THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1857

It was referred as sepoys Mutiny by British.

POLITICAL CAUSES:
(1) POLICY OF EXPANSION-
British gained
control over India
by 4 ways:
(a) By Outright
Wars – Battle of
Buxar (1764) gave
Bengal, Bihar and
Odisha to British.
By Anglo Mysore
wars British
acquired Mysore.
Similarly by Anglo
Sikh war Punjab
was annexed.
(b) By Subsidiary Alliance - It was introduced by
Lord Wellesley. All Indian states had to enter
into alliance with the company.
(i) Rulers have to accept British as supreme
power.
(ii) They have to surrender foreign relation &
would not enter alliance.
(iii) They have to accept a British resident and
maintain British troops.
(c) By using the Doctrine of Lapse - Introduced by Lord Dalhousie. Any
ruler without a heir, his kingdom would come under company's rule.
Ex: Jhansi, Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Udaipur, and Nagpur.

(d) On the pretext of Alleged Misrule: Awadh was annexed on this

ground in 1856 by Lord Dalhousie.
Nawab’s army was disbanded.
British took away the estates of Zamaindars.
High land tax tax on food, houses and ferries was imposed.
2. Disrespect Shown to Bahadur Shah: The name of the
Mughal King was removed from the coins minted by the
Company. In 1849, Lord Dalhousie announced that
successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be
permitted to use the Red Fort as their palace. In 1856,
Lord Canning announced that after the death of Bahadur
Shah, his successors would not be allowed to use the
imperial titles with their names and would be known as
mere princess. This decision of the British hurt the
feelings of the Muslims. Consequently, Zeenat Mahal,
the wife of Bahadur Shah, began plotting against them.
3. Treatment Given to Nana Saheb: Nana Saheb was the adopted son
of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British refused to grant Nana Saheb
the pension they were paying to Baji Rao II. Nana Saheb was forced to
live at Kanpur, far away from his family seat at Poona.
4. Absentee Sovereignty of the British: Absentee Sovereignty means
that India was being ruled by the British government from England, at
a distance of thousands of miles. This was resented by the Indians.
The earlier rulers like the Mughals, who had conquered India, had in
course of time, settled in India. The revenues they collected from the
Indians were spent in India only. But in the case of Britain, the Indians
felt that they were being ruled from England and India's wealth was
being drained to England and not utilised for their welfare.

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CAUSES:
The British government's attempt to interfere in the social and
religious life of the Indians led to the widespread fear among the
masses.
1. Interference with Social Customs: Some of the social reforms
introduced by the British in India were aimed at improving the
conditions of the people. The result was that the reforms like the
abolition of Sati (1829), the introduction of the Widow Remarriage Act
(1856) and the opening of Western education to girls were not
welcomed by the masses.

2. Apprehensions about Modern Innovations: People were suspicious

of introduction of modern innovations like railways and telegraphs.
There were rumours that telegraph poles were erected to hang those
who were against the British rule. Orthodox Indians noted that in the
railway compartments the higher castes and the lower castes were
made to sit side by side. They believed that the British had introduced
such practices to defy their causes and relations.
3. Policy of Racial Discrimination: The British officers were rude and
arrogant towards the Indians. They believed that they were superior
to Indians and followed a policy of contempt towards the Indians.
They dubbed the Muslims as cruel and unfaithful. Some European
officers ill-treated and insulted Indians. Such acts of unjust
discrimination alienated the British from the Indian masses.

4. Activities of Missionaries: In the 19th century, the British attitude

underwent a change. The British began to interfere with the local
religious and social customs. They denounced idol worship and
dubbed local beliefs as ignorance. After 1813, there was an increase
both in the numbers and activities of the Christian missionaries. The
Indians thought that the Government was supporting missionaries
who would convert them to Christianity.
5. Fears Regarding Western Education: They saw in it an attempt to
discourage traditional Islamic and Hindu studies. People started
suspecting that the aim of Western education was not to promote
literature and sciences but to encourage their children to become
Christians.

ECONOMIC CAUSES:
1. Exploitation of Economic Resources: Agricultural India was
made an economic colony to serve the interests of industrial
England. India was forced to export, at cheaper rates, raw
materials like raw cotton and raw silk that the British
industries needed urgently; plantation products (like indigo
and tea); and food grains which were in short supply in Britain.
India was made to accept readymade British goods either duty-
free or at nominal duty rates, while Indian products were
subjected to high import duties in England. The Indian
handmade goods were unable to compete with the cheaper,
machine-made British products. This ruined the Indian
industry, deprived the artisans of their income and reduced
the avenues of employment for labour.

2. Drain of Wealth: After the conquest of Bengal, the British stopped

getting gold into India. They began to purchase raw material for their
industries in England from the surplus revenues of Bengal and profits
from duty-free inland trade. The transfer of wealth from India to
England for which India got no proportionate economic return, is
called the Drain of Wealth.
3. Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts: Heavy duties on
Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries.
The misery of the artisans was further compounded by the
disappearance of their traditional patrons and buyers - the princes,
chieftains and zamindars, admirer extinct.

4. Economic Decline of Peasantry: The peasantry bore the heavy

burden of taxes to provide money for the trade of the Company, for
the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India.
Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness
or into selling their lands The traditional zamindars were replaced by
merchants and moneylenders. These new landowners had no concern
for the peasants. They pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted
their tenants in case of non-payment.
5. Growing Unemployment: When the native States were annexed to
the British dominion, thousands of soldiers and officials in
administrative, military and judicial posts became unemployed
because British policies excluded Indians from high posts. All these
people became bitter enemies. of the British rule in India.

6. Inhuman Treatment of Indigo Cultivators: Indigo trade was highly

profitable to the British but the conditions Under which the peasants
had to work were inhuman) The peasants were forced to cultivate only
indigo in the fields chosen by the British planters.
7. Decline of Landed Aristocracy: According to the provisions of the
Inam Commission (1852), 20,000 estates were confiscated when the
landlords failed to produce evidence like title-deeds by which they in
India held the land.

MILITARY CAUSES:
1. Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers: The East India Company established
the British Empire in India with the help of Indian soldiers. Despite the
fact that Indian soldiers were as efficient as their British counterparts,
they were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed.

(2) General Service Enlistment Act 1856 - Indian soldiers could be sent
abroad on duty. It was taboo for Brahmin to cross the sea so they
resented.

(3) Larger Proportions of Indians in the British Army – No. of british

soldiers was as low as 1 in 4000. Dalhousie advised for more british
soldiers. It made easier for soldiers to take arms.
(4) Little Prospects of Promotion -Indian soldiers could not rise above
Subedar. All higher ranks were reserved for the British.
(5) Poor Performance of British Troops - The British army suffered
badly in the first Afgan war, in the Punjab Wars, in the Crimean War
and Santhal tribesmen of Bihar & Bengal. It broke the myth that they
were invincible.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Even though the uprising of 1857 was suppressed, it shook the British rule
in India to its very foundation. It brought about far reaching effects on Indian
socio-political life.

These were:
1. End of the Company's Rule: The most significant result of the uprising of
1857 was the end of the rule of the East India Company and assumption of
the Government of India directly by the Crown. This was done by the
Government of India Act of 1858 which had the following provisions:
(i) It transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to
the British Crown.
(ii) The Company's Board of Control and Court of Directors were abolished.
The power was to be exercised by the Secretary of State for India, aided by a
Council. The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and
was responsible to the Parliament. Thus, the ultimate power over India
remained with the British Parliament.
(iii) Actual governance was to be carried on, as before, by the Governor-
General who was also given the title of Viceroy or Crown's personal
representative. Lord Canning was the first Viceroy under this Act.
(iv) Appointments to the Civil Service were to be made by open competition
under rules made by the Secretary of State.

2. Queen Victoria's Proclamation: The Queen's Proclamation incorporating

the transfer of governance from East India Company to the British Crown
was made public at Allahabad, on November 1, 1858, by Lord Canning, the
first Viceroy of India. The proclamation promised that the Government of
India would-
(i) follow a policy of non-intervention in social and religious matters of
Indians;)
(ii) treat all subjects-Indians and Europeans- as equals (education and ability
would be the basis of all appointments);
(iii) grant a general pardon to all those who had taken part in the War except
those who were found guilty of murder of British subjects;
(iv) do its best to advance the industries in India; and
(v) promote works of public utility in India so as to ensure the material as
well as the moral progress of the people.

3. Changes in the Army: The Indian army was reorganised after 1858, to
prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising, in the following manner:
(i) The strength of European troops in India. was increased. The ratio of
European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras
and Bombay armies). Practically the same ratio was maintained till the First
World War. The general principle adopted was that the number of Indian
sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.
(ii) European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions.
(iii) To desist the Indian soldiers from rising again against the British rule,
the sophisticated weapons and ammunition were never placed under the
charge of Indians. All Indian artillery units, with the exceptions of a few
mountain units, were disbanded.
(iv) Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised
in the recruitment to the army.
(v) In order to discourage nationalism, measures such as introduction of
caste and community in most regiments were taken.
(vi) Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from
reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian. army separated from the life of the
rest of the population.

