CHM012.

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Chemistry for Engineers Laboratory Manual
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Activity No. 2
COMMON LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND APPARATUSES

I. COMMON LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

The Common Laboratory Techniques describe procedures for safely conducting an

experiment. Be sure to read each technique carefully before the laboratory session for
completing a safe and successful experiment.

A. Handling Liquid Chemicals

1. Opening a Reagent Bottle.

Grasp the reagent bottle with one hand and using the other hold the glass
stopper between fingers and lift (Fig.A.1a). Never lay the stopper from a reagent
bottle on the laboratory bench. Impurities may be picked up and thus contaminate
the solution when the stopper is returned to the reagent bottle. Flat top glass
stoppers should be laid upside down on the laboratory bench.

Fig. A.1. Removing a glass stopper from a reagent bottle.

2. Transferring Liquids to Another Container.

To transfer a liquid from one container to another, hold a stirring rod
against the lip of the container holding the liquid and pour it down the rod which
should touch the inside wall of the receiving vessel (Fig.A.2). Try not to transfer
more reagent than is needed, and do not return unused chemicals to the reagent
bottle.

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Fig. A.2. Transferring a liquid from a reagent bottle.
3. Reading the Volume of a Liquid
For exacting the measurements of liquids in graduated cylinders, pipettes,
burettes, and volumetric flasks, the solution’s volume is read at the bottom of the
meniscus. Read with the eye horizontal to the liquid’s surface (Fig.A.3). A clear or
transparent liquid is read more easily by positioning the top edge of a black mark
(made on a white card) just below the level portion of the liquid. The black
background reflects off the bottom of the lower meniscus and better defines the
liquid’s level. Substituting a finger for the black mark on the white card will work,
but it is not as effective.

Fig. A.3. Reading the volume of the liquid.

4. Testing for the Odor and Taste of Chemicals

Chemicals should not be tasted nor tested for odor unless specifically
directed to do so. Working with toxic vapors must be done in a ventilating hood.
To test the odor of a substance, waft a bit of vapor towards the nose as shown in
Fig A.4. Do not inhale the vapor directly from the test tube. Never hold your face
directly over vapors!

Fig. A. 4. Testing for odors.

5. Heating Liquids
a. Test tube. The test tube should be no more than one-third full. Move the
test tube circularly in and out of the flame, heating the liquid from the top to
bottom. Never fix the flame’s position at the base of the test tube. Never

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point the test tube to anyone as sudden ebullition (a sudden violent outburst
of the liquid) may take place. See Fig. A.5a and Fig. A.5b.

Fig. A.5a. Heating liquid in a test tube.

Fig.A.5b. Improper position of heating liquid in a test tube.

b. Erlenmeyer Flask. An Erlenmeyer flask less than one-fourth full may be

heated directly over a flame. Hold it with a piece of tightly folded paper or
flask tongs (not crucible tongs) and gently swirl. Do not place the hot flask
on the laboratory bench; allow to cool by setting the flask on a wire gauze.
See Fig.A.5b.

Fig. A.5b. Heating liquid in an Erlenmeyer flask.

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c. Beaker (or flask). Support the beaker (or flask) on a wire gauze. To avoid
bumping (sudden formation of superheated liquid near the flame), place a
glass stirring rod (or use boiling chips) in the beaker. Position the flame
directly under the tip of the stirring rod (Fig. A.5c). Place a second
supporting ring around the top of the beaker (or flask) to prevent it from
being accidentally knocked off.
d. In Hot Water Bath. This is used to heat a small quantity of solution in a test
tube that needs to be held at a constant temperature over a period of time
(Fig. A.5d). If the solution is to be heated in a beaker or Erlenmeyer flask,
use a larger beaker as water bath filled to about ¼-full, and heat to the
desired temperature.

Fig. A.5c. Heating liquid in a Fig.A.5d. Heating liquid in a

beaker. hot water bath.

6. Evaporation of Liquids
a. Nonflammable liquids may be evaporated in an evaporating dish with a
gentle, direct flame (Fig. A.6.a) or over a steam bath (Fig. A.6.b), which is
more efficient rather than rapid boiling. Avoid inhaling the vapors.
b. Flammable liquids may be similarly evaporated substituting a heating mantle
for the Bunsen flame. The use of a fume hood or an improvised hood is
suggested if large amounts are evaporated in a laboratory with inadequate
ventilation; consult with your laboratory instructor.

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Fig.A.6.a. Evaporation of Fig.A.6.b. Evaporation of
nonflammable liquid over a low, nonflammable liquid over a steam
direct flame. bath.

B. Handling Solid Chemicals

Transferring a Solid Reagent
First, read the label on the bottle twice to be sure of using the correct
reagent. If the bottle has a glass stopper, place it with the topside down on the
bench (Fig. B.1). If it has a screw cap, remove and set it on the bench, inner side
facing up.
Hold the bottle with the label against your hand, tilt, and roll back and forth.
Try not to dispense more reagent than needed. Do not insert a spatula or other
object into the bottle unless your instructor specifically tells you to. If too much
reagent is taken, do not return excess to the bottle but rather share it with
other students. Recap when finished.

