CHP 10 Biology - Key

Chapter 10
Molecular Biology of the Gene

PowerPoint Lectures
Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, 8th Edition, Global Edition
REECE • TAYLOR • SIMON • DICKEY • HOGAN
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

Introduction
The 2009 H1N1 influenza virus

spread so quickly that it was declared a pandemic,
reached 207 countries,
infected more than 600,000 people, and
killed an estimated 20,000 people.
Viruses share some of the characteristics of living
organisms, but are generally not considered alive
because they are not cellular and cannot reproduce on
their own.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Introduction
Combating any virus requires a detailed understanding

of
molecular biology,
the study of DNA, and
how DNA serves as the basis of heredity.

Figure 10.0-2
Chapter 10: Big Ideas
The Structure of the DNA Replication

Genetic Material
The Flow of Genetic The Genetics ofViruses

Information from DNA and Bacteria
to RNA to Protein
THE STRUCTURE OF THE GENETIC
MATERIAL

10.1 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Experiments
showed that DNA is the genetic material
Early in the 20th century, the molecular basis for

inheritance was a mystery.
Biologists did know that genes were located on
chromosomes. But it was unknown if the genetic
material was
proteins or
DNA.

Biologists finally established the role of DNA in

heredity through experiments with bacteria and the
viruses that infect them.
This breakthrough ushered in the field of molecular
biology, the study of heredity at the molecular level.

Flipped class
Choose your group…

Choose one of the discovery of genetic material
experiments to analyze.
1. Griffith experiment
2. Avery experiment
3. Hershey and Chase
Or Watson and Crick model of DNA

In 1928, Frederick Griffith was surprised to find that

when he killed pathogenic bacteria, then mixed the
bacterial remains with living harmless bacteria, some
living bacterial cells became pathogenic.
All of the descendants of the transformed bacteria
inherited the newly acquired ability to cause disease.

In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase used

bacteriophages to show that DNA is the genetic material of
T2, a virus that infects the bacterium Escherichia coli (E.
coli).
Bacteriophages (or phages for short) are viruses that infect
bacterial cells.
Phages were labeled with radioactive sulfur to detect proteins
or radioactive phosphorus to detect DNA.
Bacteria were infected with either type of labeled phage to
determine which substance was injected into cells and which
remained outside the infected cell.

The sulfur-labeled protein stayed with the phages

outside the bacterial cell, while the phosphorus-labeled
DNA was detected inside cells.
Cells with phosphorus-labeled DNA produced new
bacteriophages with radioactivity in DNA but not in
protein.

Animation: Hershey-Chase Experiment

Animation: Phage T2 Reproductive Cycle

Figure 10.1a-0
Head
DNA
Tail
Tail fiber

Figure 10.1a-1
Head
Tail
Tail fiber

Figure 10.1b-0
Phage Radioactive Emptyprotein The radioactivity

Bacteriu protein shell is in the liquid.
m PhageDNA
DNA
Centrifuge
Pellet
Batch 1: Radioactive protein labeled in yellow
Radioactive
DNA
Centrifuge
The radioactivityis
Pellet in the pellet.
Batch 2: Radioactive DNA labeled in green

Figure 10.1b-1
Phage Radioactiveprotein Emptyprotein

Bacterium shell
PhageDNA
DNA
Batch 1: Radioactive protein labeled in yellow
RadioactiveDNA
Batch 2: Radioactive DNA labeled in green

Figure 10.1C outlines our current understanding—as

originally formulated by Hershey and Chase—of the
replication cycle of phage T2.

Figure 10.1c-0
1 A phage 2 The phage 3 The phage DNA

attaches itself injects itsDNA directs the host cellto
to a bacterial into the make more phageDNA
cell. bacterium. and proteins;new
phages assemble. The cell lysesand
releasesthe new
phages.

Figure 10.1c-1
1 A phage 2 The phage

attaches itself injects itsDNA
to a bacterial into the
cell. bacterium.

