| J sh eccs i EUROPEAN CONVENTION FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK ceEcM it CONVENTION EUROPEENNE DE LA CONSTRUCTION METALLIQUE EKS EUROPAISCHE KONVENTION FOR STAHLBAU ECCS - Technical Committee 6 - Fatigue Recommendations For the Fatigue Design of Steel Structures FIRST EDITION 1985 Ne 43PREFACE These Recommendations provide » model cade for the assessment, fabrication, inspection and msin- tenence of steel structures subjected to Fatigue loading. The procedures essune that the structure thas been designed in accordance with the other limit state requirement s. Work on the Recommendations began with the first meeting of Technical Committee 6 "Fatigue" on April 20, 1979, in Lausanne. At that time, @ working docunent had been prepared by the former ECCS Committee 9 "Welded Joints", under the chairmanship of Dr. Wallin. During s Five yest period, nine committee meetings were held and six drafts, including the Finel draft, were prepared. Many experts in the field devoted much tine and effert to the prepartion of the various drafts. For example, Hrs John Dibley spent a few weeks in Lausanne working on the early versions. Also, Prof. John Fisher and Or. Tim Gurney gave the Committee the benefit of their ‘mony years of experience through several formal and informal discussions. The edvice of such experts greatly improved the quality of the Recormendat ions. Since 1983, Or. Ian Smith has been Technical Secretary of the Committee. His work has gone beyond administrative matters and the treatment of the many coments received. He has drafted Chapters 3, 7, @ and Appendices 83, C, D and E, thus expanding the Recomendaticns in order to include guidelines for safety, quality assurance, inspection and maintenance as well as recommendat ions concerning Fracture mechanics and hollow sections. His contributions are very such appreciated. In addition, many thanks are due to Or. Guerrere, Prof, Brozzetti, Mr. fiyen and Prof. Sedlecek for their continuous help and encouragement. “echnical Committee 6 is at present composed of the following members Agerskov H. Denmark: androic B. Yugoslavia Brozzetti 3. France Firquet 6. Belgiun Guerrera U. Italy Havijer G. U.S.A. Hirt M.A. (Chairman) Switzerland Mertens A. Luxembourg Ryan 1. France Siedke H. Fed. Rep. of Germany Smith I.F.C. (Tech. Secr.) Switzerland Tae. fusteia Corresponding menbers are : Alpsten G.A. Sweden ee Back 3. ‘The Nethertands Dibley 3.€. Grest Britain Dutta oD. Fed. Rep, of Germany Fischer 0. austria Negri c. Italy Ollila #. Finland Stoll G. Luxerbourg Wardenier 3. The Nether LandsThe Committee gretefully obtained contributions from : Albrecht Pe U.S.A Fisher 3.W. U.S.A. Grundy P. Australis Gurney T.R. Great Britain Haibach E. Fed. Rep. of Germany Hobbacher A. Fed. Rep. of Germany Kulak G.L. Canada Mang Fe Fed. Rep. of Germany Sedlacek G. Fed. Rep. of Germany Spindel J.£. Great Britain Thimjo A. France Thane £. Norway van Douwen A.A. The Netherlands Thanks are also due to many more colleagues, too numerous to mention here, who periodically offered suggest ions. The final draft was examined by © large number of international organizations working in related areas. For exanple, the Recommendations were accepted in principle in a meeting of the 3KS XIII-xV of I1W under the chairmanship of Prof. Hobbacher on April 17, 1985, in Munich. A special mailing was necessery for approval of Appendix £ on hollow sections due to recent input from a joint working group (1IN Subcie XV-E/CIDECT/Eurocode 3/ECCS 1C6). Dr. Wardenier, Chairmen of this working group, and Prof. Mang examined much experimental work end thus provided the technical Foundation for Appendix £. Currently, 2 commentary on Appendix 82 is under preparation by Or. Guerrera, It is the hope of ECCS Technical Committee 6 "Fatigue" that these Recommendations will be used for drafting mations! documents and that they will make Useful reference materiel for other international organizations. Finally, the Committee believes that thie publication provides a convenient starting point for further developments. Professor Manfred A. Hirt Lausanne, October 1985 Chairman, ECCS Technicel Committee 6 This Publication has been prepared at ICOM - Steel Structures of the Swiss Federel Institute of Technology in Lausanne. This includes the preparation of the Figures and Tables by Mr. M. Fiaux ‘and the typing of the cemera-ready document by Mes. S. Kuhn.TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Appendix A REFERENCES Score asic sarcr rari Faria FaTI ovat Nese Loss a 2 PRINCIPLES concer UE LOADING WUE. STRESS SPECTRA UE STRENGTH TY ASSURANCE RVICE INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE SARY AND SYMBOLS Glossary Symbols ASSESSMENT USING DETAIL CLASSIFICATIONS Bt 82 Bs Basis of the fatigue strength curves Deteil classes Minimum weld quality levels DETERMINATION OF THE SAFETY FACTORS FRACTI ratte a 2 JURE MECHANICS PRINCIPLES UE ASSESSMENT FOR HOLLOW SECTIONS Assesament using detail classifications Hot spot stress method 2 1“ 6 ” 2 a 2 23 25 Fry ey 36 38 a2 az 46 48Chapter 1 1.01 7.02 1.03 1.08 1.05 1.06 1.07 -?= ‘score Domains of application ‘The Reconmendstions present @ generel method for the fetigue Limit state assessment of the damage of @ structural atructures and etructural elements, Fatigue is defined part by gradual crack propagation coused by repeated stresses. The Fatigue sesesonent procedures assume that the structure has been designed in secordence with the ether limt atate requirements of the relevant Design Code or Standard which is epplicable to that structure. The Recommendations are to be used together with these requirements and are not intended to replace any other limit state condition, ‘The structures which cane’ within the scope of the Reconnendations ere Fabricated steel structures such as reilwey bridges, highway bridges, buildings (crane runmay girders ond machinery support structures), cranes (excluding machinery and mechanical parts) and other similar structures. The Fatigue assessment of existing structures may be carried out using the Recomrende- Hons by suiteble adaptation. Appendix A contains liste of definitions ond synbols used in these Reconmendat ions. Limits of application The Fatigue strength curves are applicable to structural steel grades up to 2 speci- fied yield strength of 700 N/mn?, Bolts are acceptable up to a tensile yield strength of 1000 N/nn®, This corresponds to grade 10.9 according to 150 998 (ASTH A490). The fatigue assessuent procedure is not applicable to low cycle - high strain Fatigue. For the purposes of the Recommendations, if any nominal stress range exceeds 1.5 times the apecified yield strength, ,, the fatigue sssessnent procedure cannot be used. A nominel stress range is the algebreic difference between two extremes (reverssis) of nominal stress. stre ‘and spplication of Forces and monents to the cross-sectional eress indicated in Tebles B2.1 to 82.5. Exceptions to, this definition ere details near cut-outs, man-holes or other stress concentrations not explicitly shown in Tables 62.1 to 62.5. Also, joint extremes may be determined through standard elastic analysis stiffness and connection eccentricity should be considered (see Clauses 5.04 and 5.05). The following effects are not covered by the Reconnendat ions: 1) Reduction of fatigue strength due to corrosion is not considered. In corrosive enviransents the fatigue atrength may be significantly reduced; date appropriate to these environments are required. However, the fatigue strength curves are appli- cable to structures with suitable protection in mildly corrosive environments, such ‘8 normal atmospheric conditions. Note that bridge gitdere should be protected from de-icing salts. bb) The Recommendations have not been verified for the fatigue assessment of structures which are subject to temperatures above 150 °C.1.09 Chapter 2 2.01 2.02 2.03 2,08 2.05 Situations in which no fatigue assessment is necessary, nt is not necessary for building structures. However, some Usually, @ fatigue assess: perts of building structures, such es support structures for cranes or machinery, may require fatigue assessment. Jess than 26 N/mm? No fatigue assessment is required if all nominal stress ranges ai nt amplitude Fatigue Limit for When all nominel stress ranges are less than the cons! a given detail, no fatigue assessment is required. No fatigue assessment is necessary when the expected number of stress cycles during 91 Y pe the Lifetime of the structure is less than : This relationship defines the number of cycles given by the lowest line on Figure 81.1 when yg and Yq equel unity. The equivalent conatant amplitude stress range, Ave [NWen?], is defined in Clauses 2.08 and 2.09. The safety factors, Yg and Yq, are introduced in Cleuse 3.06. BASIC PRINCIPLES fecting Fatigu Fectore The nunber of stress cycles which may be endured by a structural element depends upon = the magnitude of the nominal stress renge(s), = the Detail Category which is appliceble to the particular structural component. The Detail Category defines the fatigue strength curve which should be used in the fatigue assessment. The Cetegory tekes into consideration the local stress concentre tion at the detail, the size and shape of the maximum acceptable discontinuity (see Clause 7.04), the stress direction, metallurgical effects, residual stresses, fatigue crack shepe, and in some coses, the welding process and e post weld improvement. For any given Detail Category, the differences in fatigue strength between different grades of steel are small and may be neglected. The differences in fatigue danage caused by stress cycles having different values of mean stress but the same value of nominal stress renge may be neglected. Cracks occur generally in or adjacent to welds, at sudden changes of cross section or at locations of joint eccentricity. The most effective way to avoid e fatigue problem is through careful detailing and Fabrication of connections. When the fatigue limit state fay influence the design of a structure, it ie of parti- cular inportence that all details are defined by ‘the designer. They should not be altered if any way during fabrication and erection without the designer's prior op- proval. Similarly, no attachnents should be added to, and no cut-outs should be intro- duced into ny pert of the structure without notifying the designer, Good detail design and the exercise of care during Fabrication, transportation and erection great- jon and propagation (see Chapter 7). ly reduce the risk of crack initial2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 No allowance