GROWTH OF NATIONALISM
It originated from the concepts of nationalism and right of self determination started by
the French Revolution, the socio-religious reform movements in India, as an offshoot of
modernisation introduced by the British in India and as a reaction of the Indians to the
British colonial policies.

FACTORS PROMOTING GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

Nationalism refers to the feeling of oneness and common consciousness that emerges
when people living in a common territory share the same historical, political and
cultural background, have the same, cultural values and consider themselves as one
nation.
Though India had a long history going back to many centuries, it was never a one
nation and comprised many kingdoms. There were times when vast portions of the
Indian subcontinent came under the rule of one empire. But the loyalty of the people
was towards a particular King or kingdom. The modern feeling of nationalism was
lacking among them.

Factors which contributed to the Growth of Nationalism:

1. Repressive Colonial Policies: The British had conquered India to promote their own
interests and therefore, followed such repressive policies. Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India
from 1876 to 1880 acted as a catalyst for the growth of nationalist movement in India.
These included the following:
(i) Lord Lytton organised a Grand Delhi
Durbar in 1877 to proclaim Queen Victoria
as the Empress of India. Lakhs of rupees
were spent on the event but nothing was
done for Indians who were in the died of
famine.
(ii) Lord Lytton introduced the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and Indian Arms Act (1878).
The Vernacular Press Act disallowed vernacular papers to publish any material that
might excite feelings of dissatisfaction against the British Government.
The Indian Arms Act of 1878 made it a criminal offence for Indians to carry arms
without licence. This Act was not applicable to the British.
(iii) The maximum age limit for the Indian Civil Service examination was reduced from
21 to 19 years, thus, making it difficult for the Indians to compete for it.
(iv) The import duties on British textiles were removed.
(v) Ilbert Bill supported by Lord Ripon (in 1883) provided for the trial of
British or European persons by Indians. The British tried to introduce
equality. This was resented by the British and they started a Defence
Association to defend their special privileges. The government
ultimately withdrew the Bill. The event highlighted the racial
discrimination.

2. Socio Religious Reform Movement: The socio-religious reform movements of the

19th century were great pioneers of Indian nationalism. The impact of Western
education which led to a rational, humanitarian and scientific approach to life, made the
educated Indians realise the need to reform their religion and society.

• Raja Rammohan Roy was one of the greatest social and religious reformers of
the 19th century.
• His Approach of Religion: Raja Rammohan Roy was a
great humanist, who stressed the unity of all religions. In
1809, he wrote in Persian Gift to Monotheists. In 1814, he
started the Atmiya Sabha. In 1828, he founded the
Bramho Sabha.
The Brahmo Samaj believed in Monotheism or worship of
one God. It condemned idol worship of and laid emphasis on
prayer, meditation, charity, morality and strengthening the
bonds of unity between men of all religions and creeds.

• Social Reforms: It was because of the efforts made by Rammohan Roy that
William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India, passed a law in 1829 making the
practice of Sati illegal and punishable by law.

• Pioneer of Indian Journalism: He also started a Bengali weekly called the

'Samwad Kaumudi' in 1821 and a paper in Persian called 'Mirat-ul-Akhbar.
 • Political Rights: He also demanded separation of the executive and the
judiciary, trial by jury, judicial equality between Indians and Europeans and
Indianisation of the superior services.

• Jyotiba Phule was an urban-educated member of

a so-called low caste. His education and personal
experiences had made him critical of Hindu religion
and customs.

• Upliftment of Women: Jyotiba Phule worked for

the upliftment of women. He considered women
superior to men and to maintain their status of
superiority, he wanted to provide education to women, In 1851 Jyotiba Phule
along with his wife, Savitribai Phule started one of the first girls school in Pune.
In 1854, he established a school for untouchables and started a private orphanage
for the widows. He pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra and
worked for the education of women.

• Caste Structure: In his famous book, 'Ghulamgiri he described the hardships

and distress felt by the lower castes.

3. Role of the Press: Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Bengali, The Tribune, The Pioneer, The
Times of India.
(i) It was through the press that the message of patriotism and modern liberal ideals of
liberty, freedom, equality, home rule and independence, spread among the people.
(ii) The press carried on daily criticism of the unjust policies of the British Government
in India and exposed the true nature of British rule in India.
(iii) It made possible the exchange of views among different social groups.
(iv) It made Indians aware of what was happening in the world.

FORMATION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS:

The Indian leaders were moving towards the formation of an all-India
political body.
A.O. Hume, a retired British member of the Indian Civil Service.
In 1884 Hume, in consultation with the Indian leaders, laid the foundation of Indian
National Union. The meeting of the Union was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College,
Mumbai from December 28 to 31, 1885 under the presidentship of Womesh Chandra
Bonnerjee. It was attended by 72 delegates.
Dadabhai Naoroji changed name to the Indian National Congress.
The Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, favoured the formation of the Congress because he wanted
it to act as a 'safety-valve' for popular discontent, thereby, safeguarding the British
interest in India.

AIMS OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL INCOME CONGRESS:

(i) To promote friendly relations between nationalist political workers from different
parts of the country;
(ii) To develop and consolidate the feelings of national unity irrespective of caste,
religion or province;
(iii) To formulate popular demands and present them before the government;
(iv) To train and organise public opinion in the country.

SESSIONS OF THE CONGRESS

The First Session of the Congress at Mumbai under the presidentship of W.C.
Bonnerjee was attended by 72 delegates.
The second session of 1886 was held at Kolkata under the Presidentship of Dadabhai
Naoroji.
 FIRST PHASE OF INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
THE EARLY NATIONALISTS
In its initial years the Congress was led by a group of leaders known as the
Early Nationalists. The members of this group were drawn from the
educated middle class consisting of professionals like lawyers, barristers,
teachers and officials, who drew inspiration from Western thought.

Leaders: The Early Nationalists included leaders from all parts of the
country as:
1. W.C. Bonnerjee, Rashbehari Ghosh, Surendranath Banerjee and R.C. Dutt
from Bengal;
2. Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta and
Justice Ranade from Maharashtra and Gujarat;
3. P.R. Naidu, Subramania Iyer and Ananda Charlu from Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu;
4. Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya from Uttar Pradesh;
5. Liberal Englishmen like Hume and Wedderburn.

The Early Nationalist leaders who led the Congress and the National
Movement in its initial years were staunch believers in open-minded and
'moderate' politics. They believed in loyalty to the British Crown. B.C. Pal, an
early nationalist leader, said in 1887, "I am loyal to the British government
because with me loyalty to the British government is identical with loyalty to
my own people and my own country..." They wanted that Indians should
have their proper and legitimate share in the government. They asked for
constitutional and other reforms within the framework of the British rule as
they had faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They believed that
continuation of the British connection with India was in the interest of both
England and India. They concerned themselves with the demand for
reforms. Their demands were moderate in nature.
PROMINENT EARLY NATIONALIST LEADERS
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917)
Dadabhai Naoroji, popularly known as the
'Grand Old Man of India', was born in a Parsi
family in Mumbai on September 4, 1825. He
worked as a Professor of Mathematics in
Elphinstone College at Mumbai for ten
years. In 1855, he left the teaching
profession and went to England as a partner
in a firm. He founded the Bombay Association, edited the newspaper Rast
Goftar ('Speaker of Truth'). He started a magazine 'Dharma Marg Darshak'.

HIS CONTRIBUTIONS

1. India's Unofficial Ambassador: In 1865, he founded the London India

Society in collaboration with W.C. Bonnerjee to publicise grievances of
Indians. He was the first Indian to become the member of the British House
of Commons in England.
2. Role in the Congress: He took an active part in the foundation of the
Indian National Congress and was elected its President thrice, in 1886, 1893
1906 respectively. Resolutions on Self-government, Boycott, Swadeshi and
National Education were passed by the Congress under his Presidentship.
The credit for demanding Swaraj from the Congress platform for the first
time (1906) goes to him. In his Presidential address, he said that the
Congress wanted Self-government or Swaraj like that of the United Kingdom
or the Colonies.
3. Exposed the Economic Ills of India: As an economic thinker, he came to
the conclusion that the root cause for the economic ills of India was the
exploitation of India by the British. Dadabhai's views on Indian economy are
given in his work entitled Poverty and Un British Rule in India'. His famous
'Drain Theory' explained how India's wealth was being 'drained' to England
through various ways.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915)
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, was born at Kolhapur
in Maharashtra in 1866. He was a professor of
History and Economics at Fergusson College
in Pune.
He was influenced by the ideals of Justice
M.G. Ranade. He joined the Deccan Education
Society founded by Justice Ranade. On behalf
of the Society he went to England to propagate
Indian views before the Welby Commission.
He was awarded the title of C.I.E.
Gokhale became the most popular leader of
the Indian National Congress. He presided
over the Varanasi session of the Congress in 1905

HIS CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Persuaded the British for Reforms: Gokhale favoured the use of
constitutional means to achieve his goals. He opposed the policies of the
British Government whenever necessary. He criticised the Government on
issues such as:
(i) incurring huge expenditure on the British army,
(ii) adopting the policy of racial discrimination in appointments to high
posts,
(iii) imposing production tax on cotton.

He made a strong plea for the reform of the Legislative Councils and
separation of judiciary from the executive.
• He played an important role in the passage of Minto-Morley Reforms.
• He also served as a member of the Indian Public Service Commission and
urged it to increase the share of Indians in higher services.
• During his visit to England he tried to persuade the British statesmen not
to give effect to the Partition of Bengal.
2. Servants of India Society: Gokhale set up the Servants of India Society in
1905. The main aim of the Society was to train national leaders who would
dedicate themselves to the service of India. Some of the important members
of the society were Srinivas Shastri and Hridaynath Kunzru.

3. Role as a Member of Imperial Legislative Council

• In 1902 Gokhale became the member of the Imperial Legislative Council.
He pleaded in the Council for reduction in Salt Duty and the abolition of
excise duty on cotton goods.
• His relentless efforts led to reduction in toll tax.
• He tried to introduce a bill with a view to make primary education
compulsory but he could not achieve much success in it.
• Being an economist, he demanded radical changes in the fiscal policy and
better jobs for the educated middle class...
• He impressed upon the government to reduce the land revenue.

Gokhale and Gandhiji: Gokhale went to South Africa where he helped

Gandhiji in his fight against racial discrimination. The credit of persuading
Gandhiji to return to India and join Indian public life also goes to Gokhale. In
fact, Gandhiji accepted Gokhale as his political mentor'.
Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925)
Surendranath Banerjee was a nationalist leader,
popular journalist and dedicated educationist. He was
born in Bengal in 1848. He was the first Indian to
qualify for the Indian Civil Service Examination. He
worked as a Magistrate in Assam but he was soon
dismissed because he opposed the policy of racial
discrimination followed by the British.

HIS CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Established the Indian Association: To fight against the wrong policies of
the British, he founded the Indian Association in 1876, Its aims were to
educate the people; to create strong public opinion in the country; and to
arouse political consciousness and unity.
2. Created an All-India Political political organisation: In order to create an
all-India Surendranath convened the Indian National Conference in 1883 at
Kolkata. Surendranath Banerjee's Indian National Conference merged with
the Indian National Congress in 1886 as both organisations had similar
objectives. He presided over two sessions of the Congress in 1895 and
1902.

3. Political Ideas: Banerjee edited a newspaper, Bengalee, which served as

a powerful medium for mobilising public opinion. His book, Nation in the
Making, gives an account of his political concern and his views about self-
government.
 SECOND PHASE OF INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
Partition of Bengal : The Scheme of Partiton of Bengal was
implemented on October 16,1905. Lord Curzon announced it.

CAUSES OF PARTITION OF BENGAL

The main motive for the Partition of Bengal, according to the British
rulers, was administrative necessity.
These included:
1. Bengal was the nerve centre of Indian nationalism at that time. So
the British hoped to stop the rising tide of nationalism by
partitioning Bengal.
2. The Partition of the State was intended to curb Bengali influence
by not only placing Bengalis under two administrations but by
reducing them to a minority in Bengal itself.
3. The Partition was meant to foster division on the basis of
religion. East Bengal would be predominantly a Muslim majority
state and West Bengal would have a Hindu majority.

MAIN OBJECTIVE OF ASSERTIVE NATIONALISTS

The main objective of the Assertive Nationalists was the immediate
attainment of 'Swaraj'. This means complete independence and not
just self-government as in the colonies of Australia, New Zealand,
etc.

METHODS OF ASSERTIVE NATIONALISTS

The main focus of the Assertive Nationalists was to get a larger
share for Indians in the administration of their country and to end
Britain's economic exploitation of India.
1. Swadeshi: Swadeshi means producing necessary items in one's
own country and using them for one's use without being dependent
on imported goods.
2. Boycott: Swadeshi and boycott are two sides of the same coin.
Tilak said, "When you accept Swadeshi, you must boycott foreign
goods".
3. National Education: A National scheme of education was planned
which was to replace that of Government controlled universities
and colleges. Bengal National College at Kolkata, Pachaiyappa
National College at Chennai were set as National Schools
4. Passive Resistance: The Assertive leaders believed in adopting
the policy of non-violent resistance and vigorous political action to
achieve their aims. They believed in Claiming in place of Begging
for the right.
Besides the above said methods, the other methods used by these
leaders were:
(i) Revivalism: Assertive Nationalists revived self-respect by
referring to India's past glory. These leaders planned the national
movement on people's religious beliefs. Tilak revived the Shivaji
festival in 1895.
(ii) Personal sacrifices: The followers of the movement used self-
reliance and were ready for self-sacrifice, suffering and hardships
to achieve their goal.
(iii) Mass involvement: They had an abiding faith in the strength of
the masses and proposed to win freedom through mass action.

THE REPRESSIVE MEASURES OF THE GOVERNMENT

The Assertive Nationalists suffered most for the cause of freedom.
Since the movement for boycott of British goods was gaining
ground, the government launched a campaign of repression against
the Assertive leaders. In 1908, Tilak was tried and sentenced to six
years of imprisonment.
LEADERS OF ASSERTIVE NATIONALISM
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)
Bal Gangadhar Tilak is known as the
Father of the Assertive Nationalism'.
He played a leading role in
popularising the cult of patriotism and
making the Congress movement
broad-based.
Tilak was born in Maharashtra. After
taking his degree in Law he founded
the Poona New English Schol & Fergusson College at Pune

HIS CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Demand for Swaraj: Tilak was the first to openly declare the
demand for Swaraj. "Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it".
Tilak was convinced that political rights could be achieved by
aggressively demanding them.He organised lathi Club and Akharas
for physical training.
2. Preached Nationalism: In 1893, Tilak started using the traditional
religious Ganapati festival to propagate nationalist ideas through
songs and speeches. In 1895 he glorified Shivaji and started the
Shivaji festival to encourage young Maharashtrians. He started two
newspapers-Mahratta (English) and Kesari (Marathi) which soon
became the mouthpieces of his ideas.His Books are- Gita Rahasya
and The Artic home of the Vedas.
3. Established Home Rule League: Tilak set up a Home Rule League
at Pune in 1916 to attain self-government within the British Empire
by constitutional means.
Forerunner of Gandhiji: Tilak was the forerunner of Mahatma
Gandhi in a number of ways.Tilak's idea of Swaraj, Swaraj and
boycott was followed by Mahatma Gandhi.
Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)
Born in Sylhet, now a part of Bangladesh, in
the year 1858, Bipin Chandra is known as the
Father of the Revolutionary Thought in India.'

HIS CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Role as Journalist: As a journalist he
worked for Bengal Public Opinion, The
Tribune and New India to propagate his brand
of nationalism.
2. National Education: Bipin Chandra wanted National Education to
be the basis of the freedom movement. It would arouse nationalistic
passions and become an effective instrument of social progress.
3. Social And Economic Reforms: Bipin Chandra Pal wanted to
remove social and economic evils from the society. For this he
made the following efforts:
(i) He opposed the caste system and other rigid rules concerning
inter-dining and inter-mixing.
(ii) He advocated widow remarriage.
(iii) He believed Educating women was the most effective way of
raising their position.
Lala Lajpat Rai ( 1865 - 1928 )
Lala Lajpat Rai was popularly known as
'Punjab Kesari or "Sher-e-Punjab'. He was
an eminent lawyer, prolific writer,
enlightened educator, social reformer and a
staunch fighter against the British rule. He
was born at Dhudike, Jagraon in Punjab. He
was influenced by the Arya Samaj
Movement. Lord Curzon's ruthless
measures forced him to fight the British
rule.He edited Young India, Punjabi, Vande
Matram and People.

HIS CONTRIBUTIONS:
1. An Educationist and a Forceful Writer: Lala Lajpat Rai was a
prolific writer. When he was in the USA, he started a monthly
magazine 'Young India' to spread the message of the right of India
to attain Swaraj.
2. A Social Reformer: Lajpat Rai was associated with the Arya
Samaj Movement. He was instrumental in the expansion of D.A.V.
College at Lahore in 1886. He opened orphanages, hospitals and
schools. He set up Servants of the Peoples Society for the welfare
of the downtrodden and outcastes.
3. Political Work Outside India: He went abroad to mobilise opinion
in favour of India's struggle for freedom. When he went to America
in 1914 he joined the Ghadar Party there.
 MUSLIM LEAGUE

FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

The success of the Muslim deputation to the Viceroy motivated the
Muslims to start a separate political organisation. Nawab Salimullah
of Dacca took the initiative. In December 1906, when eminent
Muslim leaders assembled at Dacca in connection with the
Mohammedan Educational Conference, he arranged a meeting to
consider such a proposal. All India Muslim League set up at Dec.
30, 1906 under Nawab Salimullah of Dacca. Aga Khan elected as
Permanent President.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

The objectives of the League were laid down as follows:
(i) To promote, among the Muslims of India, support for the British
government and to remove any misconceptions regarding the
intention of the government in relation to Indian Muslims.
(ii) To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the
Muslims and to represent their needs and aspirations to the
government in mild and moderate language.
(iii) To prevent the rise of feelings of hostility between the Muslims
of India and other communities.

