Anti Gravity

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GRAVITY
ANTI-GRAVITY
GRAVITY
0.5rS
0.5rS
rS
Zbigniew Osiak
ANTI-GRAVITY
Links to my popular-science and science publications, e-books and radio/TV auditions are
available in ORCID database: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5007-306X
2
Zbigniew Osiak
ATI-GRAVITY
ABOUT HOW GEERAL RELATIVITY
HIDES ATI-GRAVITY – HEURISTIC APPROACH
Mathematics should be a servant, not a queen.
To Margaret,
my daughter,
I dedicate
3
Anti-gravity
by Zbigniew Osiak
© Copyright 2016, 2018 by Zbigniew Osiak
e-mail: zbigniew.osiak@gmail.com
Portraits (drawings) of Newton, Gauss, Einstein and Schwarzschild – Małgorzata Osiak
Portrait of the author on back cover – Rafał Pudło
Translated by Rafał Rodziewicz
4
TABLE OF COTETS
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT LAW PAGE
1 ITRODUTIO 11
• Entry 11
• Limitations for components of a metric tensor 11
• Cause-and-effect link between two events 11
• Physical spacetime 11
• Relations between components of a metric tensor and local basis vectors 12
• Dot product 12
• Vector value 13
• Physical (true) vector components 13
• Vector value expressed by physical vector components 13
• Cosine of an angle between local basis vectors 13
• Stationary metric with spatial-temporal zero-components 14
• Quoted works 14
2 EQUATIOS OF MOTIO 15
• Quadratic Differential Form of spacetime with stationary metric with spatial-temporal
zero-components 15
• 4-velocity 15
• 3-velocity 15
• 3-velocity value 15
• Physical (true) components of 3-vector 16
• Lorentz factor 16
• Components of 4-vector expressed by components of 3-vector 16
• Physical (true) components of 4-vector 17
• Total acceleration 4-vector 17
• Total acceleration 3-vector 17
• Value of total acceleration 3-vector 18
• Physical (true) components of total acceleration 3-vector 18
• Components of total acceleration 4-vector expressed by components of total acceleration
3-vector 18
• Physical (true) components of total acceleration 4-vector 19
• 4-dimension motion equations of a test particle 20
5
3 FIELD EQUATIOS 21
• Introduction 21
• Field equations 21
• Quoted works 22
4 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD OUTSIDE MASS SOURCE 23

• Exterior Schwarzschild metric 23
• Speed of light propagation and exterior Schwarzschild metric 23
• Gravitational acceleration of free fall outside mass source 23
• Gravity and anti-gravity 24
• Main hypothesis 25
• Quoted works 25
5 BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-GRAVITY HALO

• Black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 26
6 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE MASS SOURCE 27

• Spacetime metric inside mass source 27
• Speed of light propagation in virtual vacuum that is inside mass source 27
• Gravitational acceleration of free fall inside mass source 28
7 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-

GRAVITY HALO 29
• Spacetime metric inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 29

• Speed of light propagation in virtual vacuum tunnel that is inside black hole with maximal
anti-gravity halo 29
• Gravitational acceleration of free fall inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 30
8 GRAPHIC AALYSIS OF FULL SOLUTIO 31

• Charts that show how time-time component of metric tensor and physical (true) coordi-
nate of gravitational acceleration of free fall depends on the distance from the center of
black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 31
9 FIELD EQUATIOS AD EQUATIOS OF MOTIO 33

• Equations of motion are contained in field equations 33
• Equations of motion and field equations in General Relativity, and 2-potential nature of
Newton’s stationary gravitational field 34
6
10 EW TEST OF GEERAL RELATIVITY 39
• The proposition of the experiment 39
11 BLACK HOLE MODEL OF OUR UIVERSE 40