Figure 10.1c-2
3 The phage DNA

directs the host cellto
make more phageDNA
and proteins;new phages
assemble. 4 The cell lysesand
releasesthe new
phages.

10.2 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids consisting of long chains

(polymers) of chemical units (monomers) called
nucleotides.
One of the two strands of DNA is a DNA polynucleotide, a
nucleotide polymer (chain).
A nucleotide is composed of a
nitrogenous base,
five-carbon sugar, and
phosphate group.
The nucleotides are joined to one another by a sugar-
phosphate backbone.
Figure 10.2a-0
A T
C G
T A
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
C G
A T
Phosphate
G C
group
G A A
Nitrogenous Nitrogenous base(can be
Covalent base
A T A, G, C, or T)
G C bondjoining Sugar
T A nucleotides
T A C C
C G
T A
DNA Thymine(T)
A DNAdouble T nucleotide T
Phosphate
helix
group
G G Sugar
(deoxyribose)
DNA nucleotide
G G
Two representationsof a DNA

polynucleotide
Figure 10.2a-1
A T
C G
T A
C G
A T
G C
A T
G C
T A
T A
C G
T A
A DNAdouble
helix
Figure 10.2a-2
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
Phosphate
group
A A
Nitrogenous
Covalent base
bondjoining Sugar
nucleotides
C C
DNA
T nucleotide T
G G
G G
Two representationsof a
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. DNA polynucleotide
Figure 10.2a-3
Nitrogenous base(can be
A, G, C, or T)
Thymine
Phosphate (T)
group
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
DNA nucleotide
Each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-

containing base:
adenine (A),
cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and
guanine (G).

Animation: DNA and RNA Structure

Figure 10.2b-0
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Pyrimidines Purines

Figure 10.2b-1
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

Pyrimidines

Figure 10.2b-2
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Purines

The full name for DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid, with

nucleic referring to DNA’s location in the nuclei of
eukaryotic cells.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is unlike DNA in that it
uses the sugar ribose (instead of deoxyribose in DNA)
and
has a nitrogenous base uracil (U) instead of thymine.

Figure 10.2c
Nitrogenous base(can be
A, G, C, or U)
Phosphate
group
Uracil (U)
Sugar
(ribose)
Figure 10.2d
Adenine
Guanine
Phosphate
Ribose
Uracil
Cytosine
10.3 DNA is a double-stranded helix
After the 1952 Hershey-Chase experiment convinced

most biologists that DNA was the material that stored
genetic information, a race was on to determine how
the structure of this molecule could account for its role
in heredity.
Researchers focused on discovering the three-
dimensional shape of DNA.

American James D. Watson journeyed to Cambridge

University in England, where the more senior Francis
Crick was studying protein structure with a technique
called X-ray crystallography.
While visiting the laboratory of Maurice Wilkins at
King’s College in London, Watson saw an X-ray image
of DNA produced by Wilkins’s colleague, Rosalind
Franklin.

Figure 10.3a-0

Figure 10.3a-1

Figure 10.3a-2

Watson deduced the basic shape of DNA to be a helix

(spiral) with a uniform diameter and the nitrogenous
bases located above one another like a stack of dinner
plates.
The thickness of the helix suggested that it was made
up of two polynucleotide strands.

Watson and Crick realized that DNA consisted of two

polynucleotide strands wrapped into a double helix.
The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside.
The nitrogenous bases are perpendicular to the
backbone in the interior.
Specific pairs of bases give the helix a uniform shape.
A pairs with T, forming two hydrogen bonds, and
G pairs with C, forming three hydrogen bonds.