THE LUCKNOW PACT

The period during the First World War (1914-1919) was of intense
nationalist political activity. The events during the war and the
prevalent sentiments were responsible for the signing of the
Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the Muslim League.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LUCKNOW PACT

1. Hindu-Muslim Unity: The joint scheme symbolised Hindu-Muslim
unity. Both the communities agreed to compromise in some areas
for the common good. The Congress compromised on its secular
character by accepting the scheme of separate electorates for
Muslims. The Muslim League accepted the principles of election
and the majority rule. As a result of this pact, the Hindus and the
Muslims worked together from 1916 to 1922.
2. Unity Within the Congress: The Lucknow Session and the signing
of the Lucknow Pact brought about unity between the Assertive
Nationalists and the Early Nationalists. After the Surat Session of
1907, both wings of the Congress were moving in different
directions. They came together in 1916 and as a result, the
Congress was strengthened. The Congress President of the
Lucknow Session of 1916, Ambica Charan Majumdar rightly
remarked, "If the united Congress was buried at Surat, it is reborn
at Lucknow."
3. Pressure on the Government: The unity between the Congress
and the League and between the Early Nationalists and the
Assertive Nationalists became a threat to the British Government of
India. Until now the Government had been repressing the
Nationalist Movement by using force. The Government now had no
excuse for delaying political or constitutional reforms.
4. Necessity to Pacify Indians: As the First World War continued,
the leaders of the Congress and the League impressed upon the
British Government that their demands for Constitutional Reforms
should not be rejected if they wished Indians to be loyal to the
British.
The Government, therefore, felt it necessary to pacify the Indians by
the Declaration of August 20, 1917 which promised a policy of
gradual development of self-government institutions in India.
 MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, popularly known as Bapu or Mahatma
Gandhi, completely dominated the Indian National Movement from 1919 to
1948. That is why, this period is known as the Gandhian era in Indian
history.

EARLY LIFE
Mahatma Gandhi was born in 1869 at Porbandar in the Kathiawad district of
Gujarat. His father was the Diwan of Rajkot State. In 1888, he went to
England to study Law. On completing his studies, he came back to India and
started practising Law at Rajkot. From 1893 to 1914, he practised Law in
South Africa.He returned to to India in Jan. 1915.

Champaran Satyagraha(1917):
Gandhiji's first great experiment in Satyagraha was accomplished in 1917 in
Champaran, Bihar. The indigo cultivators of Champaran were greatly
exploited by European planters. They were bound by law to grow indigo on
3/20th of their land and sell it to the British planters at prices fixed by them.

Ahmedabad Satyagraha (1918):

Gandhiji led the mill-workers of Ahmedabad in a strike against the mill-
owners who had refused to pay them higher wages. When the workers
seemed to weaken, he provided support to them by undertaking a fast.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918):

Crops failed in Kheda and the peasants were not in a position to pay land
revenue. The government refused to forgo the land revenue. Gandhiji
organised the peasants to offer Satyagraha.

NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
Non-cooperation is 'a way of protesting in which one does not co-operate
with the evil-doer.'
CAUSES THAT LED TO THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
1. Rowlatt Act: In spite of opposition from the Indians the Rowlatt Act was
passed in March 1919. This Act authorised the Government to imprison any
person without trial and convict him in a court.
The Rowlatt Act implied:
(i) Arrest of a person without warrant.
(ii) In camera trial (trial in seclusion).
(iii) Restrictions on movements of individuals.
(iv) Suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus.

The Act came like a sudden blow to the Indians who were expecting self-
governance. Gandhiji appealed to the Viceroy to withhold his consent to
such measures. However, his appeal was ignored. He started 'Satyagraha as
a challenge to the government.
2. Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy: A large but peaceful crowd gathered at the
Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, to protest against the arrest
of leaders like Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu and Dr. Satya Pal.
Jallianwala Bagh had only one exit, its other three sides were enclosed by
buildings. General Dyer, the military Commander of Amritsar surrounded the
Bagh (garden) with his soldiers. After closing the exit with his troops, he
ordered them to shoot at the crowd. The troops kept on firing till their
ammunition was exhausted. About one thousand innocent demonstrators
were killed and many more wounded.
Tagore expressed the pain and anger of the country by returning his
Knighthood.

3. Khilafat Movement: Turkey was defeated in First World War and Sultan of
Turkey (Caliph) was deprived all power. The Muslim population in India
started a powerful agitation known as the Khilafat Movement, under the
leadership of the Ali Brothers - Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali, Maulana
Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani.
Gandhiji saw in the Khilafat Movement an opportunity for uniting Hindus and
Muslims. Mahatma Gandhi was elected as President of the All-India Khilafat
Conference in November 1919.
By the end of 1920, the Khilafat Movement and the Congress Non-
Cooperation Movement merged into one nationwide movement.

OBJECTIVES OF THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

The Non-Cooperation Movement sought to achieve the following objectives:
(i) To attain self-government within the British Empire if possible and
outside if necessary.
(ii) Annulment of the Rowlatt Act and remedying the Punjab wrong,
(iii) Remedying the Khilafat wrong,

PROGRAMMES
Boycott programmes
• Boycott of elections to be held for the Councils as suggested by the
reforms of 1919.
• Resignation from nominated seats in local bodies.
• Surrender of titles and honorary offices.
• Refusal to attend government functions.

Swadeshi programmes
• Popularisation of Swadeshi and Khadi by reviving hand-spinning and
hand-weaving.
• Removal of untouchability and other measures for Harijan welfare.

SUSPENSION OF THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

Chauri Chaura: The tragedy at Chauri Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur district
in Uttar Pradesh, occurred on February 5, 1922. A procession of about 3,000
peasants marched to the police station to protest against the police officer
who had beaten some volunteers picketing a liquor shop. The police fired at
the peasants. This infuriated the demonstrators and they set the nearby
police station on fire, killing 22 policemen who were inside the police
station.
Gandhiji suspended the movement.

IMPACT OF THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

1. The National Movement Became a Mass Movement: The Indian national
movement, for the first time in history, acquired a real mass base with the
participation of different sections of Indian society such as peasants,
workers, students, teachers and women.
2. Instilled Confidence Among the People: It generated a desire for freedom
and inspired people to challenge the colonial rule.
3. The Congress Became a Revolutionary Movement: It transformed the
Indian National Congress from a deliberative assembly into an organisation
for action. It became the organiser and leader of the masses in their national
struggle.
4. Fostered Hindu-Muslim Unity: It fostered Hindu-Muslim unity which could
be seen in the merger of the Khilafat issue with this Movement. It provided
an opportunity to the Congress to bring the urban Muslims into the National
Movement by convincing them that the nation was equally concerned with
the problems affecting them.
5. Promoted Social Reforms: As a consequence of the Non-Cooperation
Movement several steps were taken in the direction of prohibition and
removal of untouchability.
6. Spread Nationalism to Every Part of the Country: The Movement gave a
new boost to nationalism in India.
7. Popularised the Cult of Swaraj: The goal of the Non-Cooperation
Movement was to attain Swaraj within the British empire, if possible, and
outside, if necessary.

FACTORS LEADING UPTO CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

This movement was to be different from the Non-Cooperation movement in
the sense that the Non-Cooperation movement (1921-22) sought to bring the
working of the government to a standstill by not cooperating with the
administration, whereas the Civil Disobedience Movement was an attempt at
paralysing the administration by breaking some specific rules and
regulations.

1. Simon Commission: In November 1927, the British Government appointed

the Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as the Simon
Commission, (after the its Chairman Sir John Simon) to investigate the need
for further constitutional reforms. The Commission was composed of seven
British members of Parliament. It had no Indian member. This was seen as a
violation of the principle of self-determination and a deliberate insult to the
self-respect of the Indians.

2. Declaration of Poorna Swaraj: Jawaharlal Nehru was made the President

of the Congress at the historic Lahore session of 1929. It passed a
resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) to be objective
of the Congress.
The Congress Working Committee met in January 1930, and decided the
following programme:
(i) Preparation for Civil Disobedience.
(ii) Declaration of Poorna Swaraj resolution,
(iii) Observance of 26th of January as the 'Poorna Swaraj' day, all over the
country with the hoisting of the tricolour flag.
(iv) Resignations by members of the legislature.
(v) Withdrawal from all possible association with the British Government.
It was decided to observe January 26, as the Day of Independence every
year. A pledge was drawn up, which was to be read and solemnly taken,
while celebrating the day.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-1934)

Before starting the movement, Gandhiji served on the British government a
'Eleven Point Ultimatum' to Lord Irwin.
DANDI MARCH
On 12th March, Mahatma
Gandhi began the historic
march from Sabarmati
Ashram to Dandi.
He had selected to attack
the Salt Laws because the
salt-tax affected all sections
of society, especially the
poor. Gandhiji's breaking of
the Salt Laws marked the
beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

THE PROGRAMME OF THE MOVEMENT

Civil Disobedience Movement involved:
(i) Defiance of Salt Laws,
(ii) Boycott of liquor,
(iii) Boycott of foreign cloth and British goods of all kinds, and
(iv) Non-payment of taxes and revenues.