• Our Universe as a black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 40
• Radius of Our Universe 40
12 PHOTO PARADOX 41
• Introduction 41
• Gravitational redshift 41
• Conformally flat spacetime 41
• Schwarzschild spacetime 41
• Friedman-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker spacetime 41
• Photon paradox 42
• Does photons have memory? 42
• Energy of photon in Newton’s gravitational fiel 42
• Hydrogen atom in Schwarzschild gravitational field – heuristic approach 44
• How to define redshift? 44
• Redshift of light which comes to Earth from the Sun 45
• Redshift of light which comes to Earth from a distant galaxy 45
• Hubble's law 47
• Radius of Our Universe according to Hubble's observation 47
• Average density of Our Universe according to Hubble's observation 48
• Constancy of photon energy and Pound-Rebka experiment 48
• Quoted works 50
13 EARTH GRAVITATIOAL FIELD AD UIVERSE GRAVITATIOAL

FIELD 51
• Influence of gravitational field on space and time distances 51

• Local properties of redshift 51
• Conclusions 52
14 OLBERS PARADOX 53
• Olbers paradox 53
• Probability of photon hitting Earth 53
• Bohr hydrogen atom in Our Universe 53
• Illuminance of Earth surface at night 54
• Quoted works 56
7
15 MICROVAWE BACKGROUD RADIATIO 57
• Background radiation 57
• Background radiation in Big-Bang theory 57
• Background radiation in Black Hole Universe 57
• Quoted works 58
16 AVERAGE UIVERSE DESITY I FRIEDMA’S THEORY 59

• Critical density 59
• Density parameter and current average density of Friedman’s universe 59
• Dark energy 59
• Quoted works 59
17 ATI-GRAVITY I OTHER MODELS OF UIVERSE 60

• Gravitational acceleration of free particle corresponding with F-L-R-W metric 60
• Gravitational acceleration of free particle corresponding with metric of simple model of
expanding spacetime 61
• Quoted works 62
18 OUR UIVERSE AS A EISTEI’S SPACE 63

• Other form of field equations – Our Universe as an Einstein’s space 63
• Quoted works 63
19 ASSUMPTIOS 64
• Main postulates of General Relativity 64
• 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field 64
• Poisson’s equation and 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field 64
• Signes of right sides of Poisson’s and Einstein’s equations and boundary conditions 64
• Hypothesis about memory of photons 65
20 STABILITY OF THE MODEL 66

• Stability of the model 66
• Gravitational Gauss law and galaxies 66
21 MAI RESULTS 68
• Hypothesis about existence of anti-gravity 68
• Black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 68
• Hypothesis about 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field 68
8
• Field equations contain equations of motion 68
• Black Hole model of Our Universe 68
• Size of Our Universe 69
• Density of Our Universe 69
• Photon paradox 69
• Hypothesis about memory of photons 69
• Our Universe is an Einstein’s space 69
• Anti-gravity in other cosmological models 69
• New tests of General Relativity 70
• Quoted works 70
22 ADDITIO – MATHEMATICS 71
• Explicit form of Christoffel symbols of first and second kind 71
• Explicit form of covariant Ricci curvature tensor 71
• Field equations 72
• Curvature scalar 73
• Field equations expressed by curvature scalar 73
• Laplace operator (Laplacian) in Cartesian and spherical coordinate systems 75
• Used relations 75
23 ADDITIO – PHYSICS 76
• Hydrogen spectral series in Earth conditions 76
• Hydrogen spectral series in Our Universe 77
• Electromagnetic spectrum 77
• Choosen concepts, constants and units 78
24 ADDITIO – HISTORY 80
• Newton’s law of gravitation 80
• Gauss law of gravitation 80
• Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity 81
• External (vacuum) Schwarzschild solution 81
25 EDIG 82
• Author’s reflections 82
9
10
ATI-GRAVITY
1 ITRODUCTIO
• Entry
Couple of reports on the topic of anti-gravity, that I presented in the circle of fellow
theoretical physicsts, met with extremely sharp critic and ignorance. Speeches for non profes-
sionals, by contrast, didn’t awake any interest in listeners. I think that many „hunters” of anti-
gravity wrongly assumes that, this phenomenon is an exact opposite phenomenon to gravity.
They justify such view by postulating an analogy to electrostatic interactions, which in all
space can be both attractive and repulsive.
Despite that, I decided to present my views about anti-gravity, because they seem to be
coherent and logically correct. Main assumptions of general theory of relativity show that, ex-
1 1
ternal Schwarzschild solution is true for r ≥ rS . Especially, for rS ≤ r < rS it describes anti-
2 2
gravity, and for r > rS – gravity. In other words, behind event horizon of a black hole, there is
area where anti-gravity occurs. Gravity and anti-gravity has layer-like nature, so they differ
significantly from attractive and repulsive electrostatic interactions.
• Limitations for components of a metric tensor

