Minor Head Loss

• Minor losses are caused by the changes in

direction or velocity of flow. These changes
may be due to sudden contraction, sudden
enlargement, valves, and bends, and any
other pipe fittings. These losses can usually be
neglected if the length of the pipeline is
greater than 1500 times the pipe's diameter.
However, in short pipelines, because these
losses may exceed the friction losses, minor
losses must be considered.
 A. Sudden Enlargement
• The head loss, m, across a sudden
enlargement of pipe diameter is:
 A. Sudden Enlargement
• Another equation for the head loss caused by
sudden enlargements was determined
experimentally by archer, and given as

• A special application of the equations above is

the discharge from a pipe into a reservoir. The
water in the reservoir has no velocity, so a full
velocity head is lost.
 B. Gradual Enlargement
• The head loss, m, across a gradual conical
enlargement of pipe diameter is

• The approximate values of K are shown in

graph below.
 C. Sudden Contraction
• The head loss, m, across a sudden contraction
of a pipe is
 C. Sudden Contraction
• A special case of sudden contraction is the
entrance loss for pipes connected to a
reservoir. For this case, the values of Kc are as
follows:
 D. Bends and Standard Fittings

• The approximate values of K are given in the table below. K

values vary not only for different sizes of fittings but with
different manufacturers. For these reasons, manufacturer's
data are the best source for loss coefficients.

• The head loss due to pipe fittings may also be found by

increasing the pipe length using the values of L/D in the
table below. For very smooth pipes, it is better to use the K
values when determining the loss through fittings.
Pipe Discharging from a Reservoir
• The figure shown below shows the conditions of
flow in a pipe of uniform diameter discharging
from a reservoir into open air. The velocity head
and the pressure head in the liquid surface of the
reservoir are zero. If there will be no head lost,
the velocity head could have been equal to H,
which is the distance between the water surface
in the tank and the exit end of the pipe and the
velocity of flow could have been v = √2gH , but
such is not the case due to losses.
Pipe Discharging from a Reservoir
• For pipe with constant diameter, the
difference between the water levels in the
piezometer tubes. If the pipe is horizontal and
with uniform size, the difference in pressure
head measures the head lost between the two
points.
• If the pipe is very large such that the velocity
head is very small, the total head lost HL can
be taken as equal to H.
 Pipe Connecting Two Reservoir
• When one or more pipes connects two
reservoirs as in the figure shown, the total
head lost in all the pipes is equal to the
difference in elevation of the liquid surfaces of
the reservoir.
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 = ℎ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + ℎ𝑓𝑓
 Pipe Connected in Series
• For pipes of different diameters connected in
series as shown in the figure below, the
discharge in all pipes are all equal and the
total head lost is equal to the sum of the
individual head losses.
 Pipe Connected in Series
• If the pipe length in any problem is about 500
diameters, the error resulting from neglecting
minor losses will ordinarily not exceed 5%,
and if the pipe length is 1000 diameters or
more, the effect of minor losses can usually be
considered negligible. Neglecting minor
losses, the head lost becomes:
Pipes Connected in Parallel
 Pipe Connected in Parallel
• In the pipe system shown, pipe 1 draws water
from reservoir A and leads to junction C which
divides the flow to pipes 2 and 3, which join
again in junction D and flows through pipe 4.
The sum of the flow in pipes 2 and 3 equals
the flow in pipes 1 and 4. Since the drop in the
energy grade line between C and D is equal to
the difference in the levels of piezometers a
and b, then the head lost in pipe 2 is therefore
equal to the head lost in pipe 3.
 Equivalent Pipe
• If a pipe system (O) is to be replaced with an
equivalent single pipe (E), the equivalent pipe
must have the same discharge and head loss
as the original pipe system.
 Reservoir Problems
• In the figure shown below, the three pipes 1,
2, and 3 connects the three reservoirs A, B,
and C respectively and with all pipes meeting
at a common junction D.
 Types of Reservoir Problems
• Type 1: Given the discharge in one of the
pipes, or given the pressure at the junction P,
and the required is the elevation one of the
reservoirs or the diameter or length of the one
of the pipes, and
• Type 2: Given all the pipe properties and
elevation of all reservoirs, find the flow in
each pipe, which can be solved by trial and
error.
 Types of Reservoir Problems
• In any of these types, the main objective is to
locate the position (elevation) of the energy at
the junction P. This position represents the
water surface of an imaginary reservoir at P.
The difference in elevation between this
surface and the surface of another reservoir is
the head lost in the pipe leading to that
reservoir (See figure above).
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 1

1. With known flow in one pipe leading to or

flowing out from a reservoir of known elevation,
solve for its head lost hf.

2. Determine the elevation of the energy grade line

at the junction of the pipes (P) by adding or
subtracting (depending on the direction of flow)
the head lost in the pipe from the elevation of
the water surface in the reservoir.
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 1

3. If the known value is the pressure at P, the

elevation of P' is the elevation of P + pp/γ.
4. Draw a line from P' to the surface of the other
reservoir. These lines represent the EGL's of
each pipe. The difference in elevation between
P' and the surface of the reservoir is the head
lost in the pipe. 5. Solve for the discharge.
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 2

1. Given all elevation and pipe properties,

determine the direction of flow in each pipe.
Of course, the highest reservoir always have
an outflow and the lowest always have an
inflow, but the middle reservoir (B) may have
an inflow or outflow.
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 2

2. To find out the direction of flow in pipe 2

assume that Q2 = 0 such that P’ is at elevation B,
then the values of hf1 and hf3 can be solved. (In
the figure shown, hf1 = 20 m and hf3 = 30 m).
With hf1 and hf3 known, solve for Q1 and Q3. If
Q1 > Q3, then Q2 is towards B and P’ is above
the reservoir B. If Q1 < Q3, then Q2 is away from
B and P’ is below reservoir B.
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 2

3. After determining the direction of Q2 (say

towards reservoir B), express all the head lost
in terms the other, say in terms of hf1. Let
hf1 = x.
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 2

With all head lost hf, expressed in terms of x, all

flow Q can also be expressed in terms of x
(usually in the form a√(x+b)).
Simplify the equation and solve for x. We may also use trial-and-error solution.
 Procedure in Solving Reservoir
Problems
Type 2

4. Once x is determined, substitute its value to

Equations 1, 2, and 3 to solve for Q1, Q2, and
Q3, respectively.
 Pipe Networks
The following conditions must be satisfied in any
pipe network:
1. The algebraic sum of the pressure drops
(head loss) around any closed loop must be
zero and,
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to
the flow leaving it.
 Pipe Networks
• The first condition states that there can be no
discontinuity in pressure (the pressure drop
through any route between two junctions must
be the same). The second condition is a
statement of the law of continuity.
• Pipe network problems are usually solved by
numerical methods using computer since any
analytical solution requires the use of many
simultaneous i equations, some of which are
nonlinear.
 Hardy Cross Method
• The procedure suggested by Hardy Cross
requires that the flow in each pipe be
assumed so that the principle of continuity is
satisfied at each junction. A correction to the
assumed flow is computed successively for
each pipe loop in the network until the
correction is reduced to an acceptable value.
 Hardy Cross Method
• The correction a is added or subtracted from
the assumed flow in order to get the true or
corrected flow, It is added if the direction of
flow is clockwise and subtracted if
counterclockwise,
• The general formula in computing the
correction a can be expressed as: