alkanes
– alkenes
– alkynes
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● conduct an investigation to compare the properties of organic chemical compounds within a
homologous series, and explain these differences in terms of bonding (ACSCH035)
● analyse the shape of molecules formed between carbon atoms when a single, double or triple
bond is formed between them
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alkanes with reference to
the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● describe the procedures required to safely handle and dispose of organic substances
(ACSCH075)
● examine the environmental, economic and sociocultural implications of obtaining and using
hydrocarbons from the Earth
Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons

Inquiry question: What are the products of reactions of hydrocarbons and how do they react?
Students:
● investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of unsaturated
hydrocarbons when added to a range of chemicals, including but not limited to:
– hydrogen (H2)
– halogens (X2)
– hydrogen halides (HX)
– water (H2O) (ACSCH136)
● investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of saturated
hydrocarbons when substituted with halogens
Alcohols
Inquiry question: How can alcohols be produced and what are their properties?
Students:
● investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
– primary
– secondary
– tertiary alcohols
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alcohols with reference to
the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● conduct a practical investigation to measure and reliably compare the enthalpy of combustion
for a range of alcohols
● write equations, state conditions and predict products to represent the reactions of alcohols,
including but not limited to (ACSCH128, ACSCH136):
– combustion
– dehydration
– substitution with HX
– oxidation
● investigate the production of alcohols, including:
– substitution reactions of halogenated organic compounds
– fermentation
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● investigate the products of the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols
● compare and contrast fuels from organic sources to biofuels, including ethanol
Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases

Inquiry question: What are the properties of organic acids and bases?
Students:
● investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
– primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
– aldehydes and ketones (ACSCH127)
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of carboxylic acids amines and
amides with reference to the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● investigate the production, in a school laboratory, of simple esters
● investigate the differences between an organic acid and organic base
● investigate the structure and action of soaps and detergents
● draft and construct flow charts to show reaction pathways for chemical synthesis, including
those that involve more than one step
Polymers
Inquiry question: What are the properties and uses of polymers?
Students:
● model and compare the structure, properties and uses of addition polymers of ethylene and
related monomers, for example:
– polyethylene (PE)
– polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
– polystyrene (PS)
– polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (ACSCH136)
● model and compare the structure, properties and uses of condensation polymers, for example:
– nylon
– polyesters
Module 8: Applying Chemical Ideas
Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation CH11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and
information CH11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-3
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› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a
range of appropriate media CH11/12-4
› describes and evaluates chemical systems used to design and analyse chemical processes CH12-
15
Content Focus
The identification and analysis of chemicals is of immense importance in scientific research,
medicine, environmental management, quality control, mining and many other fields.
Students investigate a range of methods used to identify and measure quantities of chemicals. They
investigate and process data involving the identification and quantification of ions present in
aqueous solutions. This is particularly important because of the impact of adverse water quality on
the environment. Students deduce or confirm the structure and identity of organic compounds by
interpreting data from qualitative tests of chemical reactivity and determining structural information
using proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
In this module, students focus on developing and evaluating questions and hypotheses when:
designing, evaluating and conducting investigations; analysing trends, patterns and relationships in
data; and communicating scientific understanding about applying chemical ideas. Students should
be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the
course.
Content
Analysis of Inorganic Substances

Inquiry question: How are the ions present in the environment identified and measured?
Students:
● analyse the need for monitoring the environment
● conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests, precipitation and complexation reactions
as appropriate – to test for the presence in aqueous solution of the following ions:
– cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), lead(II) (Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+),
copper(II) (Cu2+), iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) (Fe3+)
– anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–), hydroxide (OH–), acetate (CH3COO–),
carbonate (CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)
● conduct investigations and/or process data involving:
– gravimetric analysis
– precipitation titrations
● conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the concentration of coloured species
and/or metal ions in aqueous solution, including but not limited to, the use of:
– colourimetry
– ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry
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– atomic absorption spectroscopy
Analysis of Organic Substances

Inquiry question: How is information about the reactivity and structure of organic compounds
obtained?
Students:
● conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in organic molecules of the following
functional groups:
– carbon–carbon double bonds
– hydroxyl groups
– carboxylic acids (ACSCH130)
● investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of simple organic compounds addressed
in the course, including but not limited to:
– proton and carbon-13 NMR
– mass spectrometry
– infrared spectroscopy (ACSCH130)
Chemical Synthesis and Design

Inquiry question: What are the implications for society of chemical synthesis and design?
Students:
● evaluate the factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical synthesis process,
including but not limited to:
– availability of reagents
– reaction conditions (ACSCH133)
– yield and purity (ACSCH134)
– industrial uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics, cleaning products, fuels) (ACSCH131)
– environmental, social and economic issues
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Module 5: Equilibrium and Acid Reactions
Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of chemical reactions, for example:
– cobalt(II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated
– iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
– burning magnesium
– burning steel wool (ACSCH090)
cobalt (II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated

Thermal decomposition of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride (CoCl2·6H2O) which has a pink color
will produce the dehydrated form of cobalt (II) chloride which has a sky blue color (CoCl2). This
reaction is reversible because if we add water to the dehydrated sky blue colored cobalt(II)
chloride, it would return to its original pink color which is the hydrated cobalt(II) chloride
(CoCl2·6H2O).
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜(𝐻2 𝑂)2+ − 2−

6 (𝑎𝑞) + 4𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝐶𝑜𝐶𝑙4 (𝑎𝑞) + 6 𝐻2 0(𝑙)
pink blue
iron (III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
When iron (III) nitrate [Fe(NO3)3] is mixed with potassium thiocyanate [KSCN] in solution, an
equilibrium mixture of Fe+3, SCN– , and the complex ion FeSCN+2 is formed. This reaction is
also an example of a reversible reaction in which addition of the ions involved would result in
a color change of the solution.
𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑆𝐶𝑁 − ↔ 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝐶𝑁 2+
pale yellow colorless reddish brown
burning magnesium
Combustion reactions are generally irreversible like the burning of magnesium metal as it
reacts with oxygen found in the air to form magnesium oxide. After it burns, it forms a white
powder is very different from the magnesium metal.
2 𝑀𝑔 + 𝑂2 ↔ 2 𝑀𝑔𝑂
burning steel wool (ACSCH090)

Combustion or burning of steel wool is also an example of an irreversible reaction. Steel wool
is actually mostly iron (Fe and if it reacts with oxygen in the air it will form iron oxide which
cannot be transformed back to the original material.
4 𝐹𝑒 + 3 𝑂2 ↔ 2 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3
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Model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the differences between open and closed systems
(ACSCH079, ACSCH091)
An open system can transfer both energy and matter with its surroundings.
A closed system can transfer energy in a form of heat or work but not matter with its
surroundings.
A system that allows work but not heat to be transferred with its surroundings is an
adiabatically isolated system.
A system that allows heat but not work to be transferred with its surroundings is a
mechanically isolated system.
Static equilibrium - also called mechanical equilibrium, occurs when all particles in the
reaction are at rest and there is no motion between reactants and products. An example of
static equilibrium is graphite turning into diamond which is an irreversible reaction.
𝐶(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒) → 𝐶(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑)
Dynamic equilibrium - At dynamic equilibrium, reactants are converted to products and

products are converted to reactants at an equal and constant rate. A liquid and its vapor are
in dynamic equilibrium when evaporation and condensation occur at equal rates.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) ↔ 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔𝑎𝑠)
Chemical equilibrium is an example of dynamic equilibrium in which the opposing processes

are chemical reactions. Thermal decomposition of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride is under this
type of equilibrium as well as the reaction between iron (III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate.
14
Analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the effect of entropy and enthalpy, for
example:
- combustion reactions
- photosynthesis
Entropy (S), the measure of a system’s thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for
doing useful work. It is a state function just like internal energy, E and enthalpy, H. The concept of
entropy provides deep insight into the direction of spontaneous change for many everyday phenomena
(under Module 4).
Enthalpy (H), is defined as the internal energy plus the product of pressure, P, and volume, V, of a
system (under Module 4).
– combustion reactions
For example, consider the following reaction, the combustion of methane

𝐶𝐻4 (𝑔) + 2 𝑂2 (𝑔) ↔ 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)
Here everything is gas, and we have mixtures of both elements and compounds. The standard molar
entropies, So, can be used to calculate the entropy change in any reaction, at least at standard
conditions of 25 °C and 1 bar (atmospheric pressure). These can be combined using the following
relationship to find the entropy change for any reaction under standard conditions:
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∑ 𝑆 𝑜 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑆 𝑜 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
In other words, sum up all the molar entropies of all the product molecules and subtract from this the
sum of all the molar entropies of all the reactant molecules which is the standard definition for change:
final state - initial state.
– photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is often considered the most important chemical reaction for life on earth.
Photosynthesis involves a complex series of chemical reactions, each of which convert one substance
to another. These reactions taken as a whole can be summarized in a single symbolic representation
as shown in the chemical equation below.
6 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ↔ 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6 𝑂2
15
Investigate the relationship between collision theory and reaction rate in order to analyse chemical
equilibrium reactions (ACSCH070, ACSCH094)
Reaction rates are both affected by reactant concentrations and temperature. The collision theory,
which is based on the kinetic-molecular theory, accounts for these effects at the molecular level. The
central idea of the collision theory is that molecules must collide in order to react. And as reactant
concentration increases, therefore, the number of collision increases, leading to increasing reaction
rates.
16
Factors that Affect Equilibrium
Investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume and/or pressure on a system at
equilibrium and explain how Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict such effects, for example:
Le Châtelier's principle states that if an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium,

the system adjusts in such a way that the stress is partially offset as it tries to re-establish
equilibrium. The word “stress” means a change in temperature, pressure, volume or
concentration of reactants in an equilibrated system. Le Châtelier's principle can be used to
asses the effects of such changes.
Effect of Temperature
𝐶𝑜𝐶𝑙42− (𝑎𝑞) + 6 𝐻2 0(𝑙) ↔ 𝐶𝑜(𝐻2 𝑂)2+ −

6 (𝑎𝑞) + 4𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
blue pink
The formation of 𝐶𝑜𝐶𝑙42− is endothermic. On heating, the equilibrium shifts to the left and
the solution turns blue. On the other hand, cooling the solution favors the exothermic
reaction and the solution turns pink.
17
Effect of Pressure
𝑁2 𝑂2 (𝑔) ↔ 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)