GANDHI-IRWIN PACT
This resulted in the signing of a pact by Gandhiji and Lord Irwin, the
Viceroy, in March 1931. This is known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The
government agreed to:
(i) Withdraw all ordinances and end prosecutions.
(ii) Release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence.
(iii) Permit peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.

The Congress, in its turn, consented to the following:

(i) To suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement.
(ii) To participate in the second session of the Round Table Conference.
(iii) Not to press for investigation into police excesses.
Second Round Table Conference (September 7 to December 1, 1931): It was
attended by Gandhiji as a sole representative of the Congress, according to
the terms of the Gandhi Irwin Pact of 1931. The conference was soon
deadlocked on the minorities issue, with separate electorates being
demanded now not only by Muslims but also by the Depressed Classes,
Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans.

IMPACT OF THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

1. The Government withdrew the ban on the Congress in June 1934.
2. Prabhat Pheris, in which hundreds of men and women went around
singing patriotic songs in the early morning became popular in towns and
villages. Handwritten Patrikas or news sheets were issued in large numbers.
3. It brought women out of their homes to participate in politics and to make
them equal partners in the freedom struggle.
4. The Government of India Act, 1935, introduced the principle of a
Federation and the principle of Provincial Autonomy; i.e., responsible
Government in the Provinces.
5. The movement revived the will to fight the elections. In 1937 the Congress
achieved positive results in the elections to the Central Legislative
Assembly and Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

CAUSES OF QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

The Cripps' Mission (1942)
During the World War II the Japanese army rapidly advancing towards India,
it became necessary for the British to break the political deadlock in India.
Churchill announced in March 1942, that Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of
the War Cabinet, would go to India for consultation with all the parties.

The Cripps' Mission proposed the following Constitutional reforms:

1. India would be given a Dominion Status when the War would end.
2. A Constituent Assembly would be set up. It would consist of the members
elected by the Lower House of the Indian Legislature and the
representatives of the Princely States nominated by their rulers. It would be
set up to draft a new Constitution.
3. There would be a federation of British India and Indian States. Any
province that was not prepared to accept the Constitution would be allowed
to obtain Dominion Status separately.
4. Provisions would also be made for the protection of the racial and
religious minorities.

FAILURE OF THE CRIPPS' MISSION

Almost all the parties and sections of the people rejected the proposals on
the following grounds:
1. The Cripps' Mission did not bring with it the promise of independence in
the near future.
2. The plan involved partitioning the country.
3. The League opposed the creation of a single union. The proposals did not
accept Pakistan specifically. They did not grant the right of self-
determination to Muslims.
4. he Hindus Mahasabha rejected as it feared partition.
5. The people of the Princely States had no right to send their
representatives to the proposed Constitution-making body.
6. The sikhs, Anglo Indians, Chistians and labour leaders rejected as it did
not safeguard their interests.

JAPANESE THREAT
The War situation was discouraging in 1942. The Japanese Army had
attacked Burma (Myanmar) and was marching towards Assam. Gandhiji
observed, 'The presence of British in India is an invitation to Japan to invade
India. Their withdrawal removes the bait.'

QUIT INDIA RESOLUTION

In 1942, the failure of the Cripps' Mission left no further meeting ground
between the British Government and the Congress. Mahatma Gandhi felt
that the British presence in India was an invitation to Japan to invade India
and that their withdrawal would remove the bait.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

The All-India Congress Committee met at Bombay on August 8, 1942 and
passed the Quit India Resolution adopted at Wardha in July 1942. The
Congress proposed to start a non-violent mass struggle under Gandhiji's
leadership if this demand of immediate and complete independence was not
conceded by the British. In his speech before the All India Congress
Committee, Gandhiji declared that it was a decision "To Do or Die".

IMPACT OF THE QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

The Quit India movement made independence of India as the only agenda of
the National Movement.
The Movement had the following impact:
1. The Quit India Movement was in fact short-lived. Its importance lay in the
fact that it demonstrated the depth that nationalist feeling had reached in the
country and the great capacity for struggle and sacrifice that the people had
developed.
2. It was evident that the British would no longer find it possible to rule India
against the wishes of the people.
3. It was the mass uprising before attaining independence. People from all
parts of India took part in processions and demonstrations. The Hindus,
Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and Parsis and even people from the Princely
States participated.
4. After the suppression of the Quit India Movement, the Constitutional
question remained dormant till the close of the War in 1945.
 FORWARD BLOC AND THE INA
FORWARD BLOC
Bose felt the urgent need for an
organised left-wing party in the
Congress. After resigning from the
Presidentship of the Congress in
1939, he laid the foundation of a
new party within the Congress, to
bring the entire left wing under one
banner.

OBJECTIVES OF THE FORWARD BLOC

After attaining independence, Forward Bloc would work for the
establishment of a Socialist State through:
(i) reorganisation of agriculture and industry on socialist lines;
(ii) abolition of the Zamindari system; and
(iii) introduction of a new monetary and credit system.

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA)

The idea of the Indian National
Army (INA) was conceived in
Malaya by Mohan Singh, an Indian
officer in the British Indian Army.
He decided not to join the retreating
British army and instead went to
the Japanese for help.
Indian Prisoners of War (POW's) were handed over by the Japanese to
Mohan Singh who inducted them into the INA. The fall of Singapore was
crucial, for this brought 45,000 Indian POW's into Mohan Singh's sphere of
influence.
CONTRIBUTION OF SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE
As we studied earlier in this chapter, Subhas Chandra
Bose was instrumental in the formation of the
Forward Bloc. After evading the British Indian
authorities Bose led the freedom struggle outside the
country.
In August 1943, he took the charge of the Indian
National Army and became its supreme commander.
He set up the INA headquarters in Yangon and in
Singapore and began to reorganise the INA. Recruits
were made from civilians. A women's regiment called
the Rani Jhansi Regiment was led by Dr. Laxmi
Swaminathan.

OJECTIVES OF THE INA

The main objectives of the INA were the following:
(i) To organise an armed revolution and to fight the British army with
modern arms.
(ii) Since it was not possible for the Indians to organise an armed revolution
from their homeland, this task must be assigned to the Indians living
abroad, particularly on Indians living in East Asia.
(iii) To organise a provisional government of Free India in order to mobilise
all the forces effectively.
(iv) Total mobilisation of Indian man-power and money for a total war.
 INDEPENEDNCE AND PARTITION OF INDIA

MOUNTBATTEN PLAN
Mountbatten put his plan for the partition of India before the big
seven 'leaders-Nehru, Patel, Kripalani, Jinnah, Liaquat,
Nishtar and Baldev Singh. The Congress accepted the Plan
and Jinnah undertook to do his utmost to make the Plan work.
The Plan was announced on June 3, 1947.

The main points of the Plan included the following:

1. Partition: The country would be divided into two
Dominions, i.e., India and Pakistan.
2. Relations between the two new Dominions: It was for the
two dominions to decide what relations they would have
with the British Commonwealth and with each other.
3. A Boundary Commission: The Plan provided for the
creation of a Boundary Commission to settle the boundaries
of the two Dominions in case partition was decided upon.
4. The Princely States: As regards the Princely States, the
treaties with them would come to an end. They would be free to
associate themselves with either of the Dominions or to remain
independent.
5. Bengal and Punjab: The partition of Bengal and Punjab
was proposed provided that the Legislative Assemblies of
the two provinces decided in favour of partition.
6. Sindh: The Legislative Assembly of Sindh was to take its
own decision at a special meeting.
7. North - West Frontier Province: A plebiscite was to be held
in the North-West Frontier Province to ascertain whether the
people wanted to join India or Pakistan.
8. The District of Sylhet: The Muslim majority district of Sylhet
was to decide by referendum whether it would join East
Bengal or remain in Assam.
9. Constituent Assembly: The existing Constituent Assembly
would continue to work, but the Constitution framed by it
would not apply to Pakistan.
10. Transfer of Power: The plan ended with a declaration that
the transfer of power would take place not in June 1948 but
much earlier than that.

ACCEPTANCE OF MOUNTBATTEN PLAN

The historic pronouncement was received with mixed feelings
by the public. All-India Congress Committee accepted the
Mountbatten Plan because according to Maulana Azad the
Congress had no other alternative. The reasons for finally
accepting the Mountbatten Plan may be summarised as
follows:
(i) The large-scale communal riots that engulfed the whole
country convinced all that the only solution to the
communal problem lay in the Partition of India. In the words
of Sardar Patel, "Refusal of the demand for Pakistan will
amount to dividing the country into so many Pakistans.
(ii) The League had joined the Interim Government to
obstruct and not to cooperate.
(iii) The only alternative to Partition was a Federation with a
weak Centre. A smaller India with a strong central authority was
better than a bigger State with a weak Centre.
(iv) The leaders felt that further delay in the transfer of
power could find India in the midst of a Civil War.

THE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947

After the Mountbatten Plan was accepted by the Indian
leaders, the British Prime Minister introduced the Indian
Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
The main provisions of the Act were as follows:
1. Two New Dominions:- India would be partitioned and two
independent Dominions-India and Pakistan-would be created
from August 15, 1947. The Act provided legislative supremacy
of both the Dominions. India was to comprise all the
remaining territories included in the British India. The exact
boundaries of the Dominions would be determined by a
Boundary Commission.