Fig. B.1. Transferring solid reagent.

C. Handling Precipitates

Decantation. A liquid can be decanted (poured off the top) from a solid if the solid
clearly separates from the liquid in a reasonably short period of time. Allow the solid to
settle to the bottom of the beaker or test tube. If beaker is used, it may be tilted to
allow the solid to settle at the side below the spout of beaker (Fig. C.1a). Transfer the
liquid (called the (supernatant or decantate) with the aid of a clean stirring rod to a
receiving vessel (Fig. C.1b). Do this slowly so as not to disturb the solid.

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Fig. C.1a. Decantation Fig. C.1b. Decantation

Centrifugation. A centrifuge (Fig. C.2a) spins at velocities of 5,000 to 25,000

revolutions per minute. A liquid-solid mixture in a small test tube or centrifuge tube is
placed into the sleeve of the rotor of the centrifuge. By centrifugal force, the solid is
forced to the bottom of the test tube or centrifuge tube and compacted. The clear
liquid, called the supernatant, is then easily decanted without any loss of the solid. The
following precautions are observed in operating a centrifuge:

a) Never fill the centrifuge tubes to a height more than 1 cm from the top.
b) Label the centrifuge tubes to avoid confusion.
c) Always operate the centrifuge with even number of centrifuge tubes containing
equal volumes of liquid placed opposite one another in the centrifuge. This
balances the centrifuge and eliminates excessive vibration and wear. If only one
tube needs to be centrifuged, then balance the centrifuge with a tube
containing the same volume of solvent (Fig. C.2b).
d) Never attempt to manually stop the centrifuge, let the rotor come to rest on its
own.

Fig. C.2a. Centrifuge Fig. C.2b. Centrifugation

Gravity Filtration. Gravity filtration has the advantage that it is simple and economical.
It is most effective when the amount of solid to be isolated is small. If a large amount

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of solid or a gelatinous solid is to be isolated, this method is not used because the filter
paper may become clogged. In this case, vacuum filtration is most suitable.

1.General Procedures for Filtration

a. Allow the precipitate to settle to the bottom of the container.
b. Wet the filter paper with a small amount of water or a liquid in which the
precipitate is insoluble.
c. Decant (pour off) the bulk of the solution into the funnel using a stirring rod.
This step ensures the filtration will not be slowed by the precipitate clogging
the filter paper prematurely since most of the solution will have already filtered
through.
d. Mix the precipitate with the remaining solution and dump the resulting
precipitate slurry into the funnel. Simultaneously, spray a stream of solution
from a wash bottle to rinse out any
slurry adhering to the walls of the
container. (See Fig C.1.) Remember: the
liquid or solution used for washing the
precipitate must be one in which the
precipitate is insoluble.

Fig. C.1 Transferring a precipitate.

● Wet a rubber policeman or glass rod with wash liquid and use it to help
transfer any precipitate still clinging to the container walls.
● Use wash bottle to rinse out whatever precipitate remains.
● Typically, 5– to 10-mL of a wash solution are drawn through the funnel to
wash the precipitate. This may be repeated several times to ensure that
only pure precipitate remains.
● Allow air to be drawn through the filter paper several minutes to dry the
precipitate partially.
e. Usually precipitates are washed or rinsed to remove impurities, unless the
filtrate is the desired component.

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f. Lift a corner of the filter paper with a spatula and then use the corner to pry
up the rest of the filter paper. Carefully transfer the filter paper and
precipitate to a previously weighed watch glass. Allow the precipitate to air
dry, or oven dry (if melting point is above 70oC).
2.Folding a Filter Paper
Fold the filter paper in half (Fig. C.2). then refold to within about 10° of a
90°-fold, tear off the corner unequally, and open. The tear enables a close seal to
be made across the paper’s folded portion when placed in a funnel.

Fig. C.2 Technique in folding a filter paper.

D. Inserting a Glass Tubing into a Stopper

To insert glass tubing (including thermometers, long-stemmed funnels, thistle tubes,

etc.) through a rubber stopper, first lubricate the tube and stopper with water or
glycerol. Hold the tubing with a cloth near the end to be inserted, and push with a
twisting motion. (If you twist a long-stemmed funnel or thistle tube by the large end, it
is easily broken.)

Fig. D Inserting a glass tube into a stopper.

E. Operating the Bunsen burner

The Bunsen burner, used for most laboratory heating, produces a cone-shaped flame,
as illustrated in Figure E. Ordinary beakers, crucibles, and other objects to be heated

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are placed just above the hottest portion of the flame. This allows most heat to spread
about them. Do not place in the cold inner cone of the flame, which consists of
unburned gas. For maximum temperature, have the gas on full pressure, and with the
air vents open, adjust the needle valve or the air valve to produce short blue flame of
many short cones that are about 0.5 cm high. The object to be heated is placed about 1
cm above the grid.