is made in the Recommendations for possible changes in the fatigue strength which may occur due to initiel proof loading of the structure. {Ligue assesament procedure ‘The fatigue assessment shall verify that the required probsbility of survival for the structure is achieved for the fatigue leeding at the end of the design life. The design life is the period during which the structure is required to perform without repair. An assessment should be made of every potential fatigue crack location. It should be established that failure will not occur during the design 1ife of the struc- ture by conparing the effects of the design spectrum (see Chapter 5) with the fatigue strength curves for the different Detail Categories, shown in Appendix 8. The fatigue assessment may be carried out in terms of stress range using a reduction factor, a, end the static design live load : doe = @ boy where Aog is the difference between extreme values of static live load stresse: dog is the equivalent constant amplitude stress range. This value is on esti- mate of the cumulative fatigue damage caused by the stress spectrum. a is the reduction factor. This factor should be ecconpanied by a correspond- ing totel number of cycles, N, for the determination of the fatigue strength, aon. jessment, as rec~ Note that impact and secondary effects should be included in the ai ommended in Chapters & and 5. When the reduction factor, «, is not given, the equivalent constant enplitude stress range, ge, may be calculsted using Miner's summation (a cumulative damage calcu- ation based on the Palmgren-Miner rule [3] [4]) as follows + edb ngs t/m tee he ac} iy where k is the nunber of stress range magnitudes in the stress spectrum. i ip an integer value representing » discrete stress range magnitude. cycles occurring at the stress range magnitude, ny is the number of str ‘oi, and defined by the stress cycle counting method (see Clause 5.07). Nis the totel umber of nominal stress range cycles, N= J nj, during the design life. N may be several times greater then the nunber of loading events (see Clause 4.05) and may vary with the size and location of the structural element, and with the degree of structural redundancy. hoi is the i-th nominal stress range magnitude. mis the value of the exponent in Clause 81.01 corresponding to the slope of the fatigue strength curves in Appendix 8. If the fatigue assessment involves the use of a fatigue strength curve with two values of the con stant, m, the lower value of m provides a conservative estimate of the equivalent constant amplitude stress range.2.10 2.16 2.15 2.17 Chapter 3 3.01 ~10 = Nore precise estimates of the equivalent constant amplitude stress range, Ace, may te achieved by splitting the summation into two parts corresponding to the two slopes shown in Figure 81.1. ‘The equivalent constant amplitude shear stress range, Ave, may be calculated in a similar fashion to that indicated for the calculation of Ace. The value of the Fatigue atrength, op, is determined from Appendix B using the sppropriate value for N. The safety factors, Yq and Ye; 9 described in Chapter 3, are needed to perform the fatigue assessment. Fats rength improvement The Fatigue strength may be higher than the levels indicated by this document. The fatigue strength of sone structurel elements which are subjected to compressive or enall tensile mean stresses and constent emplitude stress ranges, may be underesti- nated by the Reconnendations. Such underestimation is possible only if indirectly introduced static stresees, which raise the meen stress, are not present. Typically, indirectly introduced tensile stresses are caused by temperature fluctuations, settle nent of supports, lack of fit, unintentional fixity, ete. If certain details are improved, fatigue cracks may occur at different and unimproved Jocationg. For example, the improvement may change the criticel crack location from the weld toe to the weld root. Generally, testing is required to justify a higher Fatigue etrength than is suggested by the Recommendations. Improvenents to the fatigue strength can be achieved by methods such as the machining or grinding of weld toes or by remelting weld toes using TIC or isser processes. Great cere should be taken to ensure that the initial discontinuities in the welds (particu- larly at the toes) are reduced in size and that any discontinuities introduced by the improvenent method do not counteract the possible improvenent. For similar reasons, the Improved area should be adequately protected from corrosive effects. Post-neld heat trestnent (stress relieving) may also improve the fatigue strength by However, this reducing tensile residual stresses around potential crack location treatment is often not successful in eliminating tensile residual stresses com- pletely. In addition, the applied loading may reintroduce tensile residual stresses. Also, the requirenent for no indirectly introduced static stresses, discussed in Clause 2.15, spplies in this cat The introduction of compressive residual stresses at potential crack locations through peening methods, local heating or initiel proof loading may improve the fatigue strength of some connections. Quality assurance procedures should ensure the reliability of the improvement method. SAFETY CONCEPT The aim of this safety concept is to provide a given probability of survival at the end of the design life.3.02 3.03 3.08 3.05 3.08 3.07 “ue The safety level (see Clouse 3.03) for the Fatigue assessment should correspond to the safety level associated with other limit stetes. The following considerations should be included in the safety concept. a) Safety level : For the purposes of the Recommendations, the safety level is the probability of survival calculated by considering the expected velues for fatigue loading and fatigue strength es well as their probable variation, but ignoring the influence of inspection and maintenance. b) Consequences of failure : General and locel failure may be considered separately. General failure occurs when fatigue failure of a component results in 2 cata atrophic collapse of all or part of the structure. A minimum safety level should be Fixed by the appropriate authority. Local failure occurs if complete seperation of the cracked component does not result in catastrophic collapse of the structure. This type of failure is cbviously preferable and therefore, @ safety level which is lower than the level applied to general failure may be used. Situations where locel failure may cause serious accidents in service (e.g. derailment) should be considered to be equivalent to general failure. ©) Inspection intervals : Chapter 8 provides detailed recomendations. the importance ‘of inspection depends partly upon the consequences of failure. In the case of local Failure, inspection may detect fatigue failure before subsequent damage is caused. The safety level should be increased when inspection is not per- Formed or not possible. The possibility of general failure combined with difficult or impracticable inspect ion conditions is not recommended under any circunstances. Safety factors The fatigue assessment should verify that the resistance of 2 structure to fatigue is not less than the effect of the loading expected within the design life of the struc ture. The fatigue assessment may be expressed analytically as follows : on 4a, Tn > Ys Ae where Bog is the fatigue strength defined as the stress range in Figure B1.1 corre sponding to = given number of stress cycles. doe is csleulated from the design spec- Chapter 5) and Yq and yg ere partial safety factors considering indepen- igue strength. A similar assesement should trum ( dent variations in the loading and the fi be performed for ehear stress range: The safety factor, Ym) applied to the fatigue strength, Ac, should reflect the uncertainty in the fatigue strength of @ given structural detail due to variations in the size, shepe, and proximity of discontinuities, local stress concentrations, the size of the detail, metallurgical effects, residual stresses, fatigue crack shapes and welding processes. The classification of the details in° Appendix 8 is based on the fatigue strength curves and represents mean minus two standard deviations of log N. Considering the size of the date base used for the detail classification, the survival probability is estimated to be approximately 95 % if the loading is known exactly.3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.2 Chapter 4 4.01 4,02 4.03 4.05 -2- Often, the loading paraneters are expected values and not urper confidence limits. The safety factor applied ta the loading, yg, should reflect tre uncertainty in estimet. ing, = the magnitude of epplied losde, = the conversion of these loads into stresses and stress ranges, the number of stress cycle the equivalent constant amplitude effects of the design spectrum (see Chapter 5). Chapters 4 and 5 contain guidelines for the description of fatigue loading and the calculation of stresses. Alternatively, specific loed infornation may be taken from a similar structure in service or from the actual structure when the renaining fatigue Life of an element is being assessed. ‘The partial safety factor: Yq 9nd Yq) should not have values less than unity. Aeafety index, p, may be defined for use ae an indication of the safety level at the end of the design Life, and for determining the partial safety factors according to Appendix C. The target value for the safety index and its corresponding probability of survival should be complementary to the requirements of quality assurance and in-service main- tenance reconmended in Chapters 7 and 8. For greater than 3.5, it is recommended that these requirements be increased instead of making further adjustments to the partial safety fectors. FATIGUE LOADING General principle: The loeding used for the Fatigue assessr envisaged throughout the life of the structure. The loading employed for ultimate int should resenble the sctual service loading strength design should not be used. All dynamic effects should be considered when they contribute to the stress spectra. In sone types of structures, stresses due to induced oscillations should be taken into account. Measured load histories may not accurately reflect the future fatigue loading. In sone structures, such as bridges and cranes, considerstion should be given to possible changes in usage, such as the growth of traffic, changes in the loading, ete. ReFer- erce [1] provides information on fatigue loading concepts. Load modelling The Fatigue loading may be composed of different load cases which