2. Provisions of Partition :-
(i) Both Bengal and Punjab would be divided if so desired
by the people. The Provincial Assemblies of the two parts
would meet separately representing Hindu majority districts
and Muslim majority districts and would decide through a
majority vote whether they wanted the division of the
province or not.
(ii) A plebiscite would be held in North West Frontier Province
(NWFP) as well as in Sylhet district (Muslim majority area) in
East Bengal to determine whether they would like to join
Pakistan or India.

3. Governor-General for Each Dominion:- There would be

Governor-General a who would be appointed by the British
King on the advice of the Cabinet of the concerned
Dominion.

4. Constituent Assemblies to Serve as Central Legislatures :-

The Constituent Assemblies of both the dominions were to act
as the Central Legislatures and would have full powers to
make laws for their respective Dominion. They would act as
sovereign bodies for legislative purposes.
5. End of Jurisdiction of the British Parliament
(i) The legislative authority of the British Parliament would
cease from August 15, 1947.
(ii) The titles of the Emperor of India' and the King of
England' were dropped from the royal style.
(iii) Till the new Constitution was framed, each of the
Dominions and all Provinces were to be governed in
accordance with the Act of 1935.
(iv) The Governor-General was given the powers to modify
or adopt the Government of India Act 1935 by March 31,
1948.

6. Princely States :- The Princely States would become

independent and all the powers exercised by the British
authority were to be terminated. All treaties and agreements
made by the British with reference to States would lapse from
August 15, 1947.

7. Treaties and Agreements :- With effect from August 15, 1947,

His Majesty's Government would cease to have any
responsibility for the Government of India.

8. Division of the Army and the Assets :- Provisions were made

for the division of the Indian army between the two Dominions
and steps were to be taken to share the assets and liabilities
between the two Dominions.

9. Bringing the Act Into Operation :- The Governor-General

was vested with necessary powers for bringing the Indian
independence into effective operation.
10. Office of Secretary of State and Interest of Existing
Officers :- Provisions were made for safeguarding the
interests of the existing officers appointed by the Secretary
of State. The office of the Secretary of State for India was
abolished.
 FIRST WORLD WAR
In 1914, a war began in Europe which soon engulfed almost the entire world
with the battles fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. It was fought
on a worldwide scale and affected almost all the countries of the world.
Because of the unprecedented extent of its spread, impact and damage and
its total nature, it is known as the First World War.

Causes of the First World War:

1. Nationalism and Imperialism:
Nationalism refers to the sense of unity felt by the people, who share a
common history, language and culture. Aggressive nationalism meant love
for one’s own country and hatred of other countries. Each nation thought
about its own national interests and did not care for interests of the other
nations. This aggressive nationalism also led to the rise of imperialism.
Imperialism refers to the state policy or practice by which a powerful nation
establishes its control over another country, either by direct territorial
acquisition or by gaining political and economic control.
Once conquered, this country was claimed as a colony. Colonies provided
raw material, cheap labour, agricultural land and trading ports to the
imperial nations.
England and France had built up a huge colonial empire in Asia and Africa.
Germany, Italy, Russia and Japan also wanted to increase their sphere of
influence and create their colonies in Asia and Africa.
The European powers began to scramble for expanding their economic and
political empire. Thus, aggressive nationalism and fierce economic
competition filled the atmosphere with fear, apprehension, mutual hatred
and international tension.

2. Division of Europe into Two Hostile Groups:

There were two kinds of States in Europe in the early 20th century. On the
one hand there were single Nation-States like France, Holland and Germany
whose national identities were based on their common language and
traditions. The three countries entered into the Triple Entente in 1907 to
counter the Triple Alliance. Later Japan joined the Triple Entente. Thus,
Europe was divided into two hostile camps.
Germany entered into an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1882 Italy joined
the alliance and it came to be known as the Triple Alliance.
France, Russia and England entered into the Triple Entente in 1907. Later,
Japan joined the Triple Entente. Thus, Europe was divided into two hostile
camps.

3. Sarajevo Crisis (Immediate Cause):

Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was
assassinated at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia on June 28, 1914. The
assassination was
organised by a secret
society called Black
Hand' or 'Union of
Death' formed by
extremist Serbian
nationalists whose aim
was to unite all
Serbians into a single
Serbian State. Austria
served an ultimatum on
Serbia on July 23
making eleven demands. Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
Britain, France, Russia and their allies were called the Allied powers; while
Germany, Austria and their allies were called the Central Powers. The War
was fought in many different areas called fronts.
July 28, 1914 Russia support Serbia. Germany declared war on Russia and
on France. German troops marched into Belgium same day Britain declared
War on Germany. Japan declared war on Germany to capture German
colonies. Turkey and Bulgaria joined on the side of Germany.
Britain, France, Russia and their allies were called the Allied powers; while
Germany, Austria and their allies were called the Central Powers.

Results Of the War

1. The Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919):
The victorious powers or the Allies, met in a conference first in Versailles.
The terms of the peace treaties were really decided by Woodrow Wilson,
President of the United States. Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Britain, and
George Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France.
As a result of the discussions at the Paris Conference, on June 28,1919 The
Treaty of Versailles was signed. It ended the War.
American President Wilson's Fourteen Points. The treaty was designed to
prevent Germany from going to war again.

Terms of the Treaty:

(i) The Treaty declared Germany guilty of aggression.
(ii) Germany was
required to pay for the
loss and damages at
33 billion dollars.
(iii) The area of the
Rhine Valley was to be
demilitarised.
(iv) Germany lost
Alsace Lorraine to
France; Eupen-et-
Malmedy to Belgium,
Schleswig to Denmark.
(v) Germany ceded parts of her pre-War territory to Denmark, Belgium,
Poland, Czechoslovakia and France.
vi) The coal mines in the German area called Saar were ceded to France for
15 years.
vii) Germany lost all her colonies to the victorious Allies-Britain, Belgium,
South Africa and Portugal.
viii) The German Army was restricted to a force of 1,00,000 soldiers and the
Navy was limited to 15,000 men and 24 ships. The Air Force and submarines
were banned.
ix) The Treaty affirmed the complete independence of Belgium, Poland,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

2. Formation of the League of Nations: One of the most significant

consequences of the War was the creation of the League of Nations. The
horrors of War convinced the leaders of the world that there must be a
mechanism to prevent War and promote international cooperation. This
culminated in the setting up of the League of Nations.

An important part of the peace treaties was the Covenant of the League of
Nations. Wilson's Fourteen Points included the creation of an international
organisation for the preservation of peace and to guarantee the
independence of all states. Thus, the League of Nations was created as a
world organisation of all independent States in 1920.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

(i) All the States of the world were prohibited from entering into any secret
treaties and alliances.
(ii) The member-States were not supposed to maintain huge armies,
warships and destructive armaments.
(iii) All States were to respect each other's independence.
(iv) All States were to refer their mutual disputes, if any, to the League of
Nations for a peaceful settlement.
(v) The member-States were to take necessary action as directed by the
League against any State which tried to disturb world peace and order.
(vi) Apart from political functions, the League of Nations was supposed to
promote cultural, social and economic cooperation among the member-
States.
 RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS
After First World War Totalitarian Dictatorship expanded. Countries like Russia,
Spain, Italy and Germany refused to work with League of Nation.
FASCISM
The word 'Fascism' has been derived from the Italian word
“fascio” which means union or league. It also means ‘Fasces’
was a bundle of sticks bound to an axe.
Fascism' means autocracy or dictatorship where the power of
the State is vested in one man only; and it is compulsory for all
the others to obey his orders.

How Mussolini Rise to power ?

He was socialist in the beginning but later became anti socialist. He formed
Fascios to organise violence. His party workers wore Black shirt called as
Fascist Party. He attacked Rome. The Government didn’t fought back.
Emperor Victor Emmanuel III invited him to form the Government. Reign of
Terror started and became absolute Master by plain order. He captured
rhodes, fiume and Albania and Abyssinia. Italy lost WW2. He was
executed.
CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF FASCISM
Fascism emerged as a movement in the post World War I.
1. Discontentment after the Treaty of Versailles: Italy joined the Allies in the First
World War to gain territories of Turkey and Germany. But by the Treaty of
Versailles, she could get only Southern Tyrol and Trentino, and the Coastal
Regions of Dalmatia. She could get no part of the German and Turkish colonial
empire.
2. Economic Crisis: Italy suffered heavy losses in terms of life and property in the
First World War. After the War, many soldiers became unemployed. Trade and
commerce were ruined leading to large-scale unemployment. There was a
shortage of food grains.
3. Political Instability: Democracy was introduced in Italy for the first time in 1919.
Elections failed to give a clear majority to a single party. As a result, there was
complete instability in the country and between 1919 and 1922 six coalition
governments were formed in Italy. They were unable to deal effectively with the
problems of unemployment, strikes and riots which took place during 1921-22.
4. Class Conflicts: Class conflict increased in many countries after the First World
War. The common man had been promised, during the War, that he would be
rewarded by greater attention to his economic needs. These promises were
ignored and the common man was angry.
5. Threat of Socialism or Communism: The Socialists who included the Anarchists,
the Communists and the Social Democrats created conditions conducive for the
growth of Fascism in Italy. Inspired by the Russian Revolution, the Communists
inflamed the atmosphere with revolutionary ideas. Peasants took away the land
from landlords; workmen organised strikes, damaged machines and took hold of
the factories. The communists began to devise new plans of overthrowing the
government and capturing power. The industrialists viewed the growing strength
of the labour unions with alarm and provided financial support to Fascism.
6. Failure of the League of Nations: After the First World War, the League of
Nations proved weak and failed to achieve its aims. It failed to check the rise of
dictatorships. Had it acted well in time, the ambitious plans of Mussolini and Hitler
would not have fulfilled.
7. Leadership Provided by Mussolini: Mussolini played an
important role in the history of Italy. He had a charismatic
personality. His speeches praised the past glories of Italy
and won the faith of his countrymen. Mussolini was
called 'Duce' which means the Leader.