Fig. E. Operating the Bunsen burner.

II. A. COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUSES

This section details common laboratory apparatus and their appropriate use.
Knowing the proper use will help ensure safe laboratory practices.

Test Tube Holder

test tube with holder tripod
1.Test Tube
2.Test Tube Rack

wire gauze
iron stand with iron beaker
reagent bottle
rings

Bunsen Burner
triple beam balance
buret iron stand and
clamp
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tongs spatula
crucible graduated
cylinder

dropper
volumetric flask flat bottomed
flask Erlenmeyer Flask

evaporating
dish clay triangle safety glasses
filter funnel

mortar and pestle

(used for grinding
paste or powder) plastic wash bottle round bottomed
flask

B. USES OF COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUSES

1. Balance - for measuring mass

2. Beaker - to hold, mix, and heat liquids
3. Bunsen burner - as heat source in the absence of flammable materials
4. Buret - for dispensing accurate volume of a liquid
5. Clay triangle - to support a crucible during heating
6. Crucible - for holding chemicals during heating to very high temperatures
7. Crucible tongs - to hold crucibles
8. Erlenmeyer flask - to hold and mix chemicals. The small neck is to facilitate mixing
without spilling
9. Evaporating dish - to heat liquids for evaporation
10. Funnel - for filtration; also to transfer liquids or fine-grained materials into containers
with small openings.
11. Graduated cylinder - to measure a precise volume of a liquid
12. Mortar and pestle - to crush and grind materials
13. Iron clamp - used with a ring stand to hold glassware, such as beaker or funnel
14. Iron stand - to support laboratory glassware, water bath, etc.
15. Scoopula/spatula - to transfer solids
16. Stirring rod - for stirring and mixing
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17. Test tube - to hold and mix liquids
18. Test tube holder - to hold a test tube during heating
19. Test tube rack - to hold several tubes at one time
20. Thermometer - to measure temperature
21. Utility/iron clamp - to secure glassware to a ring stand
22. Volumetric flask - to prepare solutions of accurate volume
23. Volumetric pipet - to measure small amounts of liquid very accurately; draw in or
suck the liquid using an aspirator (never use your mouth)
24. Wash bottle - to rinse parts of glasswares and to add small quantities of water
25. Watch glass - to hold solids while weighing or to cover a beaker
26. Wire gauze - to support a container, such as beaker, on an iron ring during heating

Name : _________________________ Date : ________________

Section : _________________________ Score : ____________/60
Group Number: ___________________ Percentage : ______________%

Activity No. 2
COMMON LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND APPARATUSES

A. True or False (2 pts each)

__________ 1. To dispense chemicals, read the label at least twice before removing any
chemical from the reagent bottle.
__________ 2. When heating a liquid in a test tube, the test tube should be more than
two-thirds full, moved continuously in and out of the cool flame at a 45o
angle, mostly near the top of the liquid.
__________ 3. The volume of a liquid should be read at the bottom of the meniscus.
__________ 4. A litmus paper test for the acidity or basicity of a solution is done by
dipping a stirring rod into the solution and using this to wet the litmus paper.
__________ 5. Water or glycerol should be applied to the glass tubing and the hole in the
rubber stopper before inserting the glass tubing.
__________ 6. The bowl of the funnel for gravity filtration may be filled to the brim.

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__________ 7. Transfer liquids and solutions from a reagent bottle or beaker with the aid
of a stirring rod.
__________ 8. Never touch, taste, or smell a chemical unless specifically told to do so.
__________ 9. If uncertain as to how to dispose of a chemical, dumping it into the sink
followed by copious amount of water is a safe disposal procedure.
__________ 10. A centrifuge machine should be balanced with an even number of
centrifuge/test tubes, placed across the rotor from one another, with equal
volumes of liquid.
__________ 11. The minimum number of centrifuge tubes in a centrifuge machine during
its operation is one.
__________ 12. Never place reagents directly onto the weighing pan of a balance, always
use weighing paper, a beaker, or some other container.
__________ 13. To transfer a solution, the stirring rod touches the delivery point of the
reagent vessel and the wall of the receiving vessel.
__________ 14. An open flame is the heat source for heating or evaporating flammable
liquids.
__________ 15. Most chemicals used in experiments can be discarded into the sink.

B. Identify the apparatus used as described in the following phrases (2 pts

each)

_______________1. as a heat source in the absence of flammable materials

_______________2. to measure a precise volume of a liquid

_______________3. to hold, mix, and heat liquids

_______________4. for stirring and mixing

_______________5. to support a container, such as a beaker, on a ring stand during heating

_______________6. to hold and mix liquids

_______________7. to measure temperature in Celsius

_______________8. to prepare solutions of accurate volume

_______________9. to crush and grind materials

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_______________10. to hold solids while they are being weighed or to cover a beaker

_______________11. for measuring mass

_______________12. to heat liquids for evaporation

_______________13. to hold a test tube during heating

_______________14. to transfer solids

_______________15. to secure glassware to a ring stand

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