are each defined by their reletive frequency of occurrence as well as their magnitude and geometrical arrangement . ‘A loading event is 9 well defined loding sequence acting on the entire structure caused by the occurrence of a load case, This may be the approach, passage and depar- ture of one train in the case of @ railway bridge, ot of one vehicle in the case of @ highway bridge. The effect of a loading event is best described by its stress history4.06 07 4.09 4.16 47 is “1 which Ie the stress variation at © given point in the structure during the loading event. Dynamic effects such as inpact may be very important. In the absence of more accurete Information, the impact Factore used for the static limit state should be employed. In many cases, static impact factors overestimate the effect of impact on fatigue load~ ing. Average values may be used based upon measurenents on siniler structures. Simplified design ealeulatione may be based upon an equivalent fatigue loading which represents the fatigue effects of ell loading events. The equivalent fatigue loading may vary with the size and location of the structural element. For example, main bridge girders may not experience stress cycles due to individual axles whereas smaller elements closer to the point of load contact will be subject to one or more cycles for each passage of an exle Fatigue loading of rai: The fatigue loading may be defined by 2 certain nunber of typical trains (each defined by its axle spacings and axle loads), their relative frequency of occurrence and the Anpect fector. The total number of trains per day and per track is specified according to the classi- Fication of the line. Where multiple tracks exist on a bridge, due account should be taken of the relative frequency and severity of the conbined loadings. A correlation may be used to relate the number of trains per dey to the annual total tonnage. The snnual total tonnage may enable a better determination of the fatigue loading on short span bridges and snall structural elenents. Fatigue loading of highway bridge: The fatigue loading may be defined by a number of typical vehicles (each defined by ite geometry and axle loads) and their relative frequency of occurrence and the impact factor. The total number of vehicles per day and per lane is specified according to the classification of the roadway. The Fatigue loading should be applied to the traffic lanes planned for the roadway. The effects of mult iple lanes may have to be considered. Fatigue loading of erane gantry girders The fatigue loading may be defined by the dead load of the travelling crane combin: with the weight Lifted, The stetistical distribution of the weight lifted, the fro- quency of occurrence of the lateral position of the lifting device, and the frequency of longitudinal passes should be considered. The loading event is best described by a complete work cycle which includes lifting of the weight, travelling of the crane, disposal of the weight, end return to the next position ready to lift. The number of loading events is to be determined according to the design life of the crane and its probable work intensity.4.18 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.08, 5.05 5.06 = It mey be necessary to consider the individual stress cycles produced by each wheel (rather than the whole crane) when carrying out the fatigue assessment of the upper parts of the crane gantry girder. Standard losding events may be described by simplified design stress spectra. FATIGUE STRESS SPECTRA Stresses should be determined from the Fatigue loading by method of elastic analy- sis. Alternstively, strain gauges, placed in appropriste locations on prototypes, may provide greater accuracy for the sesessnent of complex connections (e.g. see Appendix £2). Unless noted otherwise, the location where the noninal stress range in the menber is to de calculated is indicated by the position of the arrow for each detail in Tables 82.1 to 82.5. The plane on which the nominal stress range should be calculated is nor- mal to the arrow. The detail classification in Appendix 82 includes the effect of local stress conc trations due to weld s! trisxiality, ete. pe, discont inuiti The effect of atress concentrations which are not a characteristic of the Detail Cat- egory itself, such as holes and cut-outs, re-entrant corners, etc., should be taken into secount. stely by appropriate stress concentration factors. pe The effect of stresses arising fron joint eccentricity, imposed deformations, uninten- tional movement or unintentional fixity (partial joint stiffness) should be calculated ‘and taken into account when determining the nominal stress at the detail. When the plane described by Clause 5.02 is subject to combinstion of normal and shear stresses, the assessment should consider their combined effects. 8) The maximum principal stress should be calculated when the fatigue loading orig- . However, the maximus principal stress should be cal. culated enly when normal and shear stresses occur simultaneously (and at the sane location within the detail) during the loading event. instes fron simple load ca b) If normal and shearing stresses do not occur stnulteneously st the sone Jocet ion, the conponents of danage should be added using Miner's suenation according to the following formula + bee? bre)5 (rm te Gat) + (om to ED The values of Age ond fi— ate defined In Chapter 2; the values, doy and ‘xfs are defined in Anpendix 8 and the y values are intreduced in Chester 3. ¢) When normal and shearing stresses are likely to cause the formation of fatigue cracks at two distinct locations, a separate assessment for both locations should be performed, Thus, no combination of stresses is needed.5.07 5.08 5.09 Chapter 6 6.01 6.02 Analysis of trees history A stress spectrum is a tabulation of the occurrence of all nominal stress ranges of different magnitudes produced by @ loading event. The stress spectrum is determined usually through the use of a stress cycle counting method. This method defines ti magnitude snd number of stress cycles which teke place during 8 loading event. Note that one losding event may produce one or sore stress cycles depending upon the type and locstion of 2 given etructural element. Also, the number of cycles per loading event may be related to the position on the element which requires a fatigue aeseesnent.. Different components of a structure may have different stress spectra. The total of all stress spectra, caused by all loading events, should be compiled. This compilation results in the design spectrum to be used for the fatigue assessment. The design spectrum may be simplified into the form of a table containing discrete nominel stress ranges and their corresponding nunber of cycles. The Rainflow (Reservoir) strese cycle counting method together with Miner's sunnation can be used successfully for sany epplicetions, including railwsy and highway bridges subject to usual traffic loading. This method is an analysis of the stress history using stress cycle counting. The analysis determines discrete nominal stress range cycles (stress cycles) to be used in the fatigue analysis. Reference [3] provides more information. The fatigue sscesament procedure should allow for @ small number of high nominal ‘stress renges to be omitted from the design spectrum. Such exceptional stress ranges may occur during fabrication, transportation end erection of the structure or during service. In accordance with Clause 1.07, no nominal stress range should exceed 1.5 oy: addition, it should be assumed that there is no constant amplitude fatigue limit. Compressive nominal stress ranges should be considered equally as danaging as tensile nominal stress ranges (see also Clause 6.14). FATIGUE STRENGTH Design considerat ions Fatigue cracking rarely occurs in plain parent material renote from welded detsils and connections. Even if the static strength of a connection is superior to the static strength of the elenents joined, the connection remains the most criticel location for 4 Fatigue assessment. Details should be designed and febricated such that it is possible to : = carry out inspections in order to ensure that quality assurance requiresents are achieved (see Chapter 7), = carry out in-service inspections (see Chapter 8), = detect fatigue failure before catastrophic collapse of the complete structure6.03 6.08 6.05 6.08 6.09 -16- Preferably, failure of one component should not cause catastrophic collapse of the complete structure (see Chapter 3). ALL bolted connections should contain high strength bolts correctly pretensioned ‘according to accepted standard procedures. These include bolts with plain round ribs end 8 swedge. Bolted connections which transmit the load by shear are preferred to connections con- taining bolts which trenemit the loed by tension. If the use of @ connection which places the bolts under tensile fatigue Loading unavoidable, the Following messures are recommended : Special attention should be given to both quality aseurance ( In-service inspection and maintenance (see Chapter 8). e Chapter 7), and lon and construction of the connections should be euch that. b] The design, Fabrica! prying action is minimized. The Fatigue assessment should be performed on the assumption thet no pretension is Present in the bolts unless inspection procedures exist to verify that adequete bolt pretension is maintained, d) Calculation of the nominal stress ranges in the bolts should follow the Recommen- dations of Eces - 1c10 [2]. Structural elements and connections may be classified using the Detail Categories given in Appendix B, in accordance with the corresponding classification criteria. Hollow section joints and recommendations for the hot spot stress method are covered in Appendix €. Details not classified in Appendix B should be treated similarly to the lowest Detail Category of the appropriate group unless a superior fatigue strength can be proved by special analysis and testing (e.g. see Appendix D). When test data are used, the 95 % lower confidence limit of log N should be calculated for use in the fatigue assessnert. The number of data points used should be considered in the statistical analysis. Fatigue strength curves The Fatigue strength curves for normal stresses in Figure 81.1 are defined by 2 set of equidistant parallel Lines with a reference fatigue strength [N/an?] at 2-10° stress cycles. Each reference fetigue strength represents # unique Deteil Category ond is used in the design equation (see Appendix 8). The constant amplitude fatigue limit is defined as the fatigue strength at 5-106 cytles. When all nominal stress ranges are less than the constant amplitude Fatigue limit for the particular detail, no fatigue essecoment is required. Honever, if any nominal stresa range in the design spectrum exceeds the constant amplitude fatigue Limit, the nominal stress ranges below the constant amplitude fatigue limit should also be considered in the fatigue eesessnent.6.12 6.13 6.15 Chapter 7 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.08 -17- A cut-off limit is defined es the fatigue strength st 10° cycles. This limit is cal- culeted by assuming a slope corresponding to m = 5 below the constant anplituce Fatigue limit. ALL etcees ranges in the design spectrun analler than the cut-off Limit may be ignored. Simplified design rules may use @ continuous curve with a = 3. [A slope corresponding tom: 5 may be used for nominal stress ranges between the cut- Off Limit ard the constant amplitude fatigue limit. 8 of structural The fatigue strength curves refer to date taken mostly from ti elerents containing high tensile stresses at fatigue crack locations. Therefore, the strengths apply also to elenents subject to the following conditions + = high residual stresses, = high Revalues (R = cpin/cpax) + = when the level of mean stress is not known due to effects such es temperature, sup- port settlenents, erection, or misfit. Note thet, sccording to Clause 5.11, compressive noninal stress ranges should be con- sidered when using the fatigue strength curves. Compressive nominal stress ranges ust be included due to difficulties in verifying that large structural elements are not 2 less conservative than subject to the conditiona listed above. Fatigue strength di the fatigue curves should be subject to the restrictions discussed in Clauses 2.15 to 2.19. The fatigue strength curve for shear stresses is given in Figure 81.2. QUALITY ASSURANCE, General Requirements should be incorporated in the quality assurance dacunents to ensure that. the structural details comply with the relevant quality requirenents for fatigue. Such requirements should be stated explicitly on the fabrication drewincs and the erection Giagrams for each detail. Inspect ion technology and the extent of the inspection coverage should comply with the appropriate standards in force. Requirements should never be less than the require- ments given for structures designed against the static limit state, Additional requirenents for specific detaile are given in Appendix 8. The detail classifications provided in Appendix 82 are valid for structural details which meet the quality requirements given in both this Chapter and Appendix 6. When the detail quality is lower or when the type of structure does not allow the verifi cation of the quality requirements, 2 fracture mechanice assessnen: (see Appendix 0) may be used, based on the actual or minimum verifiable quality. Melded connections In order to minimize discontinuities, an sttempt should be made to ensure that all welded connections are fabricated according to the quality required by the detail classification (see Appendix 8). A discontinuity is an absence of materiel causing a stress concentration. Typical discontinuities are cracks, scratches, corrosion pits, Lack of penetration, slag inclusions, cold laps, porosity and undercut.7.05 7.08 7.07 7.08 7.09 mM 7.12 Chapter 6 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.08 = tts Appendix 83 provides minimum quality requirements for welded deteils which are assessed using the detail classifications and the fatigue strength curves. Friction crip bolted connections ALL bolts should be checked for the correct pretensioning load according to the sppro- priate standards in force. It is essential that good fit-up and good contact of the faying surfaces be estab- Lished arcund the bolts prior to their pretensioning. If individuel bolts are used as ‘a method of schieving good contact, these bolts should be replaced. If mismatch during erection is possible, bolt holes should be drilled in the shop to a smaller size and chould be reamed on site to their fine! dismeters. If holes have to be reamed on site because of mismatch, bolts of appropriate diameters should be installed. Misplaced bolt holes should be Filled with high strength bolts, properly pretensioned, and a fatigue assessment should be performed at these locations. Misplaced bolt holes should not be filled with weld metal. Bolted asconblies should be inspected to ensure that conpatible corrosion protect ions are used. Concrete reinforcing steel At critical areas, the structure should be inspected to ensure that adequate protec- tion has been provided egeinst corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Appropriate atten= tion to crack control should be given in order to avoid excessive ‘cracking in the con- crete cover. No welding on site, including tack welding, should be performed unless it is specified by the design engineer and supervised during execution. the appropriate fetigue strength curve should be used for the fatigue assessment. IN-SERVICE INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE If a fatigue assessment is necessary for the design of a structure or structural elements, provision should be nade for periodic inspection and maintenance in service. The Frequency of periodic inspections may be defined by the authority responsible for the structure. Fracture mechanico methods (see Appendix 0) may be used to provide quidelines for inspection intervals since these methods ere able to model the expo- ential growth of fatigue cracks. In most cases, the majority of the Fatigue life is expended in the slow growth of short and consequent ly undetectable fatigue cracks. The analysis should be performed considering @ crack length which {s easily detectable. In the case of @ significant increese in the value of the loads and/or their frequency OF occurrence, 8 new Fatigue assessment should be carried out. If the failure by fatigue of a given deteil could cause a catastrophic collapse of the structure, regular inspection, verified by appropriate non-destructive evaluation methods, should be mandatory.8.05 8.05 8.07 8.08 8.09 Bett -9- The adoption of design philosophies such as fail-safe design (redundant load-path trophic ‘ailure and may permit a structures) may decrease the probability of cati longer period between inepect ions. ALL critical welds should be visually inspected. Excessive locslized cortosion may indicate the presence of a fatigue creck. These areas should be cleaned and inspected. Bolted connections should be checked for the correct pretersion during each inspec tion. Af @ bolt is found to have lost its pretension in service, the following measures are recommended + = all bolts in the connection should be replaced, = the connecting plates should be examined for fatigue cracks, especially at the hole: = bolts in siniler connections should be inspected for the ccrrect pretension. In all cases, an attempt should be made to determine the reasons for the loss in pre- tension and a new fatigue assessment should be cerried out based upon possible causes. If a crack is discovered in 2 structure, an evaluation of the safety of that structure should be made innediately. A fracture mechanics approach (see Appendix 0) may be used to assess the need for repair and to revise inspection intervals. In all cases, the cause of the crack should be determined and coneidered in the evaluation. If repair is needed, the design of the repair should be assessed for fatigue. Due account should be taken of eny changes to the load and stress distributions in the structure which may be caused by the repair. _ Bolted repairs, such as splice plates spanning the fatigue crack, should be used if possible. Welding should be avoided for the repsir of fatigue cracks. If welding repsir of cracks is unavoidable, the preparation ard execution of the welds srould be carried out with great care to minimiee the ris of additional defecte, stress concentrations and residual stresses. Some post-weld inprovenent methods may be required to achieve an extension of the fatigue life.Appendix A Appendix At aot 1.02 1.03 1.07 1.08 41.08 ato att aALa2 at.43 ata ot ~ The following list provides the working terminology used in the Reconnendations. Constant amplitude fatique Limit : The fatigue strength at 5-108 cycles. When all nominal stress ranges are less than the constant amplitude fatigue limit for the particular detail, no fatigue assessment is required (see also Clause 81.07). Cut-off Limit : The fatigue strength at 10° cycles. This limit is calculated by ‘assuming @ slope corresponding to m = 5 below the constant anplitude fatigue limit, ALL stress cycles in the design spectrum below the cut-off limit may be ignored. Design life : The pericd during which the structure is required to perform without repair. Design spectrum : The total of all stress spectra, caused by all loading events, to be used in the fatigue assessment. Detail Category : The designation given to a particular structural detail to indi- cate which of the fatigue strength curves should be used in the fatigue assessment. The Category takes into consideration the local stress concentration at the detail, the size and shape of the raximun acceptable discontinuity, the stress direction, metallurgical effects, residual stresses, fatigue crack shape, and in sone cases, the welding process and a post weld improvement . Detectable discontinuity : A discontinuity which can be detected using non-destruc- tive evaluation (NDE) equipment which is standard for the Joint. Discontinuity : An absence of material causing a stress concentration. Typical dis- continuities are cracks, scratche: inelusions, cold laps, porosity and undercut. Equivalent constant onplitude stress range : An estimate of the cumulative fatigue danage caused by the stress spectrum. Equivalent fatigue loading + Sinplified fatigue loading repres effects of all loading events. The equivelent Fatigue loading may vary with the size corrosion pits, lack of penetration, slag ting the Fatigue ‘and location of the structural elenent. Fatigue : The danage of a structural part by gradual crack propagation caused by repeated stresses. Fatigue loading : The fatigue loading describes the relevant variable loads acting fon a structure throughout the design life. The Fatigue loading is composed of dif- Ferent load cases. Fatigue strength : The stress range in Figures 81.1 and 81.2 corresponding to # given number of stress cycles. Load ¢ + A part of the fatigue loading defined by its relative frequency of occurrence as well as its magnitude