lighter darker
In general, an increase in pressure (decrease in volume) favours the reaction that decreases
the total number of moles of gases (the reverse reaction) causing the solution to have a lighter
colour, and a decrease in pressure (increase in volume) favours the reaction that increases
the total number of moles of gases (the forward reaction) causing the reaction to have a darker
colour.
Changes in Concentration
Iron (III) thiocyanate Fe(SCN)3] dissolves readily in water to give a red solution. The red
solution is due to the presence of 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝐶𝑁 2+ ion.
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝐶𝑁 2+ ↔ 𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑆𝐶𝑁 −
reddish brown pale yellow colourless
Adding some SCN- ions in the system would cause some Fe3+ ions to react with it and the
equilibrium shifts from right to left and the red colour of the solution deepens.
18
Explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of the collision theory
(ACSCH094)
Chemical equilibrium occurs when opposing reactions proceed at equal rates: The rate at
which the products form from the reactants equals the rate at which the reactants form from
the products. When additional reactant is added to a system at equilibrium, the immediate
effect is to increase the concentration of reactant molecules.
According to the collision theory, this increases the number of collisions per second of reactant
molecules and therefore the rate of the forward reaction.
As the concentrations change, the forward rate falls, the reverse rate rises, and eventually the
two rates become equal – equilibrium is re-established with some of the added reactant having
been converted to product.
19
Examine how activation energy and heat of reaction affect the position of equilibrium
As explained in the collision theory, the kinetic energy of a gas is directly proportional to
temperature. As temperature increases, molecules gain energy and move faster and faster
resulting in higher probability that molecules will be moving with the necessary activation
energy for a reaction to occur upon collision.
Activation energy is the minimum energy with which reactants must collide in order for a reaction to
occur. The source of the activation energy needed to push reactions forward is typically heat energy
from the surroundings.
The Heat of Reaction is the change in the enthalpy of a chemical reaction. In endothermic
reactions, (ΔH>0), heat is absorbed with the reactants. For example:
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 + 6 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 6 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ↔ 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 (𝑎𝑞) + 6 𝑂2 (𝑔)
This means more energy is needed to overcome the forces of attraction between molecules
and to separate them from one another (the activation energy) than the energy gained when
new bonds are formed.
In exothermic reactions, (ΔH<0), heat is released with the products. When separated
molecules join together, enough energy is released to overcompensate for the energy required
to break reactant bonds. In this oxidation reaction:
𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑠) + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
The forward reaction is exothermic because energy is released when CaO(s) and H2O(l)
combine to form Ca(OH)2(s) . The energy to break the bonds of each reactant is lower than
the amount of energy released from forming the product, and the net difference is observed
as heat on the right side of the equation.
In summary, a temperature increase favours an endothermic reaction, and a temperature
decrease favors an exothermic reaction
20
Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)
● deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of Keq) for homogeneous reactions occurring in
solution (ACSCH079, ACSCH096)
A homogeneous equilibrium has everything present in the same phase. The usual examples include
reactions where everything is a gas, or everything is present in the same solution.
In writing an expression for equilibrium constant (Keq), we can start at a general case with the equation:
𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 ↔ 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷
Where A,B,C and D are the chemical species involved and a.b.c and d are the coefficients in the
balanced chemical equation. According to the law of mass action, the equilibrium condition is described
by the expression:
[𝐷]𝑑 [𝐶]𝑐
𝐾𝑒𝑞 =
[𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
If you allow this reaction to reach equilibrium and then measure the equilibrium concentrations of
everything, you can combine these concentrations into an expression known as equilibrium constant.
21
Perform calculations to find the value of Keq and concentrations of substances within an equilibrium
system, and use these values to make predictions on the direction in which a reaction may proceed
(ACSCH096)
Steps to write equilibrium constant expression:

1. The concentrations of the reacting species in the condensed phase are expressed in
M. In the gaseous phase, the concentrations can be expressed in M or in atm.
2. The concentrations of pure solids, pure liquids and solvents do not appear in the
equilibrium constant expressions.
3. The equilibrium constant is a dimensionless quantity.
4. In quoting a value for the equilibrium constant, you must specify the balanced equation
and the temperature.
5. If a reaction can be expressed as a sum of two or more reactions, the equilibrium
constant for the overall reaction is given by the product of the equilibrium constants of
the individual reactions.
To calculate for equilibrium concentrations:

1. Express the equilibrium concentrations of all species in terms of the initial
concentrations and a single unknown x, which represents the change in concentration.
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression in terms of the equilibrium concentrations.
Knowing the value of the equilibrium constant, solve for x.
3. Having solved for x, calculate the equilibrium concentrations of all species
22
Sample Problem:
The reaction 2 NO (g)  N2 (g) + O2 (g) has a value of Keq= 2,400 at a temperature of
2,000 K. If 0.61 g of NO are put in a previously empty 3.00 L vessel, calculate the equilibrium
concentrations of NO, N2, and O2.
Solution: Make a chart describing relationships in change. The initial concentration of the
reactant can be determined by:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑂
0.61 𝑔 𝑁𝑂 𝑥 30 𝑔 𝑁𝑂
[𝑁𝑂] = = 6.8 𝑥10−3 𝑀
3.00 𝐿
2 NO (g)  N2 (g) + O2 (g)
Initial 6.8 x 10-3 0 0
Change -2x +x +x
After 6.8 x 10-3-2x x x
Write the equilibrium expression and solve for x.
[𝑁2 ][𝑂2 ] [𝑥][𝑥] 𝑥2

𝐾 = 2,400 = = =
[𝑁𝑂]2 [6.8 𝑥 10−3 − 2𝑥]2 [6.8 𝑥 10−3 − 2𝑥]2
Take the square root of both sides of the equation, we can solve for x:
√𝑥 2
√2,400 = = 𝑥 = 0.0034
√[6.8 𝑥 10−3 − 2𝑥]2
Determine equilibrium concentrations.
2 NO (g)  N2 (g) + O2 (g)
After 6.8 x 10-3- 2X X X
Substitute 0 0.0034 0.0034
[𝑁𝑂] = 6.8 𝑥 10−3 − 2(0.0034) = 0 [𝑁2 ] = 0.0034 𝑀 and [02 ] = 0.0034 𝑀
23
Qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of Keq (ACSCH093)
A change in concentration, pressure or volume may alter the equilibrium position but it does
not change the value of the equilibrium constant. Only a change in temperature can alter the
equilibrium constant.
Change Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction

Increase in temperature Keq decreases Keq increases
Decrease temperature Keq increases Keq decreases
𝑁2 𝑂2 (𝑔) ↔ 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)

lighter darker
colder hotter
24
Conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical equilibrium system, for example:
– Keq of the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium (ACSCH096)
In order to determine Keq of a chemical equilibrium system for example that of iron(III)
thiocyanate equilibrium, we need to conduct an experimentation applying a combination of
solution chemistry, stoichiometry and spectrophotometric analysis to determine the
equilibrium constant for a reaction between iron(III) ion (Fe3+) and thiocyanate ion (SCN–).
25
Explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical reactions, including but not limited to:
– dissociation of ionic solutions
– dissociation of acids and bases (ACSCH098, ACSCH099)
When ionic compounds dissolve to produce ions the process is typically called dissociation.
Dissociation of ionic compounds occurs when water molecules “pull apart” the ionic crystal.
This occurs due to strong attractions between the polar ends of the water molecule and the
positive and negative ions within the crystal.
An acid dissociation constant, Ka, (also known as acidity constant, or acid-ionization
constant) is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the equilibrium
constant for a chemical reaction known as dissociation in the context of acid–base reactions.
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ][𝐴− ]
𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾[𝐻2 𝑂] =
[𝐴]
A similar equilibrium exists when a weak base is dissolved in water. The base will accept a
proton from water and form a conjugate acid. This equilibrium has its own special constant,
Kb, known as the base dissociation constant. Like the acid dissociation constant, it is defined
as the equilibrium constant multiplied by the concentration of water.
[𝐵𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑏 = 𝐾[𝐻2 𝑂] =
[𝐵]
26
Solution Equilibria
Describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution of ionic compounds in water
When solids dissolve in water, they dissociate to give the elementary particles from which they
are formed. Thus, molecular solids dissociate to give individual molecules and ionic solids
dissociate to give solutions of the positive and negative ions they contain.
27
Investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples when
removing toxicity from foods, for example:
– toxins in cycad fruit
The seeds of cycad plants are a toxic food used by many Aboriginal groups in northern
Australia. Acute symptoms produced after consumption of untreated Cycas seeds are due to
cycasin. There are three traditional methods used to treat these seeds: brief leaching in water;
prolonged leaching in water; and aging. Analyses of fresh seeds and seeds prepared at
Donydji and in the laboratory indicate that cycasin is effectively removed by all the traditional
preparation techniques.
28
Conduct an investigation to determine solubility rules, and predict and analyse the composition of
substances when two ionic solutions are mixed, for example:
– potassium chloride and silver nitrate
– sodium sulfate and barium nitrate (ACSCH065)
The following are the solubility rules for common ionic solids. If there two rules appear to
contradict each other, the preceding rule takes precedence.
1. Salts containing Group I elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) are soluble . There are few
exceptions to this rule. Salts containing the ammonium ion (NH4+) are also soluble.
2. Salts containing nitrate ion (NO3-) are generally soluble.
3. Salts containing Cl -, Br -, or I - are generally soluble. Important exceptions to this rule are
halide salts of Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+. Thus, AgCl, PbBr2, and Hg2Cl2 are insoluble.
4. Most silver salts are insoluble. AgNO3 and Ag(C2H3O2) are common soluble salts of silver;
virtually all others are insoluble.
5. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Important exceptions to this rule include CaSO4, BaSO4,
PbSO4, Ag2SO4 and SrSO4 .
6. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group I elements are
soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group II elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble.
Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+ are insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3,
Co(OH)2 are not soluble.
7. Most sulfides of transition metals are highly insoluble, including CdS, FeS, ZnS, and Ag2S.
Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and lead sulfides are also insoluble.
8. Carbonates are frequently insoluble. Group II carbonates (CaCO3, SrCO3, and BaCO3) are
insoluble, as are FeCO3 and PbCO3.
9. Chromates are frequently insoluble. Examples include PbCrO4 and BaCrO4.
10. Phosphates such as Ca3(PO4)2 and Ag3PO4 are frequently insoluble.
11. Fluorides such as BaF2, MgF2, and PbF2 are frequently insoluble.
These rules are based on the following definitions of the terms soluble, insoluble, and slightly
soluble.
–potassium chloride and silver nitrate

The reaction between potassium chloride and silver nitrate would result in the formation of
silver chloride which is a white precipitate.
𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 + 𝐾𝑁𝑂3

When you combine lead nitrate and potassium iodide solutions, a double-replacement
reaction happens. The two compounds react, and the positive ions and negative ions of the
two reactants switch places, creating two new compounds. Lead particles and iodide particles
combine and create two new compounds, a yellow solid called lead iodide and a white solid
called potassium nitrate.
𝐾𝐼 + 𝑃𝑏𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑃𝑏𝐼2
29
– sodium sulphate and barium nitrate
Barium nitrate and sodium sulphate react together to form one soluble salt, sodium nitrate,
and an insoluble salt, barium sulphate. Barium sulphate is one of the most insoluble
compounds known.
𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐵𝑎(𝑁03 )2 → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3
30
Derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in terms of Ksp and calculate the solubility of
an ionic substance from its Ksp value
Ksp is the solubility product constant or simply the solubility product. It is the product of the
molar concentrations of the constituent ions, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric
coefficient in the equilibrium equation. Consider a saturated solution of silver chloride that is
in contact with a solid silver chloride. The solubility equilibrium can be represented as
+ −
𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠) ↔ 𝐴𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
Because salts such as AgCl are treated as strong electrolytes, all the AgCl that dissolve in
water is assumed to dissociate completely into 𝐴𝑔+ and 𝐶𝑙 − ions. Thus, we can write the
equilibrium constant for the dissociation of AgCl as
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝐴𝑔+ ] [𝐶𝑙 − ]
Sample Problem: Calculate the solubility product constant for lead(II) chloride, if 50.0 mL of
a saturated solution of lead(II) chloride was found to contain 0.2207 g of lead(II) chloride
dissolved in it.
First, write the equation for the dissolving of lead(II) chloride and the equilibrium expression
for the dissolving process.
PbCl2(s) <==> Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝑃𝑏 2+ ][𝐶𝑙 − ]2
Second, convert the amount of dissolved lead(II) chloride into moles per liter.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2
(0.2207 𝑔 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 )( )
278.1 𝑔𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2
[𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 ] =
1𝐿
(50 𝑚𝑙 𝑥 )
1000 𝑚𝑙
[𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 ] = 0.0159 M
0.0159 M is called the molar solubility of PbCl2
[Pb] = 0.0159 M and [Cl] = 2 x 0.0159 = 0.0318 M
Third, create an "ICE" table.
PbCl2 (s) Pb2+(aq) 2 Cl-(aq)

Initial Concentration All solid 0 0
Change in
- 0.0159 M (dissolves) + 0.0159 M + 2(0.0159 M)
Concentration
Equilibrium
Less solid 0.0159 M 0.0318 M
Concentration
Fourth, substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the equilibrium expression and solve
for Ksp.
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [0.0159][0.0318]2 = 1.61 𝑥 10−5
31
Predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard reference values for Ksp
From our understanding of solubility rules and solubility product constant, we can predict
whether a precipitate will form when we mix two solutions or add a soluble compound to a
solution.
Where Q is the ion product (almost the same as the reaction quotient, Qc). It represents the
product of the molar concentrations of the ions raised to the power of their stoichiometric
coefficients.
32
Module 6: Acid/Base Reactions

Investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of common inorganic acids and bases
(ACSCH067)
IUPAC nomenclature of common inorganic acids
• Inorganic acids are named after the anions they release when dissolved in water.
• Binary Hydrogen Compounds have anions bonded with positive hydrogen ions. When in
aqueous solution, when these anions are released, their acids are named by replacing the suffix –
ide with hydro + anion name after removing –ide + ic acids. Some examples are given below:
Name of the compound Ion released in aqueous Name of acid according to

solution IUPAC
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) Cl- (chloride) Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) S2- (sulphide) Hydrosulphuric Acid
Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) CN- (cyanide) Hydrocyanic Acid
Note: HCN is not a binary hydrogen compound but, it’s behaviour is somewhat similar to the
hydrogen halides (HF, HCl, HBr, HI) and thus named in a similar manner as an acid.
• An oxoacid is an acid containing hydrogen, oxygen, and another element. The anion produced
when an oxoacid dissolves in water is an oxoanion. The names of oxoacids follow the following
rules:
o If a central atom can form two different oxoanions, the one with more oxygen atoms is
named with the -ate suffix, and the one with fewer oxygen atoms is named with the - ite
suffix. If the anion name ends in -ate, the corresponding acid name ends in –ic. If the
anion name ends in -ite, the corresponding acid name ends in –ous.
Anion Name Acid Name

NO3 – Nitrate ion HNO3 Nitric Acid
NO2 – Nitrite ion HNO2 Nitrous Acid
SO4 2– Sulphate ion H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid
SO3 2– Sulphurous ion H2SO3 Sulphurous Acid
o When a central atom can form three or four oxoacids, both the anions and the oxoacids
are distinguished with the prefix hypo- and per- for the species with the fewest and most
oxygen atoms, respectively.
Anion Name Acid Name

ClO – Hypochlorite ion HClO Hypochlorous Acid
ClO2 – Chlorite ion HClO2 Chlorous Acid
ClO3 – Chlorate ion HClO3 Chloric Acid
HClO4 – Perchlorate ion HClO4 Perchloric Acid
IUPAC nomenclature of common inorganic bases
• Most inorganic bases have hydroxide ion and thus, they are named combining the name of the
positive ion present in the base and adding hydroxide at the end. For example, the positive ion in
NaOH is sodium (Na+) thus NaOH is called Sodium Hydroxide. Similarly, Ca(OH)2 → Calcium
Hydroxide, Al(OH)3 → Aluminium Hydroxide etc.
33
Conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and use of indicators as illustrators of the
characteristics and properties of acids and bases and their reversible reactions (ACSCH101)
Preparation and Uses of Common Indicators as Illustrators of the Characteristics and

• Acid - Base indicators (also known as pH indicators) are substances which change colour
with pH.
• They are usually weak acids or bases, which when dissolved in water dissociate slightly and
form ions.
Indicator pH Range Colour Preparation

Acid Base
Methyl Orange 3.2 – 4.4 Red Yellow 0.01% in water
Bromocresol Green 3.8 – 5.4 Yellow Blue 0.1g in 14.3 ml 0.01 M
NaOH + 235.7 ml water
Methyl Red 4.8 – 6.0 Yellow Red 0.02g in 60 ml ETOH +
40 ml water
Bromothymol Blue 6.0 – 7.6 Yellow Blue 0.1g in 16 ml 0.01 M
NaOH + 234 ml water
Phenol Red 6.8 – 8.4 Yellow Red 0.1g in 28.2 ml 0.01M
NaOH + 221.8 ml water
Phenolphthalein 8.2 – 10.0 Colourless Pink 0.05g in 50 mL ETOH +
50 mL water
34
Predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations to represent:
– acids and bases
– acids and carbonates
– acids and metals (ACSCH067)
Reaction between acids and bases
• The reaction between acids and bases is termed as Neutralization reaction.

• The products of a neutralization reaction are salt and water.
• The general mechanism of neutralization reactions involves substitution of the H + ion in acids
with the metal ions in the bases and then interaction between H+ and OH- to form H2O.
• Some common examples are given below:
𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 (𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡) + 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) + 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡) + 2𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
3𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) + 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = 𝐴𝑙(𝑁𝑂3 )3 (𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡) + 3𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
Reaction between acids and carbonates
• Reaction between acids and carbonates somewhat follows the similar mechanism as
neutralization reactions. The only difference here is that apart from salt and water, carbon
dioxide is also produced as products.
• Some examples include:
2𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 = 2𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

2𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 = 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Reaction between acids and metals
• Reactions between acids and metals also follow the substitution mechanism. However,
whether a metal can replace H+ from acids solely depends upon its position in the reactivity
series of metals. If a metal is above Hydrogen in the reactivity series (which refers to the fact
of that metal being comparatively more reactive than Hydrogen), it can easily replace
Hydrogen. If not, no reaction takes place.
• The reactivity series is as follows:
Potassium > Sodium > Calcium > Magnesium > Aluminium > Zinc > Iron > Lead > Hydrogen
> Copper > Mercury > Silver > Gold
• Some examples include:
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐾 = 𝐾2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2
2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑍𝑛 = 𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐻2
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑢 = 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
35
Investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life and industrial processes
Applications of Neutralisation Reactions in Everyday Life and Industrial Processes
• To treat acidic/basic soil.

• To treat effluents, which contain sulphuric acid with bases such as lime before they are
released into rivers and streams.
• To neutralise acidic gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide released from power
stations to minimize pollution.
• In the rubber industry, ammonia solution, NH4OH, is used to prevent the coagulation of latex
because ammonia solution, NH4OH, can neutralise the acid (lactic acid) produced by bacteria
in the latex.
• Anti-acids are medicines containing bases such as aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH) 3 and
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 to neutralise the excess acid in the stomach.
• Treatment of wasp stings which are alkaline in nature by using mild acids such as vinegar.
• Treatment of bee stings and ant bites which are acidic in nature by bases such as baking
soda.
36
Conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of neutralisation (ACSCH093)
Measuring the enthalpy of neutralisation
• The standard enthalpy change of neutralisation is the enthalpy change when solutions of an
acid and an alkali react together under standard conditions to produce 1 mole of water.
• Enthalpy changes in neutralization reactions are always negative, meaning that heat is
always released in the environment during neutralization reactions.
• For reactions involving strong acids and alkalis, the values are always very closely similar,
with values between -57 and -58 kJ mol-1.
• The reason for this similarity in value is that the neutralisation reactions are basically
reactions between H+ and OH-. The other metal and non-metal ions present in association
with these are merely spectator ions having no contribution in the overall enthalpy change.
• So for example:
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) = 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑄(ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
But what actually happens is,
−
𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) = 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
37
Explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a base over time to explain the
limitations of each model, including but not limited to:
– Arrhenius’ theory
– Brønsted–Lowry theory (ACSCH064, ACSCH067)
Arrhenius’ Theory
According to Arrhenius’ theory, acids are compounds that have hydrogen atoms and can release an
H+ ion in aqueous solution. Such compounds are termed as Arrhenius Acids.
+
𝐻𝐴(𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴−(𝑎𝑞)
Some examples of Arrhenius Acids are HCl (hydrochloric acid), H2SO4 (sulphuric acid), CH3COOH
(acetic acid), HNO3 (nitric acid), H3PO4 (phosphoric acid) etc.
− +
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
According to Arrhenius’ theory, bases are compounds which can produce hydroxyl ion in their
aqueous solution. Such compounds are termed as Arrhenius Bases.
+ −
𝐻𝐵(𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵(𝑎𝑞)
Some examples of Arrhenius Bases are NaOH (sodium hydroxide), NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide)
etc.
+ −
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
Limitations of Arrhenius’ Theory:
• Arrhenius’ theory defines acids and bases merely upon their dissociation in aqueous solutions
rather than the nature of the compound. Thus, this theory is applicable for aqueous solutions only
and not for non-aqueous or gaseous reactions.
• It is only applicable for compounds having the general formula HA for acids and BOH for bases.
Thus, Arrhenius’ theory cannot explain acidic properties of CuSO 4, AlCl3, CO2, SO2 and the
basicity of NH3, Na2CO3, amines, pyridines etc.
• This theory is unable to explain neutralization reactions that might not involve formation of water
by the combination of H+ and OH-. For example:
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) + 𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔) → 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙(𝑔)
38
Brønsted–Lowry theory
According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory, acids are compounds that have the ability to donate
protons in aqueous solutions. Such compounds are termed as Brønsted–Lowry Acids.
+
𝑯𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝑯3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3 −
(𝑎𝑞)
Since water accepts the proton from nitric acid to form H3O+, water acts as a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Brønsted–Lowry Bases on the other hand are compounds that have the ability to accept protons in
aqueous solutions.
𝑁𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑯2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇌ 𝑁𝑯4 +

(𝑎𝑞)
−
+ 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
In this reaction, water is donating one of its protons to ammonia. After losing a proton, water
becomes hydroxide, OH-. Since water is a proton donor in this reaction, it is acting as a Brønsted-
Lowry acid. Ammonia accepts a proton from water to form an ammonium ion, NH4 + . Therefore,
ammonia is acting as a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Strong acids and bases dissociate completely in aqueous solution. Weak acids and bases however,
dissociate sparingly. For this reason, dissociation of strong acids and bases in aqueous solution is
irreversible where as that of weak acids and bases is reversible.
Two important terms are introduced in the Brønsted–Lowry concept of acids and bases. These are
Conjugate Acid and Conjugate Base. Conjugate acid is a chemical entity formed after a base accepts
protons. On the other hand, a conjugate base is formed when an acid donates proton.
+ −
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
Here, Cl- is the conjugate base of the acid HCl because it was formed after HCl donated a proton.
Again, H3O+ is considered as the conjugate acid of H2O since it was formed on water’s acceptation of
a proton from hydrochloric acid.
Limitations:
• The Brønsted–Lowry concept cannot explain the reactions occurring in non-protonic solvents
such as COCl2, SO2, N2O4, etc.
• It cannot explain reactions of acid and basic oxides which can take place even in the absence of
solvents.
• Brønsted–Lowry theory fails to explain acidic properties of non-hydrogen containing compounds
such as BF3, AlCl3 etc.
39
Using Brønsted–Lowry Theory
Conduct a practical investigation to measure the pH of a range of acids and bases
Problem Statement: - Calculate the pH of the following solutions:
a) 0.01M HCl
b) 0.05M H2SO4
c) 0.001M KOH
Solution:
• pH of 0.01M HCl solution
Since HCl is a strong acid, it completely dissociates in aqueous solution
𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)
Therefore, the concentration of H+, [H+] will be 0.01M
Now, pH = - log[H+]
= - log (0.01)
=2
• pH of 0.05M H2SO4 solution
Since H2SO4 is a strong acid, it completely dissociates in aqueous solution
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞)

0.05𝑀 2 × 0.05𝑀
= 0.1𝑀
Therefore, [H+] = 0.01M
Now, pH = - log[H+]
= - log (0.1)
=1
• pH of 0.001M KOH solution
Since KOH is a strong base, it completely dissociates in aqueous solution
𝐾𝑂𝐻 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐾 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)

0.001𝑀 0.001𝑀
Therefore, [OH-] = 0.01M
Now, pOH = - log[OH-]