Animation: DNA Double Helix

Figure 10.3b

Figure 10.3c
Twist

Figure 10.3d-0
C G
C G
Hydrogen bond
G C
G C G C
Base pair
T A
A T T A
C G
A T
A T
T A
C G
G C
C G C G
A T
A T
T A
Ribbon model Partial chemical structure Computer model

Figure 10.3d-1
C G
C G
G C
G C
Base pair
T A
A T
C G
A T
T A
C G
G C
C G
A T
A T
T A
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. Ribbon model

Figure 10.3d-2
Hydrogen bond
G C
T A
A T
C G
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. Partial chemical structure

Figure 10.3d-3

Computer model
In 1962, the Nobel Prize was awarded to James D.

Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins.
Rosalind Franklin probably would have received the
prize as well but for her death from cancer in 1958.
Nobel Prizes are never awarded posthumously.
The Watson-Crick model gave new meaning to the
words genes and chromosomes. The genetic
information in a chromosome is encoded in the
nucleotide sequence of DNA.

DNA REPLICATION

10.4 DNA replication depends on specific base
pairing
DNA replication follows a semiconservative model.

The two DNA strands separate.
Each strand then becomes a template for the assembly
of a complementary strand from a supply of free
nucleotides.
Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new
strand.

Animation: DNA Replication Overview

Figure 10.4a-1
A T
C G
G C
A T
T A
A parental
molecule of DNA

Figure 10.4a-2
A T A T A T
C G C G G
C
G C G C C
A
A T A T
T A T Free nucleotides A
A parental The parental strands separate

molecule of DNA and serve as templates

Figure 10.4a-3
A T A T A T A T A T
C G C G G C G C G
C
G C G C C G C G C
A
A T A T A T A T
T A T Free nucleotides A T A T A
A parental The parental strands separate Two identical daughtermolecules

molecule of DNA and serve as templates of DNA are formed

Figure 10.4b
A T
G C
A T
A T Parental DNA
T A molecule
G C
C
G
T Daughter
C C
A strand Parental
G G strand
G
T C
G
C A
C T
A T
G
G
T A A
A C C
G
A T T
T A
A G
T C Daughter DNA
molecules
10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at
many sites simultaneously
Replication of a DNA molecule begins at particular

sites called origins of replication, short stretches of
DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides.
Proteins that initiate DNA replication
attach to the DNA at the origin of replication and
separate the two strands of the double helix.
Replication then proceeds in both directions, creating
replication “bubbles.”

Figure 10.5a
Parental
DNA
molecule
Origin of Parental strand
replication Daughter strand
“Bubble”
Two
daughter
DNA
molecules
DNA replication occurs in the 5′ to 3′ direction.

Replication is continuous on the 3′ to 5′ template.
DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the 3′ end of
the strand, never to the 5′ end.
Replication is discontinuous on the 5′ to 3′ template,
forming short Okazaki fragments.
An enzyme, called DNA ligase, links (or ligates) the
pieces together into a single DNA strand.

Figure 10.5b
5′ end 3′ end
P 5 H
4 ′ 2 O
3′ A T ′ 3
1 1
′ 2 4′
′ ′
P ′ 5 ′
′ P
C G
P P
G C
P P
T A
O P
H
3′ end 5′ end
Figure 10.5c
DNA polymerase 3
molecule ′ This daughter
5
strand is
′
synthesized
Parental DNA
5 continuously
3′
′ Replication fork This daughter
strand is
3 synthesizedin
5′ pieces
′
5
3′
′
DNA ligase
Overall direction of replication

DNA polymerases and DNA ligase also repair DNA

damaged by harmful radiation and toxic chemicals.
DNA replication ensures that all the somatic cells in a
multicellular organism carry the same genetic
information.

Animation: Origins of Replication

Animation: Leading Strand

Animation: Lagging Strand

Animation: DNA Replication Review

THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION
FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN

10.6 Genes control phenotypic traits through the
expression of proteins
DNA specifies traits by dictating protein synthesis.

Proteins are the links between genotype and phenotype.
The molecular chain of command is from DNA in the
nucleus to RNA and RNA in the cytoplasm to protein.

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under the

direction of DNA.
Translation is the synthesis of proteins under the
direction of RNA.