and geonetrical arrangement. Loading event : A well defined loading sequence on the entire structure caused by the occurrence of a load case. This may be the approach, passage and departure of fone train in the case of # railway bridge, or of one vehicle in the cose of 2 highway bridge.MS m6 AAT atte ang at.20 a2 -2- Miner's summation : A cumulative damage calculation based on the Palmgren-Miner rule (3). Nominal stress range : The algebraic difference between two extrenes (reversals) of nominal stress. Usually, this difference is identified by stress cycle counting. Stress extrenes may be determined through standard elastic enalysis and application of forces and monents to the cross-sectional ereas indicated in Tables 82.1 to 82.5. Exceptions to this definition are deteile near cut-outs, man-holes or other stress concentrations not explicitly shown in Tables 62.1 to 82.5 (see Clause 5.04). Also, joint stiffness and connection eccentricity should be considered (see Clause 5.05). Rainflow counting (Reservoir) method : An analysis of the stress history using stress cycle counting, The analysis determines discrete nominal stress range cycles (stress cycles) to be used in the fatigue snalysii Safety level : The probability of survival colculated by considering the expected values for fatigue loading end fatigue strength es well as their probsble variation, but ignoring the influence of inspection and maintenance. Stress cycle counting : A method used to define the magnitude and number of stress cycles which take place during @ loading event. Note that one loading event may pro- duce one or more stress cycles depending upon the type and location of a given structural elenent. Also, the number of cycles per losding event nay be related to the position on the elenent which requires a Fatigue assessment, Stress history : The stress variation at s given point in a structure during a Loading event. Strees gpectrum : A tabulation of the occurrence of ell nominal stress ranges of different magnitudes produced by 2 loading event. Different components of @ struc ture may hove different stress spectrmin to beg bog boi dg oe bre arr me crack initiation period stress ratio equal to cnin/ Snax estinated coefficient of variation for the losding correction factors for the stress intensity factor reduction factor fety index for the safety level partial safety factor spplied to the fatigue strength partial safety factor applied to the fatigue loading the nathematical constant angle between chord and diagonal naxinun applied nominal stress minimum epplied noninel stresa specified yield strength the stress range in a fracture mechanics assessnen: difference between extrene values of static live load stresses equivalent constant amplitude stress range a nominal stress range in the stress spectrun fatigue strength (normal stresses) fatigue strength corrected for plate thickness equivalent constent enplitude shear stress range Fatigue strength (shearing stresses)Appendix A2 -B- Syeboie 2 crack size 44 initial crack dinension af Firat crack dimension by ldth of elagonat bo width of chera do/dN crack growth rate 4; outside dioneter of diagonel dk permissible depth of undercut cn underfill % outside diameter of chord e the mathematical constant; eccentricity 9 9p hp height of chord i en integer value representing s discrete stress range magnitude k the runber of stress range magnitudes in the stress spectrin L length of attachment . elope constant in Fatigue strength equation; growth law exponent, ‘ growth low exponent ; nj umber of stress cycles occurring et the stress range magnitude, So) F transition radius estimated standard deviation of the equivalent stress range, doe 8y —_eatinated standard deviation of the number of stress cycles, N sR estimated standard deviation of the Fatigue strength, aog t plate or wall thickness te cover plate thickness ti thickress of diagonal te thiciess of chord ” width of plate A, 8 power Lew constant c constant in fatigue strength equation 4K range of stress intensity Factor AKgn threshold stress intensity factor 4 number of cycles corresponding to a particular fatigue strength; total nunber of nominal stress range cyclesAopendix 8 Appendix 81 81.01 81.02 B1.03 1.04 31.05 31.06 31.07 -3- ASSESSMENT USING DETAIL CLASSIFICATIONS Basis of the fatigue strength curves Fatigue strength curves for normal stresses The Fatigue strength curves (see Figure 81.1) are parellel and equidistant when examined on 2 log-log graph. The vertical spacing divides one decade of the vertical scale into 20 ports and represents, approximately, @ change of 12 % in fatigue strength. For the purpose of calculation, the following equation can be used to generate the fatigue strength curves in Figure 81.1 : N= c o0R” Numerical values for Gog are given in Table 81.1. The constant, C, should be determined directly from the equation in Clause 61.01 using m= 3 and the Detail Category Number defined by Go when N equals 2+10° cycles. If the mvalue is taken as 5, a different value for C must be determined below the constant amplitude Fatigue Limit. nt the mean experimental value The Fatigue strength curves of Figure 81.1 repre: minus two standard deviations for the details classified. Simplified design rules may use e continuous curve with @ = 3 for ali nominel stress ranges. hen nomine! stress renges below the constant omplitude fatigue Limit must be con sidered, @ slope correaponding to m = 5 may be used for noninel stress ranges between the cut-off Limit end the constant amplitude fatigue limit. In all coses, fm = 3 when the nominal stress range is above the constant omplitude Fatigue limit. The fatigue strength curves in Figure 81.1 were derived from experimental results of connections involving plate thicknesses, and corresponding weld sizes, of approximately 15 mn. These curves may be unsafe when plate thicknesses exceed 25 am For transverse fillet or butt welded connections, The following formula may be used to estimate the reduced fatigue strength of plate thicknesses over 25 nm: Bs dope = bog 4/2 here dogo is the corrected fatigue strength of the detail, og is the uncorrected fatigue strength of the detail using Clouse B1.01, t As the plate thickness of the detail in mn, greater than 25 nn. Note that the equation in this Clause has been verified only for welded connections oriented transversely to the direction of applied stress and for details which connect equal plate thicknesses. Appendix D provides guidelines which may sssist in the Fatigue assessment of details which contain unequal plate thicknesses. Test data for some details may not exactly fit the curves in Figure 81.1. For example, cover plate end has a constant amplitude fatigue limit of almost 10 cycles. In order to ensure that non-conservative conditions are avoided, such details ate located one Detail Category lower than their fatigue strength at 2+10% cycles would require, and are identified by an asterisk, *, in the correspondinga8 = Detail Category columns of Tables 82.1, 82.3, 82.4 and 82.5. An alter: nent may increase the classification of such details by one Detail Cater that the constant amplitude fatigue limit is defined as the Fatigue at: cycles for m = 3. STRESS RANGE to, [W/an?] 1000 500 Deteil Category constant amplitude fatigue linst cut-off Limit, 100. so SIT "rrrraeyt E1sut IABLE B1,1 : Nuserieal values of fatigue strength, 2, [N/nn” CONSTANT vera. | amecituve | cur-orr caresory | Faticue | LIMIT uwrt 108 2.108 5-108 10° “38 160 18 6s 380 140 103 st 52 5 83 a3 7 40 66 36 59 32 52 29 46 25 at 23 3 20 3 18 29 18 26 1581.09 81.10 FIGURE Bi,2 : ECCS - TOs fat -m- Fatigue strength curve for shear stresses The Fatigue strength curve (see Figure 81.2) provides the neces: ty relationchip yr stresses applied to weld throats or when a fatigue aeseasment is required ror sh base material. Fatigue failure occurs usually by crack propagation across the weld throat; see Table 62-5 for typical cases. Detail Categories which refer to applied shear stresses indicate the elope constant, m= 5, explicitly in Table 82.5. Calculations should be performed in @ similar manner to those recommended far op- plied normal stresses. The cut-off limit renains at 10° cycles. However, no constant amplitude fatigue limit should be essuned. Numerical values are given in Table 81.2. STRESS RANGE tq [N/nm?] 1000 soo Detail Category 100: 50 10 so! SoS 5 yo BS yo? 5 108 NUMBER OF STRESS CYCLES gue strength se ranges. TABLE B1,2 : Nunezicel velues of fatigue strength, Or, [N/me?], DETAIL | CUT-OFF cetecory | Limi 108 2-108 108 146 2 7Appendix 82 - 8 - Detail classes Append:x 82 outlines the criteria which the Recommendations employ i. classify typicel constructional deteils, Firstly, deteile are classifi Tables according to general design characteristics. Secondly, the details . into groups considering geometry. Finally, the more favourable details ere the top of each group. Table 62.1 : NON-WELDED DETAILS ~ Rolled and extruded products - Sheared or gos cut plates = Bolted connections Concrete reinforcing bai Table 62.2 : WELDED BUILT-UP SECTIONS = Continuous longitudinal welde = Intermittent longitudinal welds Table 82.3 : TRANSVERSE BUTT WELOS = Without backing bar = With backing bar Table WELDED ATTACHMENTS (Non-load-carrying welds) = Longitudinal attachnents = Transverse attachments Table 82.5 + WELDED CONNECTIONS (Losd-carrying welds) = Ceueiform joints = Dverlapped welded joints = Cover plates on beans and plate girders = Welds in shear-D- TABLE 82,4 + NON-WELDED DETAILS Ciassification of typical constructional details. The arrow indicates the locetion end the direction of ich the stress range is celculeted. DETAIL earesory| CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS DESCRIPTION JRotzed and extruded products == @ rretes, fiers. fe wield ® fortes sections. = ==. @ Seontess tubes (see Appendix £), ® ® @ |teersetesee eo... 160 Shesced or cas cut oletes oe @ Mechine ges cut or sheared materiel [SS aubsecuentiy dressed to renove all 140 Visinle signs of edge discontinuities. © @ Materiel with mechine ges cut edges having shallow and regular crag Lines or neruel gas cut neterial, subsequently dressed £0 renove ell edge discontinuities. Recuixenents for deteiis @ and @: j= Re-entrant comers to be inproved by grinding (slope = 1:4) or et Using the appropriate str: ‘tration factors. |= No repesr by weld refit. (© Unsupported ane-sied connections shell be svoided or the evtect of in the coltuletion of eeresses. © Been splices ox bolted cover plates Requirements tor datatis ©) and @ + S Sescosce to be coleuleted in the grana tection for frie