Examples served in tome „General Theory of Relativity” [1] based on an assumption, that
all components of a metric tensor are non-negative and, in relation with
eµ ⋅ eν = g µν ≥ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) ,
it guaranteed real values of local base vectors.
• Cause-and-effect link between two events

( ) ( )
Two events x1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 and x1 + dx1 , x 2 + dx 2 , x 3 + dx 3 , x 4 + dx 4 stay in cause-and-
effect link, if space distance of those events is not greater than their time distance. In case of
metric with spatial-temporal zero-components, we can write this conditions as:
g αβ dx α dx β ≤ g 44dx 4dx 4 , x 4 = ict, (α, β = 1,2,3) .
• Physical spacetime
In spacetime there are areas, inside which
g µν ≥ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) ,
and also areas, in which
g µν ≤ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) .
If both events stay in cause-and-effect link, then in every of those areas we have as follows:
11
g µν ≥ 0 , (ds )2 ≤ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4)
and
g µν ≤ 0 , (ds )2 ≥ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) .
Areas that fulfill above conditions, we will call physical spacetime.

In areas, inside which
g µν ≥ 0 , (ds ) > 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4)
2
or
g µν ≤ 0 , (ds ) < 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) ,
2
there is no single pair of events that stays in cause-and-effect link.
• Relations between components of a metric tensor and local basis vectors

If we want to get local basis vectors with real values in physical spacetime, then we need
to adopt new relation between those vectors and components of a metric tensor.
( )
eµ ⋅ eν = − sgn ds 2 g µν ≥ 0 , (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4)
It causes a necessity to change a definition of dot product and associated terms. Those chan-
ges, forced by physics, will cause only small complication of some formulas.
In cases when
(ds )2 < 0 and gµν ≥ 0 ,
above modifications doesn’t lead to any changes, in previously quoted by Me tome titled
„General Theory of Relativity” [1].
( )
(ds )2 < 0
eµ ⋅ eν = g µν ≥ 0
• Dot product
Dot product of vectors A = A µeµ and B = A ν eν we will call phrase
A ⋅ B = A µ Bν e µ ⋅ e ν
( )
( )
A ⋅ B = − sgn ds 2 g µν A µ Bν
12
• Vector value
(
A ⋅ A = A µ A νeµ ⋅ eν = − sgn ds 2 g µν A µ A ν , ) (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4)
(
A = A = A ⋅ A = − sgn ds 2 g µν A µ A ν )
• Physical (true) vector components
A = A µe µ
(
A = − sgn ds 2 g µµ A µ) eµ
, (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4)
(
− sgn ds g µµ 2
)
(
Â µ = − sgn ds 2 g µµ A µ ) Physical vector components
eµ eµ
eˆ µ = = , eˆ µ = 1
eµ (
− sgn ds 2 g µµ )
A = Â µ eˆ µ
• Vector value expressed by physical vector components
A ⋅ A = A µ A ν eµ ⋅ eν
Â µ Â ν
Aµ A ν =
( )
− sgn ds 2 g µµ − sgn ds 2 g νν ( )
(
eµ ⋅ eν = − sgn ds 2 g µν ≥ 0 , ) (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4)
( − sgn ds 2 g µν ) =
g µν
− (sgn ds ) g 2
µµ (
− sgn ds g νν 2
) gµµ g νν
Â µ Â ν g µν
A = A = A⋅A =
g µµ g νν
• Cosine of an angle between local basis vectors
(
eµ ⋅ e ν = eµ e ν cos eµ , e ν )
( )
eµ = − (sgn ds ) g 2
µµ ≥0
eν = − (sgn ds ) g 2
νν ≥0
13
eµ ⋅ e ν
( )
cos eµ , e ν = =
g µν
eµ e ν g µµ g νν
• Stationary metric with spatial-temporal zero-components