Figure 10.6a-1
DNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM

Figure 10.6a-2
DNA
Transcription
RNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM

Figure 10.6a-3
DNA
Transcription
RNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
Translation
Protein

Genes provide the instructions for making specific

proteins.
The initial one gene–one enzyme hypothesis was based
on studies of inherited metabolic diseases.
The one gene–one enzyme hypothesis was expanded to
include all proteins.

Figure 10.6b

Most recently, the one gene–one polypeptide

hypothesis recognizes that some proteins are composed
of multiple polypeptides.
Even this description is not entirely accurate, in that the
RNA transcribed from some genes is not translated but
nonetheless has important functions.
In addition, many eukaryotic genes code for a set of
polypeptides (rather than just one) by a process called
alternative splicing.

10.7 Genetic information written in codons is
translated into amino acid sequences
The sequence of nucleotides in DNA provides a code

for constructing a protein.
Protein construction requires a conversion of a
nucleotide sequence to an amino acid sequence.
Transcription rewrites the DNA code into RNA, using
the same nucleotide “language.”

10.7 Genetic information written in codons is
translated into amino acid sequences
The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a

triplet code.
The genetic instructions for the amino acid sequence of a
polypeptide chain are written in DNA and RNA as a series
of nonoverlapping three-base “words” called codons.
Translation involves switching from the nucleotide
“language” to the amino acid “language.”
Each amino acid is specified by a codon.
64 codons are possible.
Some amino acids have more than one possible codon.

Figure 10.7-0
DNA
molecule
Gene 1
Gene 2
DNA
A A A C C G
Transcription G C A A A
A
Gene 3
RNA U U U G G C C
G U U U U
Translation Codon
Polypeptide
Amino acid
Figure 10.7-1
DN
A A A A C C G G C A A A
A
Transcription
RNA U U U G G C C G U U U U
Translation Codon
Polypeptide
Amino acid

10.8 The genetic code dictates how codons are
translated into amino acids
The genetic code is the amino acid translations of each

of the nucleotide triplets.
Three nucleotides specify one amino acid.
Sixty-one codons correspond to amino acids.
AUG codes for methionine and signals the start of
transcription.
Three “stop” codons signal the end of translation.

10.8 The genetic code dictates how codons are
translated into amino acids
The genetic code is

redundant, with more than one codon for some amino
acids,
unambiguous, in that any codon for one amino acid
does not code for any other amino acid, and
nearly universal, in that the genetic code is shared by
organisms from the simplest bacteria to the most
complex plants and animals.

Figure 10.8a
Second base of RNA codon
U C A G
UU UC UA UG U
Ph Ty Cy
U
UU U
UC U
UA U
UG C
U e Se r s
C
UU C
UC C
UAA C
UGA A
Le r
A
UU A
UC Stop
UAG Stop Tr
UG
u
G G Stop G p G
CU CC CA CG U
Hi
U
CU U
CC U
CA U
CG C
C Le Pr s Ar
C
CU C
CC C
CA C
CG A
u o Gl g
A A A A
CU CC CA n CG
G G G G G
AU AC AA AG U
Se
U
AU U U
AA As U
AG
lle AC r C
A Th n
C
AU C
AC C
AA C
AG A
r Ar
A
AU
Met orstart
A A
AA Ly A
AC AG g
G G s
F G G GT
GU GC GA GG U
i As h
U
GU U
GC U U
GG
r GA Ci
G Va Al p Gl
s C
GU C
GC C
GA C
GG Ar
l a Gl y
t A
GU A
GC A
GA A
GG d
u
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. b G G G G G
Figure 10.8b-3
Strand to be transcribed
T A C T T C A A A A T C
DNA
A T G A A G T T T T A G
Transcription
RNA
A U G A A G U U U U A G
Start Stop
Translation codon codon
Polypeptide Met Lys Phe

10.9 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Transcription
produces genetic messages in the form of RNA
Transcription of a gene occurs in three main steps:

1. initiation, involving the attachment of RNA
polymerase to the promoter and the start of RNA
synthesis,
2. elongation, as the newly formed RNA strand grows,
and
3. termination, when RNA polymerase reaches the
terminator DNA and the polymerase molecule
detaches from the newly made RNA strand and the
gene.