= - log (0.001)
=3
Hence, pH = 14 – pOH = 14 - 3 = 11
40
Calculate pH, pOH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–]) for a
range of solutions (ACSCH102)
Problem Statement:
Calculate the pH, pOH and [H+] of 0.01M CH3COOH solution when the percentage of dissociation is
12.5%.
Solution:
Since CH3COOH is a weak acid, it dissociates partially in aqueous solution as follows
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 (𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞)
Given,
Percentage of dissociation = 12.5%
so, [H+] = 0.01 × 12.5%
= 0.01 × 0.125M
= 1.25 × 10-3 M
Now, pH = - log[H+]
= - log (1.25 × 10-3)
= 2.903
and pOH = 14 – pH
= 14 – 2.903
= 11.097
Problem Statement:
Calculate the pH, pOH and [OH-] of 0.05M NH4OH solution when the percentage of dissociation is
7.5%.
Solution:
Since NH4OH is a weak base, it dissociates partially in aqueous solution as follows
𝑁𝐻4 𝑂𝐻 (𝑎𝑞) ↔ 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝐻4 + (𝑎𝑞)
Given,
Percentage of dissociation = 7.5%
so, [OH-] = 0.05 × 7.5%
= 0.05 × 0.075M
= 3.75 × 10-3 M
Now, pOH = - log[OH-]
= - log (3.75 × 10-3)
= 2.426
and pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 2.426
= 11.574
41
Conduct an investigation to demonstrate the use of pH to indicate the differences between the
strength of acids and bases (ACSCH102)
Using pH to indicate differences between the strength of acids and bases
• The negative logarithm of concentration of [H+] in a solution is termed as the pH of that

solution
• The range of pH for all compounds is from 0 – 14
• The pH value for a neutral solution is 7. In case of acidic solution, the pH value is less than 7
and for basic solutions, greater than 7
• pH value of strong acids is generally low. Weak acids tend to have a pH value somewhere in
between 5 – 6
• Strong bases show a higher value of pH and weak bases showcase lower pH value near to 7
42
Write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids and bases in water, conjugate acid/base
pairs in solution and amphiprotic nature of some salts, for example:
– sodium hydrogen carbonate
– potassium dihydrogen phosphate
Dissociation of different acids/bases and their conjugate acid/base pair in solution:
• 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻3 𝑂 + + 𝑆𝑂42−
o Conjugate acid/base pair 1: H2SO4 (acid) / SO42- (conjugate base)

o Conjugate acid/base pair 2: H2O (base) / H3O+ (conjugate acid)
• 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑂 + + 𝐶𝑙 −
o Conjugate acid/base pair 1: HCl (acid) / Cl- (conjugate base)

• 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂−
o Conjugate acid/base pair 1: CH3COOH (acid) / CH3COO─ (conjugate base)

• 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝑁𝐻4 + + 𝑂𝐻 −
o Conjugate acid/base pair 1: NH3 (base) / NH4+ (conjugate acid)

o Conjugate acid/base pair 2: H2O (acid) / OH- (conjugate base)
o Notice that in case of dissociation of weak bases in water, water behaves like a base
whereas in case of acidic dissociations, water showed acidic properties. Such nature
of chemical entities to alter their behaviour based on the type of reactants present is
known as amphiprotic nature.
• 𝐻𝑃𝑂42− + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4− + 𝑂𝐻 −
o Conjugate acid/base pair 1: HPO42- (base) / H2PO4─ (conjugate acid)

o Conjugate acid/base pair 2: H2O (acid) / OH─ (conjugate base)
43
Construct models and/or animations to communicate the differences between strong, weak,
concentrated and dilute acids and bases (ACSCH099)
Differences between concentrated and dilute acids
Concentrated Acids Dilute Acids

Have relatively large amount of solute dissolved in Have less amount of solute dissolved in solvent
solvent
Have higher Ka value Have low Ka value
pH ranges from 1 – 3.5 pH ranges from 4 - 7
Differences between weak and strong acids
Strong Acids Weak Acids

Completely dissociate in water to produce H+ Dissociate partially in aqueous solution
Have lower pH value (0 - 1) Have lower pH value (5 - 7)
Are mostly inorganic acids; Example: HCl, HNO3, Are mostly organic acids; Example: HCOOH,
H2SO4 etc. CH3COOH etc.
Differences between concentrated and dilute bases
Concentrated Bases Dilute Bases

Have relatively large amount of basic solute Have less amount of solute dissolved in solvent
dissolved in solvent
Have higher Kb value Have low Kb value
pH ranges from 7 – 10 pH ranges from 12 - 14
Differences between weak and strong bases
Strong Bases Weak Bases

Completely dissociate in water to produce OH- Dissociate partially in aqueous solution
pH ranges from 7.3 - 10 pH ranges from 10 - 14
Have higher electrical conductivity Have lower electrical conductivity
Example: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 etc. Example: Hydrazine, alanine, dimethylamine etc.
44
Calculate the pH of the resultant solution when solutions of acids and/or bases are diluted or mixed
Problem Statement:
6mL 0.15M NaOH solution is added to 15mL 0.15M CH3COOH solution. Calculate pH of the resulting
solution [pKa = 4.74].
Solution:
The reaction between CH3COOH and NaOH is as follows
CH3COOH + NaOH ↔ CH3COONa + H2O

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
From the above reaction, we can see that 1 mole of NaOH can neutralize the same amount of
CH3COOH to produce 1 mole of CH3COONa.
Therefore, 6mL 0.15M NaOH can neutralize 6mL 0.15M CH3COOH to produce 6mL 0.15M CH3COONa
Now, remaining acid = (15 - 6)mL = 9mL

Produced salt = 6mL
Total volume of solution = (15 + 6)mL = 21mL
Now, concentration of CH3COOH, [CH3COOH] = 9 × 0.15⁄21 = 0.06428 mol/mL
Concentration of CH3COONa, [CH3COONa] = 6 × 0.15⁄21 = 0.04285 mol/mL

[𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
pH = pKa + log
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
0.04285
or, pH = 4.74 + log
0.06428
= 4.74 – 0.176
= 4.52 [Answer]
45
Quantitative Analysis
Conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration of an unknown acid or base by titration
Analysing the concentration of an unknown acid by titration:
Titration is a common process of quantitative analysis where the concentration of a chemical sample
is determined with the help of another chemical sample of known concentration.
Acid – base titration is also a method of quantitative analysis working on the principle of
neutralisation reaction. In this process, the concentration of either the base or the acid is
determined. The process is described in brief below:
• The sample with unknown concentration is taken in a beaker.

• Indicators are added in the beaker. These indicators are also chemical samples that change
colour in different media and thus tell us whether a reaction has been complete. For example, the
indicator phenolphthalein shows no colour in acidic medium but changes to pink in basic medium.
• The sample with known concentration is taken in a burette and is added drop by drop in the
beaker until a prominent colour change is observed.
• Readings are taken and the unknown concentration is calculated.
Problem Statement:
A 25 ml solution of 0.5 M NaOH is titrated until neutralized into a 50 ml sample of HCl. What was the
concentration of the HCl?
Solution:
We know,
nMaVa = nMbVb
where, n = number of moles involved in the neutraization reaction
The reaction between NaOH and HCl occurs as follows:

Here,
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 Molarity of NaoH, Mb = 0.5M
Volume of NaOH, Vb = 25mL

From the above reaction, we can see that 1 mole of NaOH reacts
with 1 mole of HCl. Thus for both the acid and base, n = 1. Volume of HCl, Va = 50mL
Molarity of HCl, Ma =?
Thus,
nMaVa = nMbVb
or, 1 x Ma x 50 = 1 x 0.5 x 25
0.5 × 25
or, Ma = = 0.25M
50
Answer: The concentration of HCl is 0.25M
46
Investigate titration curves and conductivity graphs to analyse data to indicate characteristic
reaction profiles, for example:
– strong acid/strong base
– strong acid/weak base
– weak acid/strong base (ACSCH080, ACSCH102)
Titration Curve and Conductivity graphs of Strong Acid/Strong Base
• A titration curve is the plot of the pH of the analyte solution vs the volume of the titrant added
for the neutralization reaction to occur.
• A titration curve provides an idea regarding the equivalence point of an acid-base reaction,
which is the exact phase in which the amounts of acid and base will be just precise for the
reaction to occur.
• The graph also represents the pH value in the equivalence point which varies depending on how
strong or weak the acids and bases are.
o For strong acid-strong base titration, pH = 7 at equivalence point
o For weak acid-strong base titration, pH > 7 at equivalence point
o For strong acid-weak base titration, pH < 7 at equivalence point
• Let us suppose that our analyte is HCl (strong acid) and the titrant is NaOH (strong base). The
following graph is obtained:
• At point 1, the pH is low because NaOH has not yet been added and thus an acidic medium
still persists. The only reaction happening here is the complete dissociation of HCl in water.
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 −
• pH at point 2 represents a state just before complete neutralization occurs.

• Point 3 is the equivalence point where the no. of moles of NaOH added equals the number
of moles of HCl in the analyte. At this point, the neutralization reaction is complete and the
pH value equals 7 since only NaCl and H2O are present in the solution.
o At point 4, the pH starts increasing, referring to a basic condition of the solution
because of the presence of excess NaOH
47
• Conductivity Graph:
o Before NaOH is added, the conductance is high due to the presence of hydrogen
ions.
o On addition of the base, the conductance falls due to the replacement of hydrogen
ions by the added cation as H+ ions react with OH − ions to form undissociated
water and the decrease in conductance continues until the equivalence point is
reached.
o At the equivalence point, the solution contains only NaCl and the conductivity
increases due to the presence of OH- in abundance.
Titration Curve and Conductivity graphs of Weak Acid/Strong Base

• Titration Curve:
o The initial pH of the solution at the beginning of the titration is approximately that of the
weak acid in water. As the reaction begins, the pH starts increasing.
o At the equivalence point, all of the weak acid is neutralized and converted to its
conjugate base (the number of moles of H+ = added number of moles of OH–).
o The pH at the equivalence point does not equal 7 because of the production of
conjugate base during the titration resulting the solution to be slightly basic.
48
o Initially the conductance is low for the fact that weak acids dissociate at a slower rate in
water.
o On the addition of base, there is decrease in conductance due to the replacement of H+
by any other metal ion present in that particular base and common ion effect.
o On addition of more base, the conductivity increases as the base neutralizes the un-
dissociated weak acid forming strong electrolytes (for example, if we use CH3COOH and
NaOH as the weak acid and strong base, during the reaction, CH3COONa will be formed
which is a strong electrolyte).
o This increase in conductance continues raise up to the equivalence point.
Titration Curve and Conductivity graphs of Weak Acid/Strong Base

• Titration Curve:
The initial pH at point 1 is comparatively low since the reaction has not begun yet and the
solution contains acidic ions.
• On addition of base gradually, as the reaction begins, the pH starts increasing.
• At the equivalence point however, unlike the previous titration curves, the pH level does not
indicate neutrality of reaction. In fact, the pH is ≈ 5.5 which is somewhat acidic. This happens
because weak bases dissociate slowly in solution, allowing them to produce conjugate acids.
49
These conjugate acids play contributing roles in the overall pH of the solution and thus even
though the reaction reaches its equivalence point, the pH does not become neutral.
• As the base is gradually added more, after the equivalence point, the pH rises but is less than as
compared to what it would have been in presence of a strong base (in case of strong bases, the
pH rises almost at 13).
o Initially the conductance is high due to faster dissociation of the strong acid in water. As
the reaction proceeds and H+ ions are replaced, the conductivity starts decreasing.
o After the equivalence point is reached and all H+ ions are consumed, no significant
change in conductivity is found and the graph becomes horizontal. This is because weak
bases do not showcase very prominent conductivity and since their dissociation rate is
slow, the resulting common ion effect at one point obstructs their dissociation. Thus, the
conductance is unchanged.
Source:
Electroanalytical Methods-II
Acid-base titration curves
50
Model neutralisation of strong and weak acids and bases using a variety of media
Strong acid – strong base neutralization
• A strong acid completely dissociates in aqueous solution. For example, hydrochloric acid,
HCl, is a strong acid.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
• A strong base completely dissociates in aqueous solution. For example, sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, is a strong base.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
• Therefore, when a strong acid reacts with a strong base the neutralization reaction can be
written as
H+ + OH− → H2O
Weak acid – strong base neutralization
• Weak acids partially dissociate in aqueous solution.