For the sake of simplicity, let’s limit detailed contemplations to a stationary metric with
spatial-temporal zero-components, that is:
∂g αβ ∂g 44
(ds )2 = g αβdx α dx β + g 44dx 4dx 4 , = 0, = 0 , (α, β = 1,2,3) .
∂x 4
∂x 4
Example of such metric is external Schwarzschild metric, which depending on output coordi-
nate system, can be written in equivalent forms:
 x α x β  rS 
−1
  
(ds ) = δαβ + 2 1 −  − 1  dx α dx β +  δ44 − rS  dx 4dx 4 , (α, β = 1,2,3) ,
2
 r  r    r

2GM
x1 = x, x 2 = y, x 3 = z, x 4 = ict , rS = 2
c
or
−1
    4 4
(ds ) =  1 − rS
2

r
dr 2 + r 2dθ2 + r 2 sin 2 θ dϕ2 +  1 − S  dx dx ,
 r   r 
2GM
x1 = r, x 2 = θ, x 3 = ϕ, x 4 = ict , rS = 2 .
c
Quoted works
[1] Z. Osiak: Ogólna Teoria Względności (General Theory of Relativity).
Self Publishing (2012), ISBN: 978-83-272-3515-2, http://vixra.org/abs/1804.0178
14
2 EQUATIOS OF MOTIO
• Quadratic Differential Form of spacetime with stationary metric with spatial-
temporal zero-components
∂g αβ ∂g 44
(ds )2 = g αβdx α dx β + g 44dx 4dx 4 , = 0, = 0, (α, β = 1,2,3) .
∂x 4 ∂x 4
• 4-velocity
~
v=~
v λ eλ , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
λ
df dx
~
v λ = sgn ds 2 c , (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
ds
g αβ dx α dx β 1
ds = c − g 44 1 − 2
dt = c − g 44 γ G−1 dt , (α, β = 1,2,3)
g 44 dt dt c
sgn ds 2 1 1 df g αβ dx α dx β 1
= , = 1−
− g 44 − (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 γG g 44 dt dt c 2
γG dx λ γG
~
vλ = , (λ = 1,2,3,4 ) , ~
v4 = ic
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt − (sgn ds 2 ) g 44
• 3-velocity
v = vα eα , (α = 1,2,3)
df 1 dx α
v = α
, (ds )2 ≠ 0
− (sgn ds ) g 44
2 dt
• 3-velocity value
v2 = v ⋅ v
v = vα eα , (α = 1,2,3)
v 2 = v ⋅ v = v α e α ⋅ v β eβ = v α v β e α ⋅ eβ , (α, β = 1,2,3)
1 dx α 1 dx β
vα = , vβ = , (α, β = 1,2,3)
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt − (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt
(
e α ⋅ eβ = − sgn ds 2 g αβ ≥ 0 , ) (ds )2 ≠ 0
g αβ dx α dx β g αβ dx α dx β
v = 2
, v=
g 44 dt dt g 44 dt dt
15
• Physical (true) componets of 3-vector
v = vα eα , (α = 1,2,3)
(
v = − sgn ds 2 g αα v α ) eα
, (ds )2 ≠ 0
(
− sgn ds 2 g αα )
g αα dx α
v̂ = − sgn ds g αα
α
( 2
) v = α
Physical components of 3-vector
g 44 dt
eα eα
eˆ α = = , eˆ α = 1
eα (
α g αα dx α
v = v̂ eˆ α = eˆ α
g 44 dt
• Lorentz factor
1 g dx α dx β 1
= 1 − αβ
γG g 44 dt dt c 2
g αβ dx α dx β
v2 = , (α, β = 1,2,3)