tnd in the net section for ail other tonnastions, ® sorts ond shreaded sods in tensien. Tonsite stresues to be calculated T ning the effective crose-oe 140 area (stress area) of the balt. 36* foned belts : range in the bolt desends upon the level| ® jor the pretension end the yeunctzy of the connection. Reference (2) contains further details. Concrete reinfor Pratzusions for shasr connection Formed by rolling. See Teble D2-3, deteil @) fer welded reintorcing toe 100 + see Clause 81,07-1- TABLE B2.2 : WELDED BUILT-UP SECTIONS Classification of typicel constructional details, The errow indicetes the location and the the stresses for which the etress range is calculated. DETAIL Pettey CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS Descrtetion inuows Lonaituding) weld © Automatic butt welds car: from both sides. Cat uned if the welds are she free of detectable ¢ see Appendix 23. J Avtoneic ts1ret welds. ¢ ends should be verified B.S, devas Reawsrenente for deta ato stopostert pasttie ® suromatic Fsret or butt ried out fron both ides ining stopeatert posit @ Automatic butt weids made side only with a backing without stop-otert poeitd Category 100 when this de stepsstart positions. Warual fillet or butt wel fe butt ried out from one side on. ticularly for box girders good fit between the flan plates is essential. Prep edge such that the root f eauate for the achieveren ular root penetration wit! out. ©@ Repaired automatic or nant or butt welds. Inprovener which are adequatel: erst restore the original Cater wele @ stitch oF tack valde not # covered ty « continuous we ® Ends ef continuous welds = holes. Cope hole not to be with weld metel,-m- Clessificstion of typical constru the etreeses fox which the stress range is calculated. 52.3 : TRANSVERSE BUTT WELDS sional details. The arrow indicates the location and the direction of DETAIL carzcoRy! CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS ALL welds ground flush to plate surface perallel to direction of the arrow. As-welded, 36* ——— 71 50 ‘% + see Clause 81.07 DESCRIPTION lwithout backing ber ‘Teensveres splices in plates, flats and rolled sections. Fienge splices in plate girders be. fore essenbly. Detesis @ ard @) may be increased to Eaitgen See Rip taaltty eee proven free of detectable discontinuities are used, see Appendix 33. @ Trensverse splices in plates oF Hote tepered in width ox in thick hess wheze the elope is not greater then 124, @ trenaverse splices of plates or flats, naverse splices of rolled st welded plate girders. © Temmverse splices in plates ox fete tapered in width ar in thick= ese share the elape de rot. greater Shan tees Roguizements for deteits @), @) nd ® + "the height ct the weld einfoxcenert to'be noe greater than 10 % of the weld width with enacth traneitions to = eide mace in Fist: postion, Tzensverse: splines of plates, polled sections oF plete gist Fhe nedghe of the weld resnta Snellen than 20°% of weld width, reqstzenents for detaiis @ to @ eVeid sunset pieces to be. useds aub- ecosiuig' euenved tect piste eden ground flush in eirection of otten = Weise wece toon ewe sides. ® butt weiss sn concrete reinforcing bars. © aut we with backing bax Transverse splices. @ Teenaverse butt velds tapered io Wiuth or in thickness chere: the Shope is not greeter then Te Frequtzenents for detaiis @ ond @ + the fillet veld shich ettathes He back Ing ber to terminate neve than 10 flan the edges of the stresued plave: @® je made fzom one side only. naverse butt welds when e good fit cannot be quarenteed or when backing bar fillet welds are terminated eleser than 10 me te the plate edge.2s TABLE B2,4 : WELDED ATTACHMENTS (non-Joad-cazzying welds) Cleseification of typical constructional details. The arrow indicates the 1 treases for which the stress cange is calculated. the Descarer ion (CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL Longitudinal ottechnente IG The Detail Category varies according| to the length of the attachment, 2. , welded ta the edge of 3 flange. 71 | 0<2810m Ae Snocth transition radius, r, formed 4 ‘Fisetly, by rachining oF gas cutting the gusset piste Oefore welding end ~~ . secondly, by grinding the weld eee — Bereliel te the eizection of the @ The end of the weid nore than 10 nm Hon the edge of the Bl @ Verticat atitferess welded to © been cr plete girder, The stress ran should be calculated using principal] ftreases iF the atiffener teminztes| in the web. © diepneagns of box gisders welded to the lange or wed. @ the ertect of welded shear connes- tore on ove movesiel, % : eee Clouse 81.07= 35. TABLE 82,5 + WELDED CONNECTIONS (10ad-carsying welds) Clessificstion of typicel constructional deteils, The azrow indicates the lecetion and the direc: the stresses for which the stress range is calculated, (CONSTRUCT TONAL DETAILS DESCRIPTION = amt saree ter rey ae 71 Ieg, see Appendix 83. @ © Fillet welded connection. Two fa tigue agecoonents are required Firstly, root cracking is evaluated by deternining the stress rence in the weld throat eres, Category 26°. Secondly, toe cracking is evalusted by 135 range in the Fe Setermining the S f E Joad-carrying pletes, Category 71. 36%] +520 IF —~ © On @ ing plates should be lees than 15 € of the thickness of the inter nediate plate: | 210 am veriopoed welded saints stressed sree Fiitet welded lop joint. Strese in stops 1:25 ee the Deele of zee shown in the sketch. @ @ Fitter welded tap joint. Stress cal- culated in the overiepoing elements, nequizenents for detetis @) ord @ 1 > Weg faeeastate fons Wan fen 45* —— plese eaae, J- Sheer ezacking in the weld should be @ verified using deteil (2). tend 4 cover slates is toons and slate 50") oom End zones of single or muttipie adit welded cover plates, with or without] alts plete ie tidoe thon the fives 36 PiSelal"wehdy carefully geawed fo 2 aie Tove underluly Bo natetaeye © Continuous Fillet welds transm: 9 2 shear flow such as web to flange 7 welds in plate girders, Stress range| om to be calculated across weld throat. © ® @ Fittet wetded tap joint. Stress zange| 80 to be calculeted crocs the mele throat considering the total length ass of the weld, Weld terminations nore than 10mm Foon plete edge. © Stud shear connectors (failure in the weld). The shear stress tobe Eelcvinted on the nominal exower Hon of the stut © ‘% + eee Clause 81.07Appendix 83 83.01 83.02 33.03 85.08 83.05 83.06 83.07 83.08 -m- Minimm wold quality levele The following Clauses establish minimum quality levels required for the use of detail classification according to Tables 82.2 to 82.5. If any of these levels are exceeded, the use of the fatigue strength curves is not recommended. For the purposes of the Recommendations, the term “detectable discontinuities" means those discontinuities which can be detected using non-destructive eveluation (NDE) equipment which is standard for the joint. The term "free of detectable disconti- nuities" implies no NDE detection after 100 % NOE coverage. Portial penetration butt welds should be treated as fillet welds. Underfill, dn, is not permitted for butt welds. do Overlap is generally accompanied by lack of fusion. Therefore, any amount of de- tectable overlap is unacceptable. The Jeg lengths of fillet welds should not vary by more than 10% along the length Of the weld. This Clause applies siso to first runs of multiple pass fillet welds. When transverse butt welds are specified, 2 concave surface is acceptable under the Following conditions + = its length in the direction of the weld should not be greater than the plate thickness, ty = Its depth should be smaller than 0.1 ty = the ren Jing weld thickness should be at least equal to t. ‘ The permissible depth of undercut, dk, at weld toes varies with the Detail Category, the plate thickness and the direction of the applied stresses.83.09 83.10 83.11 83.12 ads 8) The axis of the weld is perpendicular to the stress direction. A detectable undercut is unacceptable for Detail Categories above 56, For Detail Categories equal to or less than 56, the undercut, dk is limited to @ maximum depth smaller than 0.05 t and 0.5 ma. b) The axis of the weld is parallel to the stress direction. The value of dk should not exceed 0.1 t and 1 am. The depth of slag inclusions breaking the plate surface should not exceed the rec- ommendations for undercut. The size of embedded slag inclusiors (not breaking the surface of the joint) should be no more than double the acceptable depth of under- cut. The clear distance between two successive inclusions should not be less than nine times the length of the longer inclusion. Discontinuities which are identified through NDE to be cracks are not acceptable. Lack of fusion for butt welds is not acceptable. Small and scattered gas cavities are acceptable up to 2 certsin local concentration calculated as 2 percentage of the projected area. The maximum acceptable percentage depends on the Detail Category, see the table below. The largest diemeter of = gas cavity shall not exceed one quarter of the plate thickness, t, for butt welds. In no case should the diameter of a gas cavity exceed 3 mm. DETAIL CATEGORY | MAXIMUM % GN PROJECTED ARER 1s not acceptableAppendix ¢ cr.o1 1.02 £1.03 1.08 wis DETERMINATION OF THE SAFETY FACTORS The clauses in this Appendix should be used with those in Chapter 3. The safety index, A, evaluates the combined effects of uncertainty within both the Fatigue strength information (see Chapter 6) and the fatigue loading information (see Chapter 4). The effects of uncertainty are defined using the following notation + top is the conventional fatigue strength (see Appendix 8) representing mean minus two standard deviations oy is the stondard deviation of the distribution of the number of stress cycles, N (Nin units of log-cycles, base 10). sR is the standard deviation of the distribution of cg (dog in units of log-stress, base 10) calculated by dividing oy by the slope constant, a. Note that test data ore generated using the number of stress cycles, Ny os the dependent variable. ge is the expected value of the equivalent stress range, Clauses 2.08 or 2.09. Se is an estimated value of the standard devietion for the equivelent constant amplitude stress range (sp in unite of log-stress, base 10). Since the equiv- alent constant anplitude stress range is a weighted average, the magnitude of Se may be smaller than the standard deviation of the loading distribution. PROMABILITY HERSITY Kiteg to, : fatique strength fltegva) + equivalent constant plitude stress range distribution F100 qe8q) fatigue strength distrinution —t™“ tog 7, (og bag + 2 29) log 2 Using the Logaritha of the expression