HA(aq) + H2O ↔ H3O+(aq) + A−(aq)
• When a strong base neutralizes a weak acid, due to the partial dissociation of the acid,
excess amount of base remains in the solution and when the reaction reaches the endpoint,
the pH is more than 7.
Weak base – strong acid neutralization
• Analogous to weak acid – strong base neutralization, weak bases partially dissociate in
aqueous solution and thus complete neutralization does not occur.
HA + B ↔ BH++ A−
• The pH of the neutralized solution depends on the acid dissociation constant of the base, pKa,
or, equivalently, on the base association constant, pKb.
Weak base – weak base neutralization
• Both weak acids and bases have a slower rate of dissociation and thus they cannot be
neutralized by one another.
51
Calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa = -log10 (Ka)) to determine the
difference between strong and weak acids (ACSCH098)
Calculation of pKa for strong and weak acids:
• For HCl, which is a strong acid, the Ka value is 1.3 x 106. Hence,
pKa = -log10(Ka)
= -log10(1.3 x 106)
= -6.1
• For HCOOH, which is a weak acid, the Ka value is 1.8 x 10-4. Hence,
pKa = -log10(Ka)
= -log10(1.8 x 10-4)
= 3.7
• Strong acids have a higher Ka value because they dissociate completely in aqueous solution.
Since pKa is the negative logarithm of Ka, it tends to be lower. The opposite scenario is for weak
acids which have a lower Ka value and a higher pKa value.
52
Explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:
– in industries
– by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
– using digital probes and instruments
Acid / Base analysis techniques in industries
• Quantitative analysis of different types of precipitation is an important aspect in environmental

studies. Measurement of acidity or basicity in snow or rainfall can be done by general titration
methods.
• Analysis of water to determine whether is safe or not is done by specialized titration
instruments that measure the content of different chemical entities in a water sample and
determines whether it is safe for intake.
• Analysis of chemical substances in food products is an important phase to specify nutritional
values. This step is carried out by a standard titration process that involves insertion of an
electrode in the sample (for example orange juice) along with deionized water and then
addition of titrant catalyst.
• Simple titration kits are used by winemakers to understand the degree of acidity present in the
wine.
• Variant number of titration techniques using specialized instruments are used in
pharmaceutical industries to ensure quality control.
Acid / Base analysis techniques by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
• The use of Bush Medicine originated among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.
They know how to remove toxicity from different materials to later be used as medicine.
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples use their organic and inorganic chemistry
knowledge to form and utilise new substances, for example, quicklime (calcium oxide),
pigments (iron oxide, charcoal), acid (pyroligneous acid), plaster (calcium sulphate), alkali
salts (salts of potassium and sodium), beverages (ethanol), charcoal, and by-products such
as heat and light.
Acid / Base analysis using digital probes and instruments
• With the progression of technology, modern instruments have been introduced to carry out
acid base analysis, which give more precise result as compared to the manual process.
• Automatic Titrators are a range of microprocessor controlled titration equipment that are
affordable and deliver endpoint detection based on data, minimizes sample usage and
provides data accuracy which can be monitored in a computer or can be printed.
• An automated Karl Fischer Titrator user the principles of coulometric or volumetric
titration to determine trace amounts of water in a sample.
• Potentiometric Titrators use a technique similar to direct titration of a redox reaction and is
a useful means of characterizing an acid without the need of indicators and measuring the
potential across the analyte.
Source:
HANNA INSTRUMENTS BLOG
Karl Fischer titration
53
Conduct a chemical analysis of a common household substance for its acidity or basicity (ACSCH080)
, for example:
– soft drink
– wine
– juice
– medicine
Chemical analysis of soft drinks for its acidity or basicity
• Soft drinks might be the most acidic beverage that we consume on an everyday basis, its
acidity is near to that of vinegar.
• A simple experiment to measure acidity of soft drinks is as follows:
• Required Materials:
o Different varieties of soda
o Containers, one for each soft drink
o Scotch tape
o Pen
o pH paper strips
o pH colour chart
o Paper
• Steps:
o Take each variety of soft drink in a container. Add scotch tapes outside the beakers
and write the name of each variety.
o Take pH paper strips for each of the soft drinks. Dip the pH paper in each soft drink
and keep it dipped for at least one second. For more accurate result, conduct this
step for each soft drink at least three times.
o Observe the colour change in the pH strip and compare it with the pH colour chart. A
deep red colour will indicate high acidic content, deep purple colour indicates high
alkalinity and green shades indicate a balance between acidity and basicity.
o Note the pH value for the colours obtained for each of the soft drinks.
o Since for each soft drink three readings were taken, calculate the average of 3 pH
values obtained. The average pH value will be the determinant of acidity or basicity of
the sample soft drinks.
Source:
How to Measure the Acidity of Soft Drinks
54
Conduct a practical investigation to prepare a buffer and demonstrate its properties (ACSCH080)
Preparation of a buffer solution
• Solutions whose pH remain unchanged even after addition of a small amount of acid or base
is known as Buffer solution.
• Preparation of acidic buffer and its properties:
o Acidic buffers are generally produced by mixing a weak acid with its salt. For example
mixture of CH3COOH and CH3COONa from the reaction,
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂
o Acidic buffers generally have a pH value of less than 7.

o If the solution contained equal molar concentrations of both the acid and the salt, it
would have a pH of 4.76.
o When an acid is added to an acidic buffer, most of the H+ ion of the added acid is
consumed by CH3COO-. CH3COOH being a weak acid does not dissociate quickly
thus, the pH is balanced.
o When a base is added to this buffer, OH- reacts with H+ obtained from the
dissociation of CH3COOH and forms neutral water. Until all the OH- ions are
removed, CH3COOH keeps dissociating.
• Preparation of basic buffer and its properties:
o Basic buffers are generally produced by mixing a weak base with its salt. For
example mixture of NH4OH and NH4Cl from the reaction,
𝑁𝐻4 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
o Acidic buffers generally have a pH value of greater than 7.

o If the solution contained equal molar concentrations of both the acid and the salt, it
would have a pH of 9.25.
o On addition of an acid in this buffer, some of the H+ ion of the added acid is
consumed by NH3 while some react with OH- to produce water. Thus, no significant
pH change is observed.
o When a base is added to this buffer, OH- reacts with NH4+ and most of the OH- ions
are eliminated in this way.
55
Describe the importance of buffers in natural systems (ACSCH098, ACSCH102)
Importance of buffers in natural systems
• To maintain blood pH. Carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions produced during CO 2 transport in
our body plays role in regulating blood pH and keeping it maintained at 7.4
pH levels of Blood
Death Acidosis Normal Alkalosis Death
(6 - 7) (7 – 7.35)) (7.35 – 7.45) (7.45 – 7.8) (7.8 - 9)
• The phosphate buffer in living systems have a similar action to that of bicarbonate buffers but
much stronger. Phosphate ions regulates the pH of cells when hydrogen ions are present in
excess amount.
• Protein is a significant buffer for cells, tissues and blood it acts by consuming hydrogen ions
produced due to the dissociation of the carbonic acid into hydrogen bicarbonate.
56
Module 7: Organic Chemistry
Nomenclature
Investigate the nomenclature of organic chemicals, up to C8, using IUPAC conventions, including
simple methyl and ethyl branched chains, including: (ACSCH127)
– alkanes
– alkenes
– alkynes
– alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary)
– aldehydes and ketones
– halogenated organic compounds
Nomenclature of alkanes
• Straight chained alkanes are named by replacing their alkyl names (which would be formed after
removing a hydrogen atom from the structure) with –ane. For example, Methane comes from
methyl.
Number of carbons in linear chain Name according to IUPAC

1 Methane
2 Ethane
3 Propane
4 Butane
5 Pentane
6 Hexane
7 Heptane
8 Octane
• For branched chains however, the following rules are to be considered:
o The longest carbon chain should be identified and selected as the parent chain.
o Identify all of the substituents (groups appending from the parent chain).
o Number the carbons of the parent chain from the end that gives the substituents the
lowest numbers.
o If the same substituent occurs more than once, the location of each point on which the
substituent occurs is given. In addition, the number of times the substituent group occurs
is indicated by a prefix (di, tri, tetra, etc.).
o If there are two or more different substituents they are listed in alphabetical order using
the base name.
o If chains of equal length are competing for selection as the parent chain, then the choice
goes in series to:
▪ the chain which has the greatest number of side chains.
▪ the chain whose substituents have the lowest- numbers.
▪ the chain having the greatest number of carbon atoms in the smaller side chain.
▪ the chain having the least branched side chains.
57
58
Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes
• Since alkenes and alkynes have double and triple bonds respectively, no single carbon molecule
are present and the naming starts from molecules having 2 carbon atoms. For alkenes, the suffix
from saturated hydrocarbons –ane is replaced by –ene and in case of alkynes, it is replaced by –
yne.
Number of carbons in linear Alkene Alkyne

chain
2 Ethene Ethyne
3 Propene Propyne
4 Butene Butyne
5 Pentene Pentyne
6 Hexene Hexyne
7 Heptene Heptyne
8 Octene Octyne
• For branched chains, the following rules apply:

o The parent chain is numbered so that the multiple bonds have the lowest numbers
(double and triple bonds have priority over alkyl and halo substituents).
o When both double and triple bonds are present, numbers as low as possible are given to
double and triple bonds even though this may at times give "-yne" a lower number than "-
ene".
o When both double and triple bonds are present, the -en suffix follows the parent chain
directly and the -yne suffix follows the -en suffix (notice that the e is left off, -en instead of
-ene).
o If there is a choice in numbering not previously covered, the parent chain is numbered to
give the substituents the lowest number at the first point of difference.
59
Nomenclature of alcohols
• Alcohols are named by replacing the suffix -ane with -anol.
Number of carbons Name according to IUPAC

1 Methanol
2 Ethanol
3 Propanol
4 Butanol
5 Pentanol
6 Hexanol
7 Heptanol
8 Octanol
• For branched chain, the rules are:

o The hydroxyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well
as double bonds, in the numbering of the parent chain.
o When both double bonds and hydroxyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the
parent chain directly and the -ol suffix follows the -en suffix.
Nomenclature of aldehydes
• Aldehydes are named by replacing the suffix -ane with -anal.

• For branched aldehydes, following rules should be considered:
o The carbonyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well
o When both double bonds and carbonyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the
parent chain directly and the -al suffix follows the -en suffix.
o There are a couple of common names which are acceptable as IUPAC names. They are
shown in the examples at the end of this list but at this point these names will not be
accepted by the computer. Eventually they will be accepted.
60
Nomenclature of ketones
• Ketones are named by replacing the suffix -ane with -anone.

• The following rules are applied in case of naming branches:
o The carbonyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well
o When both double bonds and carbonyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the
parent chain directly and the -one suffix follows the -en suffix.
Nomenclature of carboxylic acids
• Carboxylic acids are named by counting the number of carbons in the longest continuous chain
including the carboxyl group and by replacing the suffix -ane of the corresponding alkane with -
anoic acid.
• Rules for naming branches:
o The carboxyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well
o If the carboxyl group is attached to a ring the parent ring is named and the suffix -
carboxylic acid is added.
o When both double bonds and carboxyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the
parent chain directly and the -oic acid suffix follows the -en suffix.
61
o There are several common names which are acceptable as IUPAC names. They are
shown in the examples at the end of this list but at this point these names will not be
accepted by the computer. Eventually they will be accepted.
Nomenclature of amines
• Unlike the rest of the organic compounds, amines lack special rules when it comes to naming
them.
• They are named like ethers, the alkyl (R) groups attached to the nitrogen are put in alphabetical
order with no spaces between the names and these are followed by the word amine.
• The prefixes di- and tri- are used if two or three of the alkyl groups are the same.
Nomenclature of halogenated organic compounds
• Halogenated hydrocarbons are named by adding the name of the halogen as a prefix to the
hydrocarbon. For example, bromine combined with ethane is termed as Bromoethane, 4 chlorine
groups with methane is called tetrachloromethane.
• The carbon atoms should be numbered from the position that gives lower series of number.
Reference: How to name organic compounds using the IUPAC rules
62
Explore and distinguish the different types of structural isomers, including saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons, including: (ACSCH035)
– chain isomers
– position isomers
– functional group isomers
Chain Isomers
• Rearrangement in the backbone carbon molecules in hydrocarbons and the resultant

products being compounds having same molecular formula and but different structural
formula.
• For example, 3 different isomers can be made from pentane which are n-pentane (generally
termed as pentane), isopentane (2-methylbutane) and neopentane (dimethylpropane).
Position Isomers
• Reordering and changes in position of functional groups in molecules.