NAZISM
The body of political and economic doctrines held
and put into effect by the Nazis in Germany from 1933
to 1945 including the totalitarian principle of
government, predominance of especially Germanic
groups asssumed to be racially superior, and
supremacy of the führer.
Nazism, properly termed National Socialism, was the ideology of the German Nazi
party. The term 'Nazi' (National sozialist) was an insult coined by opponents, hence
Nazism.

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF NAZISM

The factors which contributed to the growth of Nazism were the following:
1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles: Defeat in the First World War and the conditions
imposed by the Treaty of Versailles made the Germans feel humiliated and
helpless. Germans looked down upon the Weimar Republic which had signed such
a disgraceful treaty. Germany was forced to gave large chunks of her territory to
France, Belgium, Poland and Denmark. Her overseas possessions (colonies) were
divided by the Allies in the War among themselves. Germany was forced to pay
heavy reparations to the tune of 33 billion dollars and the total strength of the
German army was fixed at one lakh. The terms of this treaty were greatly resented
by the Germans who eagerly looked for an opportunity to avenge the same. These
sentiments were exploited by Hitler. He openly encouraged the Germans, to throw
the Treaty of Versailles into the waste-paper basket, to rebuild the empire of
Germany, and to recapture the lost colonies.
2. Growing Fear of Communism: After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the
Communist influence in Germany increased considerably. The Communists
organised themselves effectively and succeeded in capturing a number of seats in
Reichstag. Hitler warned the people that Communists of Germany would become
the servants of their Russian masters and would follow the dictates of
Communists. He, therefore, tried to persuade the people in Germany that Nazism
alone could check the growing influence of Communism.
3. Economic Crisis: As a result of the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany had to suffer in agricultural production, colonies, foreign investment,
trade contracts, etc. The foreign countries raised tariffs against the German goods.
The number of unemployed people increased. The condition of the farmers
became miserable. He won over the Capitalists by assuring that industries would
not be nationalised.
4. Resurgence of Militant Nationalism: The Germans could not reconcile with the
democratic parliamentary system prevailing in their country. They preferred
prestige and glory to liberty and freedom. They felt that only a strong man could
restore the past prestige of Germany and check the rising popularity of
Communism. When Hitler promised them all glory, they welcomed him with open
arms.
5. Anti-Semitic Propaganda: The anti-Semitic propaganda carried on by the Nazi
party also contributed to Hitler's popularity. The Nazis described the Jews as
traitors. They said that the Jews had conspired with the Allies during the War and
could again commit treason against Germany.
6. Absence of Strong Opposition: The rise of the Nazi Party in Germany was
facilitated by the absence of any strong opposition party. As a result, the Nazi
Party did not encounter any effective resistance and its popularity achieved great
heights.
7. Charismatic Personality of Hitler: Hitler had a charismatic personality. He had all
the qualities required for a popular leader. He was a shrewd politician and a brave
soldier. He knew the art of moulding public opinion in his favour according to the
circumstances. He was a gifted orator who captivated the Germans by his
emotional speeches. He told the Germans what they wanted to hear i.e., the
betrayal of Germany by the Treaty of Versailles and the Jewish-Communist plot to
conquer the world.

SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE IDEOLOGIES OF FASCISM AND NAZISM

1. To have faith in the totalitarian rule.
2. To despise democratic political systems.
3. To hold that the state is supreme and it could suppress the fundamental rights
and freedoms of individuals.
4. To uphold One-Party and one leader.
5. To believe in aggressive nationalism and imperialism.
6. To regard war as an instrument for furthering national interests.
7. To uphold intensely nationalistic, anti-communist, anti-democratic rule.
 SECOND WORLD WAR
The First World War and its harsh peace treaties BECAME the cause of the Second
World War. The damage caused by the Second World War surpassed all other wars
and brought the world to the verge of complete destruction.

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II

1. Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles: The First World War(1914-18) came
to an end by The Treaty of Versailles. It created more problems than it solved.
German territories were taken away and creation of many States. This sowed the
seeds of bitterness and conflict. All the German colonies were forcibly taken away
from her and she was divided into two parts for the benefit of Poland. She was
burdened with huge war indemnity which she could never pay. Her military power
was reduced. This humiliation gave rise to the spirit of revenge and Germany
started looking for a chance to do away with the harsh treaty. But this was not
possible without an aggressive policy and armaments. Hence, the war became
inevitable.
2. Rise of Fascism and Nazism: The rise of extreme nationalism in Italy and
Germany in the form of Fascism and Nazism, respectively contributed to the
causes which led to the Second World War. Italy wanted to revive the glory of the
Old Roman empire. She joined the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1937 and formed a ten
years alliance with Germany in 1939 to strengthen her position. Mussolini
established dictatorship in Italy. He opposed the Treaty of Versailles. Italy attacked
Abyssinia. The League of Nations failed to take any action against Italy, which
showed the weakness of the League.
In Germany, Hitler wanted to re-establish the prestige of Germany in the
international field. He disobeyed terms of the Treaty of Versailles and declared re-
armament. In 1938, he took over Austria and divided Czechoslovakia. In this way,
Mussolini and Hitler drove the countries of the world towards another World War.

3. Japanese Invasion of China: Japanese policy of expansion was another cause of

the War. Japan's ambitions rose after the First World War. She was determined to
dominate the Far East. In 1931, Japan attacked Manchuria and set up a
government there. Japan also started an undeclared war against China in 1931,
China appealed to the League of Nations to declare sanctions against Japan.
Britain and France, the leading members of the League did not pay any attention to
the appeal. Japan joined the Berlin-Rome Axis to form the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis
to further its policy of expansion and conquest. In 1933, Japan left the League of
Nations and started occupying the British and American properties in China.
Britain and France followed the policy of appeasement, thinking that the Japanese
could be used to weaken China.

4. Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was created after the
First World War to prevent future wars. However, the League suffered an early
blow when the USA did not join the League. Even those who joined the League
were not interested in the principle of collective security.
The League of Nations succeeded in controlling the threat of war in cases where
the parties were small nations. The League did nothing when Poland captured a
part of Lithuania in 1920. In 1923, there was a threat of war between Italy and
Greece. Italy refused to submit to the League's intervention and the dispute was
settled by direct mediation of Great Britain and France. Thereafter, in every crisis,
the League was either defied or ignored.
The authority of the League was disobeyed by Japan captured Manchuria; and by
Italy when it conquered Ethiopia.
The military power of the League was not adequate to perform the task given to it.
The economic sanctions were of no use against a determined aggressor.
The League failed to maintain international peace and the countries of Europe lost
faith in its usefulness. Thereafter, they themselves entered into mutual political
and military alliances.

5. Hitler Invasion of Poland (Immediate Cause): Hitler invaded Poland in September

1939 for the following reasons:
(i) By the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was divided into two parts in order to give
a land-route to Poland upto the sea and the Port of Danzing was also given to
Poland. Germany wanted to regain her lost territories.
(ii) The city of Danzing was inhabited mainly by the Germans and by occupying
Danzing Corridor, Germany could connect with East Prussia.
(iii) Poland was accused of committing atrocities against Germans living there.
On September 1, 1939, the German armies marched into Poland. France and
Britain gave an ultimatum to Germany. In reply, Germany attacked France. On
September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Thus the invasion of
Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War.
The German armies completed the conquest of Poland in less than three weeks so
as to ensure that no aid reached Poland.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. Defeat of Axis Powers: Up to the middle of 1942, the Axis powers (Germany, Italy
and Japan) met with remarkable success and captured large territories in Europe,
Africa and Asia. But by the end of 1942, the tide began to turn against the Axis
Powers. In November 1942, the Allied forces (Britain, France, the Soviet Union and
the USA) recaptured African territories lost by France. This was followed by their
victory over Italy and then Germany.
After the defeat of Germany, the Allied Powers turned their attention towards
Japan. Japan had won and had occupied most of South East Asia. The British
forces liberated Myanmar, Malaya, Philippines and Singapore.
In the Potsdam Conference held on July 26, 1945, the Allied Powers asked Japan
to surrender, but Japan refused. Consequently, America dropped the atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan offered to surrender on the terms of
Potsdam declaration and the war came to an end.
Thus, after the war, the Axis Powers had to face the following consequences:
(i) At the end of World War II, Germany was divided into zones, each zone
under the army of each of the Allied Powers.
(a) The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) commonly known as West Germany
was administered by UK, France and the U.S. with Bonn as the capital. It came
under the capitalist ideology of the Anglo-American and their Allies and became
part of the Capitalist bloc.
(b) The German Democratic Republic (GDR), known as East Germany was
administered by the Soviet Union with East Berlin as the capital. It came under the
influence of the political ideologies of communist Russia and became part of the
Communist (or Eastern) bloc.
(ii) Japan and Italy also became very weak. Unlike Germany, they were not divided
into zones to be governed by conquering forces. The American army was to
occupy Japan until 1952. After this period, the Japanese would resume sole
control over their own affairs. Emperor Hirohito was left on the throne as a
constitutional monarch and the Japanese Parliament retained some of its law
making powers. All lands acquired or seized by Japan since 1895 were taken away.
2. Formation of the UN: The horrors of the two World Wars and the failure of the
League of Nations led to a meeting of the Big Three --Roosevelt (President of the
USA), Churchill (Prime Minister of Britain) and Stalin (Premier of the USSR) at Yalta
in February 1945. They resolved to convene a conference of the representatives of
all nations at San Francisco to draw up the 'Charter of the United Nations.
This led to the establishment of the United Nations Organisation on October 24,
1945.