in Clause 3.06 : og Ae, * log Aa— + 109 Ya + 109 to ang the expression for the safety index : 10g bop + 2 ap ~ 109 bo fee of the safety index can be expressed Jn teres of the partial sefety factors + Jog ys + log ym +2 5a ez +o? Rt Se Similar expressions may be used for shear stress ranges.1.05 c1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 ct.10 cua a37 PROBABILITY DENSITY tion of failure curve failure curve probability of failure toopraq) - Flo, 0 (0g ty + 2 5, = 109 oF, log 62 ‘The expressions in Clause C1.04 are valid when both strength and load information are statistically independent and can be approximated by a log-normal statistical distribution. Caution is needed when strength end loading ere related (for exenple natural oscillations) or yhen a log-normal statistical distribution may not be suf- ficiently accurate. The expressions in Clause 1.04 assume that the nunber of cycles within each nominal stress range magnitude is known exactly. This means also that the total number of cycles is assumed to be known. A safety index, B, of 3.5 is recommended if general failure (catastrophic collepse of the structure) results trom the fatigue tailure of the detail being assessed. If failure of the detail will not cause catastrophic collapse of the structure (local failure), a lower safety index may be used. However, if periodie inspection is nat practicable, the eafety index should be kept ot p= 3.5. If the fatigue leading is suspected to produce a stress spectrum which cannot be fely by Rainflow counting snd Miner's summation, en increase in the tion is modelled safety factor for fatigue loading, yg, of 25 % is recommended. This preci recommended for cranes and crane support structures. The value of 25 % was deter- mined from a meximm crack growth acceleration factor of 2, observed in variable amplitude crack growth studies. Test dete of the constructional details (see Appendix 8) show different values of the standard devietion for fatigue strength. The value, sy, depends upon vari- ations in the size, shape, and proximity of discontinuities, local etr trations, the size of the deteil, the stress direction, metallurgical effects, re- Sidual stresses, fatigue crack shapes and welding processes. Estimates for sone con- structional details are given below. Rolled beans Welded beans Seiffeness Attachments, 100 em Cover plate ends Simplified opproaches may use en upper bound value of ey for all details. If the safety factor for fatigue strength, Ym) is taken to be unity, an estimate of se will enable the determination of the safety Factor for fatigue loading, Ys-c1.12 cra - 38 - The graphs in Clause C1.13 demonstrate this relationship graphically for various values of the safety index, 8, and sy- The value of s_ is usually unknown. However, s— aay be approximated conserve tively with @ knowledge of the coefficient of variation for the loading, Vj, as: al distribution as follows : tog e + \fin (v2 + 1) where e is the mathematical constant end In is the logarithm to the base e. suming @ ne Generally, the values of se, ® and Ym should be fixed by the appropriate authority. The grephs below demonstrate the relationship between sy, 8, Y= and Se when Ym = 1 and m = 3.‘Appendix D pi.o1 01.02 21.03 1.04 1.05 we FRACTURE MECHANICS PRINCIPLES The clauses in Appendix D are not intended to replace, in any way, the fatigue ‘assessment outlined in the Recommendations. For example, they are not meant to be used to circumvent normal requirenents for workmanship (see Chepter 7). The goal of this Appendix is to provide fracture mechanics guidelines for the special application of @ high-cycle fatigue assessment of details in steel structures where the Fatigue strength curves of Appendix B moy be inappropriate. The fatigue strength curves of Appendix 8 may be inappropriate in the following situations + a) When the remaining fatigue life of a cracked structure is assessed. b) When the Fitness for purpose ssed. If the size, shepe and distribution of the initial discontinuities ere suspected to be above the acceptable sizes out- Lined in Appendix B, or if the type of connection does not allow verification that such discontinuities will be absent, the Fatigue strength curves should not. be used. The sensitivity of the relationship between the size of = discontinuity and the fatigue life should be included in a fitness for purpose assessment. €) When plate thicknesses exceed 25 mm and the connection is not comparable with the connections which provided the test data for the enpirical equation in Clause 81.08. 4) When the effect of varying one or more geometry or stress parameters is under study for a given detail. ; e) When in-service inspection intervals are being fixed. 1) When an unusual stress direction, not compareble with any Detail Category in ‘Appendix 8, is being assessed. The fracture mechanics formulation used for the Fatigue assesenent should be cali- brated with a similar standard Detail Category given in Appendix B prior to appli- cation. Alternatively, the fracture mechanics formulation which is developed for the fatigue assessment should be shown to predict test deta of welded joints which are conparable with the situation requiring agsesonent. 1 stress This Appendix refers to crack growth under nort (Mode 1 crack growth). Calculations should be based on the integration of a crack growth law which de- scribes the growth rate. A connonly used formula is the following : gee wake hence, the number of cycles needed to initiate and grow @ crack of an initial size, aj, toe Final size, ar, is as follows : ii BP pce 1+ LE ace ae where da/dN is the crack groxth rate. 4K is the range of the stress intensity factor. A, m are constants. Nj is the erack initietion period. jis the initial ersck dimension. ef is the final crack dimension.1.06 1.07 1.08 1.08 pt.10 on = 40 ~ The growth law is valid for values of aK above the threshold stress intensity, ‘AKtn+ Below dkth, the growth rate may be assumed to be zero. The following equation may provide greater sccuracy in high-cycle fatigue applica- tions, when ak is close to Mth: = 8 (x - atn)” where B and n are constants (of different magnitude than A snd m). Similar equations using aKth may be equally appropriate. The velues of A and m, of B and n, may be constant only for a given material, environment, plate thickness and crack grovth rate regine. Their magnitudes should be determined from tests of relevent specimens which give a well defined crack tip stress condition or they may be taken from the literature [5]. Care should be taken to ensure that the magnitudes used are valid for the application. For example, many constants which exist in the Literature were not determined for : = the slow crack growth rates which must occur in long life applications of struc~ tural details = the very fast growth rates which occur prior to fracture. Also, the magnitudes of the growth lew constants, A or B, should correspond to the mean plus two standard deviations of log da/dN. Appropriate safety factors should be used. The value of the threshold stress intensity, kth, may be constant only for 2 given material, environment, plate thickness and creck shape. a) Unless the stresses can be well defined (see Clauses 2.15 and 6.14) and other conditions can be predicted relisbly, the value of stn should be taken to be the smallest possible value for the material (the intrinsic threshold stress intensity). b) A practical definition for the threshold stress intensity is the value of the stress intensity factor, OK, obtained by the linear power low relationship when it is extrapolated back to a negligible growth rate, e.g. da/dN = 10-® mn/cycle. c) A very safe estimate of the threshold stress intensity is Mth = 0. Unless non-destructive evaluation methods are able to show that the discontinuity is not crack-Like, the crack initiation period, Nj, shall be taken as negligible. When no crack initiation phase exists, the dimensions of the discontinuity shall be aasuned to be the initiel crack dimension, aj. The final crack dimension, ef, will depend upon other limit states (brittle frac ture, net section yielding, etc.) end should be determined for each assessment.01.12 01.15 1.14 01.15 1.16 01.17 01,18 01.19 1.20 - a4 The range of stress intensity factor, ak, should be expressed as : Kos re towy Vee where 4c is the stress range calculsted fron maximum principal stresses. Ye is the safety factor for the Fatigue loading. 2 is the crack size. W, Y are correction factors which depend on the georetric stress concentration (e.g. the weld toe), the proximity of the cracé tip to free surfaces, the crack shape, etc. Note that these correction factors vary with crack size. The correction factor for creck shape and the proximity to free surfaces, Y, may be taken from reference [5] for bending end pure tension loading. The correction Factor for the stress concentretion and local plasticity, W, may be obtained from the literature. Most reported values are for linear elastic eppli- cations. Linear elastic solutions for the correction factor, W, are valid only for cracks which have passed through the local plasticity region, and their use may be unsafe if applied otherwise. The crack tip plastic zone is forned by yielding due to the stress concentration of the crack itself. This zone swould be distinguished from the local plasticity region which is formed by yielding due to the stress concen- tration of the detail. Both correction factors, W and Y, may be determined from @ numerical stress snaly- sis such ag Finite elenents. The numerical model should correlate well with proven solutions and should not contradict the Detail Clessifications of Tables 82.1 to 82.5 wherever 9 comparison is possible. A two dimensional stress analysis is sufficient only when triaxial effects ere known to hove @ soll influence on the stress intensity correction factor. Longitudinal attachments usually require @ three dimensional analysis. When variable amplitude loading ic sssessed, an equivalent range of the stress intensity factor may be used. The value of the equivalent range of the stress intensity factor may be calculeted using on equation analegous to that in Clouse 2.09. The celouletion should use the eane value for the exponent, m, as used in the integration (see Clause 01.05). If 2 nominal stress range magnitude, oj, produces a stress intensity factor less than the threshold stress intensity, Ath, it should not be included in the calcu- lation. The value of the equivalent range of the stress intensity Factor should be adjusted with the crack size, a, because sone haraless nominal stress range