• For example, pentanol can have 3 position isomers, 1-pentanol, 2-pentanol and 3-pentanol
respectively.
Functional Group Isomers
• Compounds having same molecular formula but different functional groups in their structure
are known as functional isomers.
• Difference in functional groups refers to the fact that functional isomers belong to different
homologous series.
63
Hydrocarbons
Construct models, identify the functional group, and write structural and molecular formulae for
homologous series of organic chemical compounds, up to C8 (ACSCH035) :
– alkanes
– alkenes
– alkynes
Compound Functional Group Structural Formula Molecular Formula

for homologous
series
Alkane None │ CnH2n+1
─C─
│
Alkene None ─C=C─ CnH2n
│ │
Alkyne None ─C≡C─ CnHn
64
Conduct an investigation to compare the properties of organic chemical compounds within a
homologous series, and explain these differences in terms of bonding (ACSCH035)
Properties of chemical compounds within a homologous series:
• Members within the same homologous series have same functional group if present. As for
example, all alcohols have the functional group –OH.
• Two consecutive members of the same homologous series differ by a –CH2 unit.
• Members within the same homologous series can be represented by a general formula. For
example, the general formula of alkenes is CnH2n.
• The chemical reactions of organic compounds are mainly controlled by their functional
groups. Hence, compounds of the same homologous series give similar reactions.
• With increase in molecular mass, physical properties of compounds within the same
homologous series steadily increases.
• The general method of preparation for organic compounds is same within a homologous
series.
65
Analyse the shape of molecules formed between carbon atoms when a single, double or triple bond
is formed between them
Shapes of alkane, alkene and alkyne molecules
Type of compound Hybridization Structure/Shape of Bond Angles

molecules
Alkane sp3 Tetrahedral 109.5°
Alkene sp2 Trigonal Polar 120°
Alkyne sp Linear 180°
66
Explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alkanes with reference to the
intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
• Symmetrical alkanes are generally non-polar and the only form of attraction they have with
neighbouring molecules is the Van der Waals dispersion forces.
• Higher the number of carbons in alkanes, greater their bonds and thus consecutively, the
state of alkane goes from gaseous to solid.
• Due to very feeble polarity, alkanes do not dissolve in other polar solvents like water.
However, they are soluble in organic solvents because they have Van der Waals force which
can be replaced by new ones when they are dissolved in organic solvents.
67
Describe the procedures required to safely handle and dispose of organic substances (ACSCH075)
Safety rules for organic substances

• Safety glasses must be worn to avoid splashes, fumes from coming in contact with the eyes.
• Chemicals should never be touched with bare hands and high quality laboratory gloves
should be worn.
• A lab coat should always be used. The less the skin is exposed inside the laboratory the
better.
• Chemical reagents should always be stored in labelled bottles and while performing
experiments with chemicals, one must be extra careful to not play around with it and use
proper amounts during the experiment.
• Organic liquids should never be poured down the drain and should be disposed separately in
the ‘Organic Liquid’ waste container located in the fume hood.
• Never sniff chemicals directly from containers.
• Mercury spills from broken thermometers must be cleaned up immediately.
68
Examine the environmental, economic and sociocultural implications of obtaining and using
hydrocarbons from the Earth
• Burning of hydrocarbons release carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere which is in fact, a

greenhouse gas. Therefore extensive use of hydrocarbons increases the risks of greenhouse
effect.
• Incomplete burning of hydrocarbons results in the formation of carbon monoxide, a fatal gas
that can cause death within minutes to exposure.
• CFC, a widely used hydrocarbon in refrigerators and spray cans when exposed to the
environment causes harm to the ozone layer and thus, is a contributing factor to the
greenhouse effect. It also causes exposure of humans and animals to harmful UV rays.
• Aldehydes and other toxic materials released from burning plywood inhibit photosynthesis in
plants, cause eye and lung irritations, and even possibly cause cancer.
• Benzene molecules have been found to deplete red blood cells, cause cancer in mammals
and damage bone marrow.
69
Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons
Investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of unsaturated
hydrocarbons when added to a range of chemicals, including but not limited to:
– hydrogen (H2)
– halogens (X2)
– hydrogen halides (HX)
– water (H2O) (ACSCH136)
Reaction with Hydrogen (H2)

• Alkenes participate in an addition reaction with Hydrogen (known as hydrogenation). The double
bonds between the carbon atoms break and hydrogen atoms are added in the free bonds.
𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐻2 = 𝐶2 𝐻6
• Alkynes too give similar Hydrogenation reaction. The only difference is that since alkynes have
triple bonds and only one of the bonds is broken.
𝐶2 𝐻2 + 𝐻2 = 𝐶2 𝐻4
Reaction with Halogens (X2)

• When halogens react with Alkenes the C=C breaks and the halogens are added in the free
bonds.
𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝑋2 = 𝐶2 𝐻4 𝑋2
• Alkynes also give similar reactions and the halogens replace a one bond of the triple bonds.
𝐶2 𝐻2 + 𝑋2 = 𝐶2 𝐻2 𝑋2
Reaction with Hydrogen Halides (HX)
• Alkenes react with hydrogen halides as follows:
𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐻𝑋 = 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑋
• Alkynes give the following reaction:
𝐶2 𝐻2 + 𝐻𝑋 = 𝐶2 𝐻3 𝑋
Reaction with Water (H2O)

• In presence of high amount of acid which has catalytic effects, Alkenes react with water to form
alcohol.
Reference image for reaction:
• Alkynes react with water in presence of acid and mercuric sulphate. The product of hydration of
most alkynes are ketones.
𝑅𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → [ 𝑅𝐶(𝑂𝐻) = 𝐶𝐻2 ] → 𝑅𝐶(= 𝑂)𝐶𝐻3
70
Investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of saturated
hydrocarbons when substituted with halogens
Halogenation reaction of Alkanes
• Experiments have shown that to trigger the reactions between halogens and alkanes, UV light is a
must. Later as the reactions proceed further, presence of light is not mandatory.
• An example of alkane halogenation is given as follows:
1. CH4 + Cl2 = CH3Cl (chloromethane) + HCl
2. CH3Cl + Cl2 = CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane) + HCl
3. CH2Cl2 + Cl2 = CHCl3 (trichloromethane) + HCl
4. CHCl3 + Cl2 = CCl4 (tetrachloromethane) + HCl
71
Alcohols
Investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
– primary
– secondary
– tertiary alcohols
Primary Alcohol
• Functional Group: ─OH

• Structural Formula: Primary alcohols have only a single alkyl group attached to the
functional group.
Secondary Alcohol

• Structural Formula: Two alkyl groups are found attached to the functional ─OH in secondary
alcohols.
Tertiary Alcohol

• Structural Formula: Tertiary alcohols have more than two alkyl groups attached to the
functional ─OH.
Properties
• Generally, have higher boiling points as compared to other hydrocarbons.

• Hydrogen bond formation between alcohols and water make them capable of being dissolved
in water.
• Alcohols are acidic in nature and can react with metals to form metal alkoxides.
• Alcohols undergo oxidation reactions and can produce aldehydes and ketones based on the
number of alkyl groups present. Generally, primary alcohols when oxidized produce
aldehydes whereas, secondary alcohols produce ketones and tertiary alcohols do not
undergo oxidation. Upon further oxidation of alcohols, carboxylic acids are found.
Reference image for structure:
72
Explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alcohols with reference to the
intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
• Alcohols form stronger intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds which is the reason
of their elevated boiling points.
• The oxygen atom of the strongly polarized O―H bond of an alcohol pulls electron density
away from the hydrogen atom. This polarized hydrogen, which bears a partial positive charge,
can form a hydrogen bond with a pair of nonbonding electrons on another oxygen atom.
• Because alcohols possess a hydrophilic ―OH group, they have tendencies to form hydrogen
bonds with water which allows them to dissolve in water.
• Alcohols with higher molecular weights tend to be less water-soluble, because the
hydrocarbon part of the molecule, which is hydrophobic (“water-hating”), is larger with
increased molecular weight.
• Because they are strongly polar, alcohols are better solvents than hydrocarbons for ionic
compounds and other polar substances.
73
Conduct a practical investigation to measure and reliably compare the enthalpy of combustion for a
range of alcohols
• Alcohols react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Since all alcohols have a –
OH group present, they give the same reaction.
• However, the amount of heat released during the combustion reaction differs from alcohol to
alcohol.
• For alcohols having higher number of carbons, a larger amount of bond energy needs to be
crossed to break the bonds of the reactants to form the final products. Thus, the enthalpy
increases with the increase of carbon number.
• For example, energy released in the combustion reaction of methanol is 726 kJ/mole and in
case of ethanol it is 1367 kJ/mole.
74
Write equations, state conditions and predict products to represent the reactions of alcohols,
including but not limited to (ACSCH128, ACSCH136):
– combustion
– dehydration
– substitution with HX
– oxidation
Combustion
• Alcohols react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛−1 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Dehydration
• When dehydrated in the presence of a dehydrating agents, alcohols produce alkenes and
water.
Substitution with HX
• Alcohols react with hydrogen halides (HX) to produce alkyl halides and water.
𝑅 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝑋 = 𝑅 − 𝑋 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Oxidation
• When oxidized, alcohols produce aldehydes and ketones. On further oxidation, carboxylic
acids are produced.
• Only primary and secondary alcohols undergo oxidation in the presence of sodium or
potassium dichromate.
75
Investigate the production of alcohols, including:
– substitution reactions of halogenated organic compounds
– fermentation
Production of alcohols from substitution of halogenated organic compounds

• Alkyl halide when mixed with dry ether and magnesium produces a reagent known as
Grignard Reagent which has the general formula RMgX. When this Grignard reagent reacts
with carbonyl compounds, alcohols are produced.
• Production of primary alcohol:
• Production of secondary alcohol:
• Production of tertiary alcohol:
76
Production of alcohols from fermentation
• In presence of yeast, glucose is fermented to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
77
Investigate the products of the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols
• Oxidation of primary alcohols produces aldehydes. On further oxidation, carboxylic acid is

produced.
• Secondary alcohols do not produce aldehydes rather, they produce ketones. No further
oxidation occurs in case of secondary alcohols.
78
Compare and contrast fuels from organic sources to biofuels, including ethanol
Biogas
• Produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes from

biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to
supplement gas yields.
• The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
• Biogas can be recovered from mechanical biological treatment waste processing systems.
Syngas
• Produced by partial combustion of biomass and is a combination of carbon monoxide,

hydrogen and other hydrocarbons.
• Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines, turbines or high-temperature
fuel cells.
Ethanol
• Produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars
or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult) and is the most common biofuel
worldwide.
• The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored
starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying.
Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe and produced from oils or fats using
transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel.
• Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs).
• Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua,
mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae.
• Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel.
79
Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases
Investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
– primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
– aldehydes and ketones (ACSCH127)
Compounds Structural Formula Functional Group
Primary Alcohol R-OH -OH
Secondary Alcohol CHROH -OH
Tertiary Alcohol -CR2OH -OH
Aldehydes R-CHO -CHO
Ketones RCO -CO
Amines RNH2 -NH2
Amides RCONH2/RCONR -CONH2 / -CONR
Properties of alcohol
• Generally, have higher boiling points as compared to other hydrocarbons.