Animation: Transcription

Figure 10.9-1
Initiation Direction of transcription
RNA synthesis begins after RNA
polymerase attaches to the promoter. Unused
strandof
RNA polymerase DNA
Terminator
DNA
DNAof
gene Newly Template strand
Promoter formedRNA of DNA

Figure 10.9-2
strandof
RNA polymerase DNA
Terminator
DNA
DNAof
Elongation Direction of transcription
Using the DNA as a template, RNA
polymerase adds free RNA nucleotides Free RNA
one at a time. nucleotide
DNA U
T T
strands A
G
C
reunite T
C
U A U
GA C
A A
T C
A A
A
C
G
A DNA strands
A
G separate
Newly made T
RNA T

Figure 10.9-3
strandof
RNA polymerase DNA
Terminator
DNA
DNAof
Elongation Direction of transcription
Using the DNA as a template, RNA
polymerase adds free RNA nucleotides Free RNA
one at a time. nucleotide
DNA U
T T
strands A
G
C
reunite T
C
U A U
GA C
A A
T C
A A
A
C
G
A DNA strands
A
G separate
Newly made T
RNA T
Termination
Terminator
RNA synthesis ends when RNApolymerase
reaches theterminator DNA sequence. DNA
Completed RNA
RNA polymerase
detaches
10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving
the nucleus as mRNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)

encodes amino acid sequences and
conveys genetic messages from DNA to the translation
machinery of the cell.
In prokaryotes, this occurs in the same place that mRNA
is made.
But in eukaryotes, mRNA must exit the nucleus via
nuclear pores to enter the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic mRNA has introns, interrupting sequences
that separate exons, the coding regions.

the nucleus as mRNA
Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing before

leaving the nucleus.
RNA splicing removes introns (intervening sequences)
and joins exons (expressed sequences) to produce a
continuous coding sequence.

the nucleus as mRNA
A cap and tail of extra nucleotides are added to the

ends of the mRNA to
facilitate the export of the mRNA from the nucleus,
protect the mRNA from degradation by cellular
enzymes, and
help ribosomes bind to the mRNA.
The cap and tail themselves are not translated into
protein.

Figure 10.10
Exon Exon
Exon
DNA Intro
Intro n
TranscriptionAddition of
n cap and tail
Cap
RNA
transcript Introns removed
with cap Tail
and tail
Exons spliced together
mRNA
Coding sequence
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM

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Chapter 10

Molecular Biology of the Gene

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

The 2009 H1N1 influenza virus

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Combating any virus requires a detailed understanding

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

The Structure of the DNA Replication

The Flow of Genetic The Genetics ofViruses

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Early in the 20th century, the molecular basis for

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Biologists finally established the role of DNA in

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Choose your group…

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

In 1928, Frederick Griffith was surprised to find that

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase used

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

The sulfur-labeled protein stayed with the phages

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Phage Radioactive Emptyprotein The radioactivity

Batch 2: Radioactive DNA labeled in green

Phage Radioactiveprotein Emptyprotein

Batch 1: Radioactive protein labeled in yellow

Batch 2: Radioactive DNA labeled in green

Figure 10.1C outlines our current understanding—as

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

1 A phage 2 The phage 3 The phage DNA

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

1 A phage 2 The phage

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

3 The phage DNA

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

DNA and RNA are nucleic acids consisting of long chains

Two representationsof a DNA

Each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

The full name for DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid, with

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

After the 1952 Hershey-Chase experiment convinced

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

American James D. Watson journeyed to Cambridge

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Watson deduced the basic shape of DNA to be a helix

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Watson and Crick realized that DNA consisted of two

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.