3 Cold War: During the Second World War, the USA and the Soviet Union fought
together in cooperation with each other. However, towards the end of the War, the
apparent harmony between the USA and the Soviet Union declined and old
suspicion and ideological differences came to the forefront. Though both the
countries did not engage in actual fight against each other, there was a state of
extreme political tension between the two. This state of tension between countries
in which each side adopted policies designed to strengthen itself and weaken the
other without armed conflict, is known as the 'Cold War.'

Cold War is defined as an atmosphere when

there is no armed struggle. The Cold War also
involved an arms race involving piling up of
nuclear and conventional weapons, formation
of military alliances, economic warfare and
trade embargoes, propaganda and proxy
wars, especially those involving superpower
support for opposing sides within civil wars.
Thus, the USA and the USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations and did
not resort to overt clashes, but treated each other with hostility. This led to the
division of the world into two power blocs. One bloc was led by the USA and the
other by the erstwhile USSR.

(i) The Democratic and Capitalist Bloc: The bloc led by the USA, called the Western
bloc or the American bloc believed in liberal democracy based on Capitalism. This
bloc comprised Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Canada, Australia, the Netherlands,
Greece, Pakistan, Turkey, etc. considered the political and social system of the
USSR as objectionable and dangerous as it had no place for Parliamentary
democracy and individual liberty. They projected the USSR as the enemy of world
peace and Communism a grave threat to freedom and liberty throughout the world.
America tried to maintain her influence by giving economic aid to different
countries. The United States, as the leader of the Free World, took upon itself, the
responsibility of preventing communism from spreading.

(ii) The Communist Bloc: The bloc led by the USSR, called the Eastern bloc or the
Soviet bloc believed in Communism based on Marxist theory. The Soviet bloc
countries considered the Western style democracy as a farce, meant only for the
rich and upper middle class. Therefore, they wanted to spread Communism in the
world and bring about a change in the social system of all the countries of the
world. Thus, by 1948, governments which owed allegiance to Moscow were
established in Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. Though
Yugoslavia and Albania were not directly linked to Russia as satellites, the
governments of these two countries were also Communist. Thus, the whole
Europe was divided into two power blocs.
The two blocs openly propagated against each other and considered each problem
from the point of view of the bloc and left no opportunity to weaken the opponent.
But at the same time, they made every effort to avoid a direct conflict.
 UNITED NATIONS
Formed on 24th Oct, 1945 at San
Francisco, USA.
Reasons for Establishment of
the United Nations
1. Disastrous World War
2. Failure of League of Nations
3. Fear of IIIrd World War
4. Division of World into Two
Blocs
5. Destructive weapons

Origin of UN
Big Three Roosevelt (President of USA),
Churchill (PM. of Britain) & Stalin (Premier of
USSR) met at Yalta for establishing a world
body for maintaining Peace & Harmony. The
representation of 50 Nations met at San
Francisco Conference in June 1945. They
formed the UN Charter & signed it. UN came
into existence on 24 Oct, 1945.

Objectives of the U.N. (as given in Article I of the

Charter)
1. To maintain international peace & security.
2. To develop friendly relations among nations.
3. To achieve international cooperation.
4. Dis arm, Decolonise and Develop are 3 new
objectives of UN.
 ORGANS

GENERAL ASSEMBLY
It is like the parliament of the world where all
member nation send 5 representatives.
Composition - All members of UN are member of
General Assembly. Each member nation has 1
vote. All decisions are made by 2/3 majority.

Powers and Functions -:

1. To Advice on matters of international peace and security.
2. To appoint Secretary General on discuss any advice of Security Council.
3. To discuss any matter of International dispute and solve it peacefully.
4. To receive and consider reports from all other organs of U.N.
If S. Council fail to take action, G. Assembly may take immediate action -
'Uniting for Peace' Resolution - 1950.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL

It is the executive body of the UN. Its
main responsibility is to maintain
Peace and Security. Any decision is
taken by 9 votes of 15 members
including Permanent members.
Composition - It consist of 15
members. 5 permanent members -
China, France, UK, USA and USSR. 10
Non permanent members are elected
by 2/3 majority of G. Assembly for 2 years.
VETO POWER:
Negative vote by a permanent member is
VETO.

Power & Functions :-

1. To establish international peace &
security.
2. To investigate matter of dispute.
3. To suggest method for settlement of
dispute.
4. To take military action against aggressor.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

It is the main judicial organ of UN. Its
headquarter in The Hague (Netherland). It
not only settle disputes but also advices on
Legal questions.
Composition - 15 judges elected for nine
year terms by General Assembly & Security
Council sitting independently. Elections are
held every 3 years for 1/3 of the seats and retiring judges may be re-elected.

Powers and Functions :-

1. The Parties - Only member countries can apply for justice.
2. Sources of Law Applicable - Int. treaties and conventions, customs &
laws.
3. Voluntary Jurisdiction - disputes between nations.
4. Compulsory Jurisdiction - disputes relating to Interpretation of Int. Law &
treaties and Compensation.
 MAJOR AGENCIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

UNICEF UNESCO

MAJOR AGENCIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The UN perform its operations through its Agencies. They
work for social and economic development. They have
their particular Agendal function.

UNICEF
Headquarters - New York
Created in 1946 by General Assembly to help
emergency of needs children in post war
Europe. United Nations International
Emergency Fund changed to United Nation
Children's Fund as its benefits extended to
all developing nations.

FUNCTIONS
i) To work for protection of children in
respect of survival health & well-being.
ii) To provide fund for training personnel,
teachers & nutritionists.
iii) Helps govt. in community-based services such as maternal & child
health, clean water and sanitation.
iv) Immunisation against preventable disease is imp. goal.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION

It is specialized agency for health. It was established
on 7th April, 1948.
Objectives - Highest Possible level of health for all.
Headquarters - Geneva in Switzerland.

FUNCTIONS
(i) Helps countries to improve their health
system.
(ii) Gives important drugs needed for
medical care.
(iii) Promotes research to cure and prevent
diseases.
(iv) Works towards safe drinking water & waste disposal.
(v) Trains Health care personnel from different nations.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC &

CULTURAL ORG.
After London Conference in 1945, UNESCO was
set up on 4th Nov. 1946.
Objective - to contribute to peace & security by
collaborations among nations.
Headquarter: Paris

FUNCTIONS OF UNESCO
Education:
i) Removal of illiteracy by promoting adult education, distance education.
ii) Stress on education of women and girls.
iii) Financial assistance for education of disabled children.
iv) Organise Book Fair & Festivals.

Scientific: Organises seminars and conference of scientists.

Activities: Promotes research in field of geology, mathematics etc.

Communication:
i) Improves quality of Press, films and video services.
ii) Helps developing countries to develop communication.
iii) Upholds freedom of press and media.

Preservation of Cultural Heritage

i) Provide technical advice, equipment & fund
for preservation of monuments & art work.
ii) Protect books, work of art and
manuscripts.
iii) Send cultural missions to different
countries to develop peace and security.
 NON – ALIGNED MOVEMENT
After II nd World War, the world was
divided into two power blocs - one
led by USA & other by USSR. Many
new countries got freedom, they
decided not to join any of power
blocs.

MEANING:-
It is policy of an independent nation not to join
any power bloc & actively participate in world
affairs to promote world peace, harmony and
cooperation.

ARCHITECTS OF NAM:–
The founding father of
NAM are Jawaharlal
Nehru (PM India), Joseph
Broze Tito (President
Yugoslavia), Abdul
Nasser (President
Egypt). First Summit in
1961 at Belgrade in
Yugoslavia.

Objectives of NAM:-
1. To remove all causes which could let to war.
2. To protect the freedom of new born independent countries.
3. To oppose colonialism, imperialism and racial discrimination.
4. To encourage friendly relationships among nation.
5. To settle dispute peacefully.