g 44 dt dt
1
γG =
v2
1−
c2
• Components of 4-vector expressed by components of 3-vector
γG dx λ
~
vλ = , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt
df 1 dx α
v =
α
, (α = 1,2,3)
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt
df 1 dx 4 ic
x = ict ,
4
v = 4
=
− (sgn ds ) g 44 dt 2
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44
~
v λ = γG vλ , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
16
• Physical (true) components of 4-vector
~
v=~
v λ eλ , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
~ (
v = − sgn ds 2 g λλ ~
vλ ) eλ
, (ds )2 ≠ 0
(
− sgn ds 2 g λλ )
λ
~ (~
v̂ = − sgn ds g λλ v = γ G
λ 2 λ
)
g λλ dx
Physical components of 4-vector
g 44 dt
eλ eλ
eˆ λ = = , eˆ λ = 1
eλ (
− sgn ds 2 g λ )
λ
~ ~ g λλ dx
v = v̂ eˆ λ = γ G
λ
eˆ λ
g 44 dt
• Total acceleration 4-vector
~
atotal = ~
a=~ λ
a total eλ = ~
a λ eλ , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
2 λ
( d x
)
df
~ λ
a total =~
a λ = sgn ds 2 c 2 , (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
ds 2
λ
dx
~
v λ = sgn ds 2 c , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
ds
~ d~
vλ
a λ = sgn ds 2 c
ds
g αβ dx α dx β 1
ds = c − g 44 1 − dt = c − g 44 γ G−1 dt
g 44 dt dt c 2
~ γG d~
vλ γ G2  d2x λ 1 dx dg 44 1 dγ G dx 
λ λ
aλ = =  2 − + 
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt − (sgn ds 2 ) g 44  dt 2 g 44 dt dt γ G dt dt 
• Total acceleration 3-vector
a total = a = a α eα
df 1 dv α 1 dx α
aα = , vα = , (ds )2 ≠ 0 , (α = 1,2,3)
− (sgn ds )g 44 2 dt − (sgn ds ) g 44
2 dt
1 dv α 1  d2x λ 1 dx dg 44 
λ
a total = a = eα =  2 −  eα
− (sgn ds 2 )g 44 dt − (sgn ds 2 ) g 44  dt 2 g 44 dt dt 
17
• Value of total acceleration 3-vector
a2 = a ⋅ a
a = a α eα , a = a β eβ , (α = 1,2,3)
a 2 = a ⋅ a = a α e α ⋅ a β eβ = a α a β e α ⋅ eβ , (α, β = 1,2,3)
df 1 dv α df 1 dvβ
a = α
, a = β
, (α, β = 1,2,3)
− (sgn ds 2 )g 44 dt − (sgn ds 2 )g 44 dt
(
eα ⋅ eβ = − sgn ds 2 g αβ ≥ 0 , ) (ds )2 ≠ 0
g αβ dv α dvβ g αβ dvα dvβ

a = 2
, a=
g 44 dt dt g 44 dt dt
• Physical (true) components of total acceleration 3-vector
a = a α eα , (α = 1,2,3)
(
a = − sgn ds 2 g αα a α ) eα
, (ds )2 ≠ 0
(
− sgn ds g αα 2
)
g αα dv α
α
(
â = − sgn ds g αα a = 2
) α
Physical components of total acceleration 3-vector
g 44 dt
eα eα
eˆ α = = , eˆ α = 1
eα (
g αα dv α
a = â α eˆ α = eˆ α
g 44 dt
• Components of total acceleration 4-vector expressed by components of total accelera-

