Hydrodynamics

Hydrodynamics deals with the study of the motion of a fluid and of the interactions of the fluid with its
boundaries. This chapter will discuss the forces developed by moving fluids as it is important in the analysis and
design of such objects as pumps, turbines, airplanes, rockets, and many other hydraulic devices.

The basic principles used in hydrodynamics are the Newton's laws of motion which can be stated as follows:

I. A body at rest will remain to be at rest or in motion will remain in motion with a uniform velocity
along a straight line until acted upon by an external force. (Law of inertia)
II. A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force system has an acceleration in line with and directly
proportional to the resultant of the force system and inversely proportional to its mass. (Law of
force)
III. In every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction. (Law of stress)

Force against Fixed Flat Plates

Consider the jet of fluid shown to strike a flat plate held normal to the path of the jet. Before contact, a mass of
fluid M, moves with an initial velocity of v1. and as it strikes the plate, its velocity in the x direction is v2 which is
less than v1. This change in velocity is caused by the force exerted by the plate on the jet as stated by Newton's
first law of motion.
This is the force exerted by the plate to the fluid. From Newton's third law of motion, the force exerted by the
fluid to the plate is equal but opposite in direction (F = -F') and can be expressed as:

If the plate is fixed, v2 = 0 then the above equations become

Force against Fixed Curved Vanes

The x and y components of the total force exerted by the fluid against a fixed curved vane can be expressed as
Note: Since force and velocity are vector quantities, its direction must be considered. Forces or velocities to the
right and upwards will have a positive sign while forces or velocities to the left or downwards will have a negative
sign. This sign convention will be applied in this chapter.

If friction in the vane is neglected (v2 = v1), the total dynamic force is

Force against Moving Vanes

Consider the vane shown below to be moving with a uniform velocity v' in the same direction as the jet having an
absolute velocity of v1. The relative velocity of the jet with respect to the vane is therefore v1- v' = u. Neglecting
friction, the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the vane remains unchanged while it flows from points 1 to
2 so that the jet leaves the vane with a relative velocity of u. In this case, not all the fluid from the jet will be
deflected by the vane rather it is equal to Q' = Au where A is the cross-sectional area of the jet.
The components of the force exerted by the jet are given by:

If the vane is frictionless, such that the jet leaves the vane with relative velocity (u) in the direction of θ.
Work Done on Moving Vanes

The work done on moving vanes (in N-m/s) moving parallel with the direction of the jet is given by the following
formulas:

For single vane, the maximum work occurs when v' = v1/3. When v' = v1, no work is done since the force exerted
is then zero and this value represents a condition of minimum power

In a series of vanes so arranged that the entire jet strikes either one vane or another successively, the force
exerted by the jet in the direction of motion is given by:

and the work done

and for the maximum power with a series of vanes v’ = v1/2, then

Forces Developed in Closed Conduits

The force exerted on a closed conduit of either constant or varying diameter, is the resultant of the dynamic
force and the total pressure exerted upon the end sections of the fluid contained in the conduit.
The dynamic force exerted by fluid on the bend is:

The X and Y components of the force reaction on the bend can be computed from the following formulas:

From the figure,

Drag and Lift

Drag is the component of the resultant force exerted by a fluid on a body parallel to the relative motion of the
fluid.

The drag forces on a submerged body consist of the pressure drag and friction drag.
Pressure Drag

The pressure drag (or form drag) depends largely on the form of the body. It is the resultant of all the pressure
forces exerted on the surface of the body.

Friction Drag

The friction drag along a surface is the resultant of the shear stress along the surface of the body in the direction
of motion.

The total drag force FD is given as:

Lift

Lift is the component of the resultant force exerted by a fluid on a body perpendicular to the relative motion of
the fluid. The equation is:
Drag and Lift Coefficients

For laminar flow at low Reynolds numbers, the drag coefficients is given by:

For thin flat plates not normal to the relative velocity of the fluid, the lift coefficient as given by Kutta is:

where α is the angle of attack or the angle the plate makes with the relative velocity of the fluid. The angle α
should not exceed 25°.

Terminal Velocity

A body falling through a fluid is being acted upon by three vertical forces. These are: (1) its weight acting
downward, (2) the buoyant force acting upward, and (3) the drag force acting upward. If the body falls freely for
a sufficient length of time, its velocity increases so the drag force is increased until the total upward force equals
the weight of the body and the body has acquired a constant velocity called the terminal velocity.

For a solid body falling through a gas, the buoyant force is usually negligible such that the terminal velocity is
attained when the drag force equals the weight.
Water Hammer

Water hammer is the term used to express the resulting shock (pressure rise) in a pipeline caused by the sudden
decrease or stoppage of motion (rate of flow or velocity) of the fluid,

Consider the pipeline shown leading from a reservoir A to the valve at B. If the valve is suddenly closed, the
lamina of liquid next to the valve will be compressed by the rest of the column of liquid flowing against it. At the
same time, the walls of the pipe surrounding this lamina will be stretched by the excess pressure produced. The
next upstream lamina will then be brought to rest, and so on. The cessation of flow and the resulting pressure
increase move along the pipe as a wave with the velocity c which is given by the following equations:

For rigid pipes:

For non-rigid pipes,

The time for the pressure wane to travel from A to B and back again is

Instantaneous Closure (tc = 0)

The resulting shock due to instantaneous closure is given by

For instantaneous closure, the pressure increase reaches up to the pipe entrance at A where it drops instantly to
the value it would have for zero flow

Rapid Closure (tc < 2L/c)

It is physically impossible for a valve to be closed instantaneously (tc = 0). For a rapid closure (tc < 2L/ c) the
maximum pressure near the valve would still be

No matter how rapid the valve closure may be, so long as it is not the idealized instantaneous case, there will be
some distance to from the intake within which the pressure rise cannot extend all the way to the reservoir intake.

Slow Closure (tc > 2L/c)

For slow closure, the excess pressure produced decreases uniformly from the value at the valve to zero at the
intake. The maximum water-hammer pressure po developed is given approximately by