• Hydrogen bond formation between alcohols and water make them capable of being dissolved in
water.
• Alcohols are acidic in nature and can react with metals to form metal alkoxides.
• Alcohols undergo oxidation reactions and can produce aldehydes and ketones based on the
number of alkyl groups present. Generally, primary alcohols when oxidized produce aldehydes
whereas, secondary alcohols produce ketones and tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation.
Upon further oxidation of alcohols, carboxylic acids are found.
Properties of aldehyde
• Smaller aldehydes are more soluble in water.

• The volatile aldehydes have pungent odours.
• Aldehydes degrade in air via the process of autoxidation.
• The two aldehydes of greatest importance in industry, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, have
complicated behaviour because of their tendency to oligomerize or polymerize.
Properties of ketone
• Ketones are polar compounds thus soluble in water.

• Due to resonance stabilization, alpha hydrogen of ketones is far more acidic as compared to
alkanes.
• Boiling point of ketones is higher than other non - polar hydrocarbons.
Properties of amine
• The lower aliphatic amines are gaseous in nature with a fishy smell and can form hydrogen bonds
with water molecules and thus are soluble in water.
• Amines with three or four carbon atoms are liquids at room temperature and those having more
carbon atoms hiare solids.
• Higher the carbon number in amines, lower the capability of being soluble in water.
• Organic solvents like alcohol, benzene, and ether readily dissolve amines.
• Primary and secondary amines are often engaged in the intermolecular association as a result of
hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and hydrogen of the other molecule. The order of
intermolecular association is Primary > Secondary > Tertiary.
80
Properties of amides
• Generally, have high melting and boiling points.

• Have polarity as a result of which they are soluble in water.
• Compared to amines, amides are pretty weak as bases.
81
Explain the properties within and between the homologous series of carboxylic acids amines and
amides with reference to the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
Properties of amines
• The lower aliphatic amines are gaseous in nature with a fishy smell and can form hydrogen
bonds with water molecules and thus are soluble in water.
• Amines with three or four carbon atoms are liquids at room temperature and those having
more carbon atoms hiare solids.
• Higher the carbon number in amines, lower the capability of being soluble in water.
• Organic solvents like alcohol, benzene, and ether readily dissolve amines.
• Primary and secondary amines are often engaged in the intermolecular association as a
result of hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and hydrogen of the other molecule. The
order of intermolecular association is Primary > Secondary > Tertiary.
Properties of carboxylic acids
• Carboxylic acids exhibit strong hydrogen bonding between molecules and thus have high
melting and boiling points.
• Carboxylic acids having one to four carbons are highly soluble in water due to the presence of
dominant hydrogen bonds.
• However, with the increase in carbon number, the hydrogen bonds become recessive and
dispersion forces becoming dominant thus, their solubility decreases.
Properties of amides
• Generally, have high melting and boiling points.

• Have polarity as a result of which they are soluble in water except for tertiary amides which
show feeble solubility.
• Because of the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the carbonyl (C=O) is a stronger dipole
than the N–C dipole.
82
Investigate the production, in a school laboratory, of simple esters
Preparation of simple esters
Required Reagents:
• Conc. sulphuric acid

• A range of alcohols
• A range of carboxylic acids
• 3 x boiling tubes
• Large beaker to act as a water bath
• 250cm3
• Beaker with the cold water
• 0-100 °C thermometer
• 10cm3
• Measuring cylinder
• Stirring rod
• Spatula
• Access to kettle
• Mass balance
• Dropping pipette
Procedure:
1. Place 1cm3 of methanol and 3g of salicylic acid in a boiling tube. Mix well and carefully add a
few drops of conc. sulphuric acid.
2. Place the boiling tube in a water bath at about 80°C for five minutes.
3. Pour the contents of the boiling tube into a beaker of cold water.
4. Carefully smell the ester floating on the water.
5. Place 1cm3 of ethanol and 1cm3 of ethanoic acid in a boiling tube. Mix well and carefully add
a few drops of conc. sulphuric acid.
6. Repeat steps 2 – 4.
7. Try other alcohol/carboxylic acid combinations.
Result:
A fruity smell will be observed indicating the presence of esters. Further identification tests can be
conducted for confirmation.
83
Investigate the differences between an organic acid and organic base
Organic Acid Organic Base

Organic compounds behaving like acids Organic compounds behaving like bases
Relative stability of the conjugate base determines Inductive effect determines the bases’ strength
the strength of acid
Releases proton in aqueous solution Organic bases do not always accept protons
Examples: carboxyl group, sulphonic group, Examples: amines and nitrogen containing
hydroxyl group, phenol group, thiol group. heterocyclic compounds.
84
Investigate the structure and action of soaps and detergents
Structure and cleansing action of soaps and detergents

• Soap is the product of a saponification reaction between alkalis and fats and oils.
• A soap molecule has two ends, a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end.
• When soap mixes with water, the hydrophilic end is directed towards water whereas the
hydrophobic end directs towards the dirt molecules which are mostly fats, oils or grease.
• Both the hydrophobic and the hydrophilic end form micelles which trap the dirt and afterwards
removes them.
85
Draft and construct flow charts to show reaction pathways for chemical synthesis, including those
that involve more than one step
\\
Few drops of silver nitrate

solution was added to the
stock solution
Add Yes Did the color No

Ag+
ammonium change undetected
hydroxide
Yes
Did the precipitate

dissolve
Yes
Ag+
detected
Fig: Steps for detecting Ag+ in a sample
86
Polymers
Model and compare the structure, properties and uses of addition polymers of ethylene and related
monomers, for example:
– polyethylene (PE)
– polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
– polystyrene (PS)
– polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (ACSCH136)
Polyethylene (PE)
Structure
• Composed of several non-polar, saturated monomers of ethylene molecules.

• Forms a long of chain of hydrogen atoms connected to a carbon backbone.
Properties
• Resistant to strong acids, bases, gentle oxidants and reducing agents.

• Dissolve in aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents in high temperature.
• Good electrical insulator.
Uses
• For packaging of goods in a variant number of industries.

• As a consumer good for disposing trash and garbage.
• For manufacture of rope, fishing net and other sport goods.
• For production of pipes and fittings.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Structure
• Vinyl polymer made of a carbon backbone where hydrogens in specific positions are replaced
by chlorine atoms.
87
Properties
• Tough and possesses high mechanical strength.

• Heat stability is quite poor which calls for the addition of heat stabilizers to ensure the
product’s properties.
• A good insulator but because of having a high polarity, its insulating properties is less as
compared to that of polyethylene and polypropylene.
• Resistant to corrosive materials such as acids, salts, bases, fats, and alcohols.
Uses
• Half of the world’s polyvinyl resin is used for manufacturing municipal and industrial pipes for
its ability to resist corrosion.
• Used for creating signs and other forms of commercial signage products.
• Used as insulation on electric cables.
• PVC fabric is water-resistant, used for its weather-resistant qualities in coats, skiing
equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and sports bags.
Polystyrene (PS)
Structure
• Long chain hydrocarbon where phenyl groups are attached to alternating carbon atoms.
Properties
• High tensile strength and can tolerate high impact.

• Malleable and can be moulded into different shapes.
• Recyclable and environment friendly.
• A good heat insulator.
Uses
• Often used to make parts of electronic appliances because it is cheap and chemically inert.
• Used to make automobile parts, including knobs, instrument panels, trim etc.
• Widely used in food storing and packaging.
• Due to its clarity and ease of sterilization, polystyrene is used for a wide range of medical
applications, including tissue culture trays, test tubes, petri dishes, diagnostic components,
housings for test kits and medical devices.
88
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Structure
• Synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene.
Properties
• Highly flexible.
• Resistant to heat, chemical and even water.
• High electrical resistance and dielectric strength.
Uses
• Major application in wiring of aerospace and computer applications.

• Used as non-stick coating for pans and cookware.
• Due to being resistant to corrosion, it is often used in containers and pipework for corrosive
substances.
89
Model and compare the structure, properties and uses of condensation polymers, for example:
– nylon
– polyesters
Nylon
Structure
• Condensation polymer derived from condensation reaction of monomers containing terminal

carboxylic acid and amine groups.
• The monomers form repeating units and alternate in the chain.
Properties
• Strong, elastic and easy to wash.

• Have the ability to retain shape even after heavy strain.
• Possesses excellent abrasion resistance and colour lightfastness.
• High resistance to insects, fungi, animals, as well as molds, mildew, rot and many chemicals.
Uses
• In manufacture of parachutes.
• Common material for production of different forms of clothing, fabrics and ropes.
• Nylon resins are used in automobile and food industries.
90
Polyesters
Structure
• Polymers formed from a dicarboxylic acid and a diol, also known as Polyethylene
Terephthalate.
• Being an ester, it is made from an acid, benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid (terephthalic acid), and
an alcohol, ethane-1,2-diol.
• Each repeating unit of monomer is held with an ester linkage.
Properties
• Formation of highly effective Van der walls force and hydrogen bonds provide good tenacity.
• The hydrophobic nature of the polymer system attracts fats, oils, grease, acids etc.
• Poor heat conductor and resistant to UV radiation from the sun.
Uses
• Fabrics woven from polyester are used in apparel and home furnishing.
• Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for
conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy
absorption.
• Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays,
holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes.
Reference:
Polyester
Physical And Chemical Properties Of Polyester
Polyesters
91
Module 8: Applying Chemical Ideas
Analysis of Inorganic Substances

Analyse the need for monitoring the environment
• A core purpose of environmental monitoring is to comprehend how the environment is

changing with time and how day to day human activities are impacting the environment.
• For example, air quality monitoring can give us the idea about the chemical composition,
humidity and moisture levels in air of a particular region and allow data analysts to decide on
if the sampled air is pollution free.
• Environmental monitoring also measures risk factors due to the extensive by products created
as industrial wastes.
• Validated microbiological testing, in combination with a robust environmental monitoring
program, helps to maximize a manufacturers' confidence in their products while ensuring the
safety of the end user.
92
Conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests, precipitation and complexation reactions as
appropriate – to test for the presence in aqueous solution of the following ions:
– cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), lead(II) (Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+),
copper(II) (Cu2+), iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) (Fe3+)
– anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–), hydroxide (OH–), acetate (CH3COO–),
carbonate (CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)
Detection of metal ions by flame test
• The sample metallic salt is moistened with concentrated HCl on a Platinum wire. Since no solvent
is involved in this reaction, it is also called Dry Test.
• The wire is held in a non-luminous flame of the Bunsen Burner. The following colour changes are
observed:
Salt/ion Colour in flame

Ca-salt (Ca+) Brick Red
Ba-salt (Ba2+) Apple Green
Mg-salt (Mg2+) none
Pb-salt (Pb2+) Blue/White
Ag-salt (Ag+) none
Cu-salt (Cu2+) Blue-green
Fe-salt (Fe2+) Bright blue or green
Fe-salt (Fe3+) Orange-brown
Detection of ions by precipitation and complexation reactions
• Ions are detected by their precipitation reactions by a process called Wet Test.
• The first step of every wet test is to prepare stock solutions of the sample.
• The steps for detection of some common ions are as follows:
Test for Ba2+
Experiment Observation Reaction Inference

Aqueous solution of White precipitate was Ba2+ + (NH4)2CO3 (aq) → Ba2+ ion was
ammonium carbonate observed. The solution BaCO3 (white precipitate) confirmed
was added in the was then boiled in + 2NH4+ (aq)
sample acetic acid and a few
drops of potassium BaCO3 (s) + CH3COOH
chromate was added. (aq) → Ba(CH3COO)2 +
Yellow precipitate was H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
seen
Ba2+ (aq) + K2CrO4 (aq) →
BaCrO4 (yellow precipitate)
+ 2K+
Test for Ca2+

Ammonium oxalate White precipitate of CaCl2 + NH4OOC - Ca2+ ion was
solution was added to calcium oxalate was COONH4 → Ca(OOC – confirmed
the sample formed COO)2 (white precipitate)
+ 2NH4Cl
93
Test for Mg2+

Ammonium chloride, White precipitate was Mg2+ + HPO42- + NH4+ → Mg2+ ion was
ammonium hydroxide formed Mg(NH4)PO4 (white confirmed
and disodium hydrogen precipitate) + H+
phosphate was added
to the stock solution
Test for Pb2+