magnitudes may become damaging at greater crack sizes. When small cracks (aj less than 1 mm) are being assessec, particularly in areas of urwevelly Jerge'igrain diaaetere (geestec: then 0.11 an), ‘iw ixpreasien for-the stress intensity factor presented in Clause 01.12 may not safely describe the crack growth rates using Clouse 01.05. In auch situations, and when experimental resulte do not exist to support the use of the equations, the clauses in this Appendix should be used’ with caution.Appendix E Appendix £1 £1.01 £1.02 £1.03 £1.08 £1.05 £1.07 = 42 FATIGUE ASSESSMENT FOR HOLLOW SECTIONS Aaoesoaent using detail clansifications Appendix £1 refers to hollow section menbers having wall thicknesses greater than or equal to 3 ma. When Appendix E1 is used, the fatigue assessment should proceed ine similar manner to the assessment of the details classified in Appendix 8. Hollow section details are classified in Table £1.1. The corresponding fatigue strength curves are given in Figure 81.1 of Appendix 8. Lattice girder joints fabricated using hollow sections are classified in Table £1.03. The corresponding fatigue strength curves ere given in Figure E1.1 and nu- nericel values are given in Table £1.2. The nominal stress range in the meabers of these lattice girder joints may be calcu- ated without consideration of the effects of eccentricities (see requirenents in Table E1.3) and Joint stiffnes the Factors given in Clauses £1.06 and £1.07 should be used. (assuming hinged connections). In such cas For lattice girder joints with circuler sections, the effect of eccentricities and Joint stiffness may be neglected in the calculation if the nominal str: ranges ere multiplied by the following factors : choras | verrrcacs | ozaconas TYPE OF JOINT 15 1.0 1.3 K type GaP voINTs N type | 1.5 1.8 1a 1.5 1.0 1.2 OVERLAP JOINTS 1.5 1.65 1.25 For lattice girder joints with rectangular sections, the effect of eccentricities and joint stiffness may be neglected in the calculation if the nominal stress ranges ‘are multiplied by the Following factors + Tyee oF 0! cHoros | verricars | p1aconaLs type | te8 1.0 1.5 GaP JOINTS type | 1.5 2.2 1.6 K type | tes 1.0 1.3 OVERLAP JOINTS wtype | 4.5 2.0 14 The throat thickness of fillet welds should be greater than the wall thickness of the hollow section in the connected menber. If Tobles E1.1 or £1.3 do not contain the constructional detaile which require assessment, the hot spot stress method may be used, subject to the recommendations outlined in Appendix £2. Alternatively, fatigue tests may be performed (see Clause 6.08).TABLE ent: -43- HOLLOW SECTIONS Ciessification of typicel constructional details, The errow indicates the Location and the direction of the stresses for which the stress renge is calculated. 160 igure B1.1 for the appropriate Fatigue etzength curve. CONSTRUCT TONAL DETAILS DESCRIPTION Non-welded elements. Sharp edges and surface flews to be inozoved by grinding. 140 71 Continuous 2onaitudinal watds @ Automatic longstudinal weide with no stoprstact positions, proven free of dew fectesle discortinuitien, eee Appendix B3, JAl1 other cases, see Table 52.2. Transverse butt weld: Butt-welded end-to-end connection of circular hollow sections. Butt-wetded end-to-end connection of| rectengule: hollow sections. ecussenerts for details @) and pemeagttee eter te 56 than 10% of weld width amacth trans sitions tc the plate suzface, J- Welds made in flat position and proven’ free of detectable discontinuities, see Appencix 53, |- Deteiis with wall thicknesses o: 71 25 100m =o Wetded attactaents (non-Loat sarrying welds) © ciscular ox rectangular section, fillet welded to enother sections Section width Sorelier to strest direction 100 mm. ALL other cases, ses Teble 2.4. 50 QO Jwelded connections (1ced-earrying welds! @ cizeuter hotiow sections, end-to-end tute nelded with an anvecnediste pletes @ fectanguiar hollow sections, end=to~ 45 Oo end Butt welded with an interned: Slate. raqutzementa for detatis © ana@ + picid peoven tree of detecegsie dee continuities, see Appendix B3e 40 oO - Details with'vell thicknesses crester ‘then 6 ay may be classified one Dete: Tatesory higher. @ Cizcuizr peniow sections, ené-to-end flint welded with wv Sneomudinee plates 36 ® Rectangular hollow sections, end-to- end fillet welded with en inter- mediate plate Requirements for detaits @) and @ + nell thisknecsen Lese than 8 om= 8 STAESS RANGE oq [N/mm®] 1000 500 Detail Category 5 5 107 10° NUMBER OF STRESS CYCL 8 FIGURE E1,1 + ECCS - TC fatigue strength curves for lattice girdey joints. TABLE €1.2 1 Wumericel values of fatigue strength, O, [N/am?] aIL | cuT-oFF catesory | Litt 10° 2-108 10° 188 30 a 128 n 2 102 36 26 5t 50 23 82 45 2 56 6 16TABLE E143 Classification of typical constructional det the stresses for which the stress range is calculated, Note that the br erate fatigue assessnen = 45 = LATTICE GIRDER JOINTS 1s. The arrow indicates the location and the direction of and the chords require sep- DETAIL CATEGORY] CONSTRUCTIONAL, DETAILS DESCRIPTION For intermediate t,/t, values, use Linear Jintexpolation to nearest Detail Catesory. @ céscutar hollow sections, K and W joints. 23 econ ® Rectanguiar hollow sections, K end 4 joints. Requirements for deteit @)+ 0.5 te = by eee 1.1 tb 8). jp eB 2 te Joints with overtep @ Wioint. @ mioine. Recutrenent for detatis @ ane @ + S"Bveriop between 20 % and 100% overlap + 2. 100s P eccentricity fieausrenanta for datetis@) to @: > yyy R48 ‘ams |- 35° < @ = sO”, p by/t, «28. pares < 25, pont 8 bye, € 1.0. > 0.25 « aye, £160 > b, = 200m, > dp 300 mn, JS hg <8 £6.25 hy 5d, Ses 0.256. ]- Dut of plane eccentricity + £0.02 by or $0.02 d,. iLlet welds ere permitted in bracing Imenbere having wal’ thicknesses = 8 rm. For supplementary recommendations for Jdetail design and for wall thicknesses greater than 6 mm, see Reference [6].= 46 - Appendix £2 Hot _spot_stress method ‘Scope and definition £2.01 Hollow section members not included in Tebles £1.1 or £1.3 may be assessed using Appendix £2 provided that wall thicknesses are grester than or equal to 8 mm, £2.02 The appropriste safety factors of Chapter 3 should be used to complete the fatigue assessment. £2.03 The hot spot stress method should not be used in situations where the quality assur- ance requirements of Chapter 7, Appendix 83 and Appendix E1 ere not satisfied. £2.08 The hot spot stress renge should be used with caution when taken as the nominel stress range in a fracture mechanics assessment, particulerly for complex connec- tions such as stiffened joints end joints with braces in orthogonal planes. Also, no relationship between the hot spot stress range and any stress intensity correction factor should be assumed. E208 NODAL JOINT NOMENCLATURE Le branch exown point | seddle point SCHEMATIC OF STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN CHORD stress’ increese due extrapolation of geonetric eee 2 to weld geometry streas distribution to weld toe stress in chore chord hot spot SCHEMATIC OF STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ERANCH increase in stress due nominal stress to overell joint geonetry strese in branch branch wall U brench gt spot stress extrapolation of geometric stress distribution to weld toe chord wall stress increase due to weld geometry£2.06 £2.07 €2.08 £2.09 £2.10 e211 wie The hot spot stress is defined as the extrepolation of the geometric stress distri- bution to the weld toe. The stress to be used for the fatigue assessment is the greatest value of the ranges of hot spot stresses for each load cycle, Aoj, at the weld toe around the branch-to-chord intersection. The maximum value for the hot spot stress should be found, investigating various spots on the menber, for every menber in the connection. The hot spot stress takes into account only the overall geometry of the joint, excluding locel stress concentration effects due to the weld geometry ‘and discontinuities at the weld toe. The effects of the stress increase due to the weld geometry are included in the basic Fatigue strength curve. Fatigue strength The basic fatigue strength curve for the hot spot stress assessment is given by Category 90 in Figure B1.1. When the wall thickness of a given member in a detail exceeds 25 nm, the following correction to the fatigue strength should be used : ane + am YB where ogc is the corrected fatigue strength. ‘on is the Fetigue strength from the basic fatigue strength curve. t As the wall thickness, [nm], of the mesber under consideration, greater than 25 mm. This formula has been verified for hollow section joints where the ratio of the thickness of the branch to the thickness of the chord is between 0.3 and 1.0, The fatigue ‘strength of each senber should be corrected for its ovn thickness using the formula in Clause £2.07. Calculation of hot spot stresses The calculation of the hot spot stress range should be made using parametric for- mulae, finite element analysis or physical models, such as photoelastic models, scale prototypes: strain gauged small scale specimens or strain gauged full. Parametric formulae should be used with caution because they may not predict the most severe position, in relation to the crown ond the saddle, for every case. In addition, parametric formulae are sccurate only for simple geometries and lead cases. When parametric formulae oo not include the stress range in the chord, @ separate fatigue assessment is needed for this member. IIW document xv-582-85 [6] provides further details. Finite elenent analysis should be supported by experimental verification due to the difficulty in choosing the most eppropriate mesh. In practical situations, a three dimensional enelysie ie usually necessary.= 48 - REFERENCES [1] "Fatigue of steel and concrete structures". IABSE Reports, Vol. 37. the Internat ional Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Zurich, 1982. [2] "European recomendations for bolted connections in structural ateelwork". Fourth Edition, Publication No 38. The European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Brussels, 1985. [3] "steet, concrete and composite bridges". @SI 8S 5400, Part 10 : Code of Practice for Fatigue. British Standards Institution, London, 1980. [4] “Steet structures. SIA 161, Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects, Zurich, 1979. [5] "tuidance on sone methods for the derivation of acceptance levels for defects in fusion welded jointe, BSI PD 6495, aritien Standards Institution, London, 1980. [6] "Recommended Fatigue design procedure for hollow section joints". I1W Document xV-582-05. ‘The International Institute of Welding, London, 1985.