tion 3-vector
γG dx λ dγ G
~
a α = γ G2 a α + (α = 1,2,3)
(
− sgn ds 2 g 44 dt dt ) ,
~ γ G2 dv 4 γG dx 4 dγ G
a4 = +
(
− sgn ds 2 g 44 ) (
dt − sgn ds 2 g 44 dt dt )
18
• Physical (true) components of total acceleration 4-vector
~
a=~
a λ eλ , (λ = 1,2,3,4 )
~ (
a = − sgn ds 2 g λλ ~
aλ ) eλ
, (ds )2 ≠ 0
(
~ (
â λ = − sgn ds 2 g λλ ~
aλ )
~
â λ = Physical components of total acceleration 4-vector
eλ eλ
eˆ λ = = , eˆ λ = 1
eλ (
2 λ
( d x
)
df
~
aλ = ~ λ
a total = sgn ds 2 c 2
ds 2
~ γG d~
vλ
aλ =
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44 dt
~
v λ = γ vλG
~ γ G2 − (sgn ds 2 ) g λλ  d2x λ 1 dx dg 44 1 dγ G dx 
λ λ
â =
λ
 2 − + 
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44  dt 2g 44 dt dt γ G dt dt 
~
a=~
â λ eˆ λ ~
a = − sgn ds 2 g λλ ~(
a λ eˆ λ )
2 λ
~ ( ) ( dx
a = − sgn ds 2 g λλ sgn ds 2 c 2 2 eˆ λ
ds
)
γ g λλ d~
vλ  g λλ dv λ γ G g λλ λ dγ G 
~
a= G eˆ λ a =  γ G2
~ + v eˆ λ
g 44 dt  g 44 dt g 44 dt 
 
~ γ G2 − (sgn ds 2 ) g λλ d2x λ λ
1 dx dg 44 1 dγ G dx 
λ
a=  2 − +  eˆ λ
− (sgn ds 2 ) g 44  dt 2g 44 dt dt γ G dt dt 
19
• 4-dimensional motion equations of a test particle
Components of acceleration 4-vector of a test particle with mass (m) in given point of
1. curved Riemann spacetime or
2. flat Minkowski spacetime in regard to non-inertial reference frame
are described by equations:
~α
 d 2 x α ~ α dx µ dx ν 
F
( ) ( )
df
~ α
= aforce = sgn ds c
2 2
+ kΓ µν  , ds 2 = g µν dx µ dx ν ≠ 0, sgn ds 2 g µν ≤ 0
m  ds 2 ds ds 
 
~α
F = components of net force 4-vector, with ommision of „gravitational” and
„inertial” forces
g µν = metric tensor of curved spacetime (components of this tensor are solution of
field equations) or metric tensor of non-inertial reference frame in flat Minkowski
spacetime
~ + 1 outside of a mass source
k=
− 1 inside of a mass source
Postulated motion equations of a test particle has interpretation as follows:
~α
~ F
α
a total = +~ α
agrav & iner
m
2 α
~ α
a total =~ (
a α = sgn ds 2 c 2 )
d x
ds 2
Component (corresponding with index α)
of total acceleration of a test particle
µ ν Sum of components (corresponding

~ α
agrav & iner = (
− sgn ds 2
c )
2 ~ α dx dx
k Γ µν
ds ds
with index α) of gravitational and
inertial acceleration of a test particle
In case of stationary metric with spatial-temporal zero-components, which is metric of type:
(ds )2 = g κλ dx κ dx λ + g 44dx 4dx 4 , ∂g κλ4 = 0 , ∂g 444 = 0 , (κ, λ = 1,2,3) ,