Dilute hydrochloric acid White precipitate was Pb2+ (aq) + HCl (aq) → Pb2+ ion was
was added to the stock formed. On adding PbCl2 (white precipitate) confirmed
solution. potassium iodide, the
solution gave a yellow Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) →
precipitate PbI2 (yellow precipitate)
Test for Ag+

Dilute hydrochloric acid White precipitate was Ag+ (aq) + HCl (aq) → Ag+ ion was
was added to the stock formed. On adding AgCl (white precipitate) confirmed
solution. potassium chromate,
the solution gave a brick 2AgCl + K2CrO4 (aq) →
red precipitate Ag2CrO4 (brick red
precipitate) + 2KCl (aq)
Test for Cu2+

Small amount of Light blue precipitate 2CuSO4 (aq) + 2NH4OH → Cu2+ ion was
ammonium hydroxide was formed. On CuSO4.Cu(OH)2 (light blue confirmed
was added to the stock addition of excess precipitate) + (NH4)2SO4
solution ammonium hydroxide,
the precipitate turned CuSO4.Cu(OH)2 +
deep blue (NH4)2SO4 + NH4OH →
2[Cu(NH3)4]SO4 (deep blue
precipitate) + 8H2O
Test for Fe2+

Small amount of Blue precipitate of FeSO4 (aq) + NH4OH → Fe2+ ion was
ammonium hydroxide ferrous hydroxide was Fe(OH)2 (blue precipitate) confirmed
was added to the stock formed + (NH4)2SO4
solution
Test for Fe3+

Small amount of Brown precipitate of FeCl3 (aq) + NH4OH → Fe3+ ion was
ammonium hydroxide ferric hydroxide was Fe(OH)3 (brown confirmed
was added to the stock formed precipitate) + NH4Cl
solution
94
Test for Cl-

Few drops of silver White precipitate of NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl Cl- ion was
nitrate solution was silver chloride was (white precipitate) + confirmed
added to the stock formed which was NaNO3
solution soluble in ammonium AgCl + 2NH4OH →
hydroxide but insoluble [Ag(NH3)2]Cl (soluble) +
in nitric acid 2H2O
Test for Br-

Few drops dilute nitric Very pale cream NaBr + AgNO3 → NaNO3 Br- ion was
acid was added to the precipitate of silver + AgBr (very pale cream confirmed
stock solution. bromide was formed precipitate)
Afterwards, silver nitrate
solution was added
Test for I-

Few drops dilute nitric Very pale yellow NaI + AgNO3 → NaNO3 + I- ion was confirmed
acid was added to the precipitate of silver AgI (very pale yellow
stock solution. iodide was formed precipitate)
Afterwards, silver nitrate
solution was added
Test for OH-

Red litmus paper was Red litmus turned blue OH- ion was
dipped in the stock confirmed
solution
Test for CH3COO-

Ethanol was added to A fruity smell was found CH3COO- + H2SO4 → CH3COO- ion was
the stock solution. CH3COOH + HSO4- confirmed
Afterwards, a few drops
of sulphuric acid was
added
Test for SO42-

Few drops of lead White precipitate of lead NaSO4 + Pb(CH3COO)2 → SO42- ion was
acetate solution was sulphate was formed. PbSO4 (white precipitate) + confirmed
added to the stock 2CH3COONa
solution
95
Test for CO32-

Few drops barium White precipitate of ZnCO3 + Ba(NO3)2 → CO32- ion was
nitrate solution was barium carbonate was BaCO3 (white precipitate) confirmed
added to the stock formed which on + Zn(NO3)2
solution reaction with HCl BaCO3 + HCl → BaCl2 +
evolves CO2 gas CO2 + H2O
Test for PO43-

Concentrated nitric Yellow precipitate was H3PO4 + (NH4)2MoO4 + H+ → PO43- ion was
acid was added to the formed (NH4)3PO4·12MoO3·2H2O confirmed
stock solution. (yellow precipitate) + NH4+ +
Afterwards, ammonium H2O
molybdate was added
96
Conduct investigations and/or process data involving:
– gravimetric analysis
– precipitation titrations
Gravimetric Analysis
• A method in analytical chemistry for determining quantity of an analyte my measuring its

mass
• The principle behind gravimetric analysis is that the mass of an ion in a pure compound can
be determined and then used to find the mass percent of the same ion in a known quantity of
an impure compound. Thus, solutions play an important role in gravimetric analysis
• Some more factors that should be considered while doing gravimetric analysis include:
o The analyte must be completely precipitated.
o The precipitate must be a pure compound.
o The precipitate must be easily filtered.
Precipitation Titrations
• Method in which analytes and titrants form insoluble precipitants

• Useful for determination of halides
• Involves the use of precipitating agents such as silver nitrate, and are therefore also known as
argentimetric titrations
97
Conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the concentration of coloured species
and/or metal ions in aqueous solution, including but not limited to, the use of:
– colourimetry
– ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry
– atomic absorption spectroscopy
Colourimetry
• Technique in analytical and physical chemistry used to determine the concentration of

coloured compounds in solution by measuring its absorbance of light of a specific wavelength
and on the principles of Beer-Lambert Law.
• To measure the concentration, a device called colorimeter is used.
• Based on a two-step comparison process:
o An initial reading with only the sample being present in the colorimeter
o Sample reading after the reaction between sample and reagents
Ultraviolet – visible spectrophotometry
• Measurement of declination of a beam of light in the visible or adjacent region after it passes
through a sample or after reflection from a sample surface.
• Commonly used technique in analytical chemistry for quantitative determination of transition
metal ions, highly conjugated organic compounds and biological macromolecules.
• One of the best methods to detect impurities in organic substances.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy
• Technique of quantitative analysis where atoms in free state absorb optical radiation (light)
and emits a measurable signal.
• It is quite a sensitive technique and can measure up to parts per billion of a gram in a sample.
• Widely used in soil testing, forensics, environmental studies, quality assurance in food
industry etc.
98
Analysis of Organic Substances
Conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in organic molecules of the following
functional groups:
– carbon–carbon double bonds
– hydroxyl groups
– carboxylic acids (ACSCH130)
Detection of carbon-carbon double bonds

• In a test tube, a sample is taken.
• Bromine water, which is yellow in colour is added to the sample. The bromine water, if turns
colourless will confirm the presence of carbon-carbon double bonds i.e. alkenes.
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑟2 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 𝐵𝑟2
Detection of hydroxyl groups

• Hydroxyl groups in organic compounds can be tested by the Iodoform test.
• If a sample, when heated with sodium hydroxide and iodine turns colourless from yellow, it
reflects the presence of hydroxyl group.
𝑅𝐶𝑂𝐶𝐻3 + 3𝐼2 + 4𝑂𝐻 − → 𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂− + 3𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝐶𝐼3
Detection of carboxylic acids

• For detection of carboxylic acids, sodium hydrogen carbonate is added with a taken sample. If
a brisk effervescence is observed, it indicates the presence of carboxylic acid because
carboxylic acids react with sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide which results in the
formation of the effervescence.
𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
99
Investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of simple organic compounds addressed in
the course, including but not limited to:
– proton and carbon-13 NMR
– mass spectrometry
– infrared spectroscopy (ACSCH130)
Carbon – 13 NMR
• Application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for identifying carbon atoms
in organic compounds
• Can detect isotopes of carbon that are not naturally abundant, for example 13C.
• The effect of this is that a C-13 nucleus can behave as a little magnet. C-12 nuclei don't have
this property.
Mass Spectroscopy
• Analytical technique used for identification of unknown materials in a sample, for quantifying
known samples and for elucidating the structure of a variety of chemical compounds.
• A mass spectrometer generates multiple ions from the sample under investigation and
separates them according to their specific mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), and records the relative
abundance of each ion type.
• Commonly used in analytical laboratories to study physical, chemical and biological nature of
different compounds.
Infrared Spectroscopy
• Based on absorption spectroscopy techniques, interaction spectroscopy involves the

interaction of infrared with matters.
• This can be analysed in three ways by measuring absorption, emission and reflection.
• Widely used analytical technique in both organic and inorganic chemistry, quality control,
dynamic measurement, forensic analysis etc.
100
Chemical Synthesis and Design
Evaluate the factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical synthesis process,
including but not limited to:
– availability of reagents
– reaction conditions (ACSCH133)
– yield and purity (ACSCH134)
– industrial uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics, cleaning products, fuels) (ACSCH131)
– environmental, social and economic issues
Factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical synthesis process:
• Selection of required reagents and compounds and ensuring their availability beforehand a
synthesis or experiment is conducted.
• Availability of different apparatus that are used for creating solutions; for example, chemical
reactors, volumetric, conical flasks etc.
• Calculation of proper yield of products after a reaction. Any side reactions that may occur due
to the presence of various reagents should also be considered.
• While designing processes for industrial uses, the end product should be tested on various
organisms before releasing for human consumption. Different risk factors and cautions should
be noted down.
• Emission of harmful by products to the environment should be minimized as much as possible
to avoid pollution. Production cost should be kept moderate so that the products are within the
range of every consumer regardless of their economic condition.
101

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1

HSC Chemistry Dot Point Study Notes – www.EasyChem.com.au Sold to

Module 5: Equilibrium and Acid Reactions

Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Factors that Affect Equilibrium

Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)

Module 6: Acid/Base Reactions

Properties of Acids and Bases

Using Brønsted–Lowry Theory

● describe the importance of buffers in natural systems (ACSCH098, ACSCH102)

Module 7: Organic Chemistry

Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons

Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases

Module 8: Applying Chemical Ideas

Analysis of Inorganic Substances

Analysis of Organic Substances

Chemical Synthesis and Design

Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

cobalt (II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜(𝐻2 𝑂)2+ − 2−

burning steel wool (ACSCH090)

Dynamic equilibrium - At dynamic equilibrium, reactants are converted to products and

Chemical equilibrium is an example of dynamic equilibrium in which the opposing processes

For example, consider the following reaction, the combustion of methane

∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∑ 𝑆 𝑜 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑆 𝑜 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

6 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ↔ 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6 𝑂2

Le Châtelier's principle states that if an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium,

– heating cobalt(II) chloride hydrate

𝐶𝑜𝐶𝑙42− (𝑎𝑞) + 6 𝐻2 0(𝑙) ↔ 𝐶𝑜(𝐻2 𝑂)2+ −

𝑁2 𝑂2 (𝑔) ↔ 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)

– iron(III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of ions (ACSCH095)

Steps to write equilibrium constant expression:

To calculate for equilibrium concentrations:

2 NO (g)  N2 (g) + O2 (g)

Initial 6.8 x 10-3 0 0

After 6.8 x 10-3-2x x x

Write the equilibrium expression and solve for x.

[𝑁2 ][𝑂2 ] [𝑥][𝑥] 𝑥2

2 NO (g)  N2 (g) + O2 (g)

After 6.8 x 10-3- 2X X X

Substitute 0 0.0034 0.0034

[𝑁𝑂] = 6.8 𝑥 10−3 − 2(0.0034) = 0 [𝑁2 ] = 0.0034 𝑀 and [02 ] = 0.0034 𝑀

Change Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction

𝑁2 𝑂2 (𝑔) ↔ 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)

–potassium chloride and silver nitrate

𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 + 𝐾𝑁𝑂3

𝐾𝐼 + 𝑃𝑏𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑃𝑏𝐼2

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐵𝑎(𝑁03 )2 → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3

PbCl2(s) <==> Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)

𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝑃𝑏 2+ ][𝐶𝑙 − ]2

0.0159 M is called the molar solubility of PbCl2

[Pb] = 0.0159 M and [Cl] = 2 x 0.0159 = 0.0318 M

Third, create an "ICE" table.

PbCl2 (s) Pb2+(aq) 2 Cl-(aq)

𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [0.0159][0.0318]2 = 1.61 𝑥 10−5

Properties of Acids and Bases

IUPAC nomenclature of common inorganic acids