∂x ∂x
equations of motion, inter alia, can be also written in such forms:
~
F  γ G g αα dv ~ α ~µ~ν 
~α
=
m 
+ − sgn ds 2 g αα k Γµν( )
v v  eˆ α , (α, µ, ν = 1,2,3,4 )
 g 44
dt 
~ α µ ν
F γ G − (sgn ds ) g αα  d x ~ α dx dx 
2 2 2 λ λ
1 dx dg 44 1 dγ G dx
=  − + + k Γ µν  eˆ α
m − (sgn ds 2 ) g 44  dt 2 2g 44 dt dt γ G dt dt dt dt 
Let’s remind:
dx α 1
κ λ
g dx dx 1
( )
df γG
~
vα = , = 1− κλ , eˆ α = eα − sgn ds 2 g αα , eˆ α = 1
− (sgn ds ) g 44 dt
2 γG g 44 dt dt c 2
20
3 FIELD EQUATIOS
• Introduction
From classical physics we know, that absolute value of gravitational field strength in cen-
ter of homogeneous ball (that has constant density) is equal to zero. Together with growth of
distance from the center – strength grows linearly, reaching its maximal value on the surface
of a ball. With further growth of distance – it decreases inversely squared.
If we want to get the same result, within the frames of Einstein’s general theory of relati-
vity, then we have to notice that stationary gravitational field is a 2-potential field.
∂E ~
= 0 , rotE = 0 Ein = gradϕin = − k gradϕin , 0 ≤ r < R , lim ϕin = 0
∂t ⇒ ~
r →0
rot gradϕ = 0 E = − gradϕ = − kgradϕ , r ≥ R , lim ϕex = 0

ex ex ex
r →∞
4 2 GM GM
E inr = − π G ρ r , ϕin = − π G ρ r 2 , r = −
E ex , ϕex = − .
3 3 r2 r
On the surface of a ball, we have
GM
ϕin − ϕex = , Ein − Eex = 0 .
2R
Ein , Eex = gravitational field strenght respectively inside and outside of a ball
ϕin , ϕex = gravitational field potential respectively inside and outside of a ball
M = mass of a ball, R = radius of a ball, ρ = density
k=
• Field uquations
First accurate exterior and interior solutions of Einstein’s field equations [1] was served
by Schwarzschild [2, 3]. Other known interior solutions differ over form of energy momen-
tum tensor, such as in Tolman’s work [4].
Equations of gravitational field we will write as:
 1  1
R µν = κ Tµν − g µν T  or R µν − g µν R = κTµν ,
 2  2
where
1 ασ  ∂g µσ ∂g νσ ∂g µν 
α α
∂Γµα ∂Γµν β
R µν = − + Γµα Γβνα − Γµν
β α
Γβα , α
Γµν = g + µ − σ ,
∂x ν
∂x α
2  ∂x ν ∂x ∂x 

8πG − 43 s2 df df
κ= = 2.073 ⋅ 10 , T = g αβ Tαβ , R = g αβ R αβ , R = κT ,
c4 kg ⋅ m
x1 = r , x2 = θ, x3 = ϕ , x 4 = ict .
21
In case where uniformly distributed mass in a ball, is a source of a grawitational field, we
postulate existence of the solution in the following form:
(ds )2 = g11 (dr )2 + r 2 (dθ )2 + r 2sin 2θ (dϕ)2 + g 44 (dx 4 )2 ,
1 1 1 1
g 11 = , g 22 = r 2 , g 33 = r 2 sin 2 θ , g11 = 44 , g 22 = 2 , g 33 = 2 2 ,
g 44 g r r sin θ
1 df
Tαβ = ρc 2g αβ , T = g αβ Tαβ = 2ρc 2 , ρ = const .
2
The divergence of the tensor Tαβ should be equal to zero, which actually happens:
1  1
(
Tαβ;β =  g αβρc 2  = ρc 2 g αβ;β = 0 . )
2 ; β 2
Adopted assumptions let us reduce number of field equations to two.
1 ∂ 2g 44 1 ∂g 44 1
+ = − κρc 2
2 ∂r 2
r ∂r 2
∂g 1
r 44 + g 44 − 1 = − κ r 2ρc 2
∂r 2
Equations are fulfilled, when

4πGρ 2 GM r
0≤r<R, ρ = const > 0 , g 44 = 1 −
2
r = 1 − 2 3 r2 = 1 − S 3 r2 ,
3c cR 2R
2GM rS
r≥R, ρ = 0, g 44 = 1 − 2 = 1 − , r ≠ rS .
cr r
4
M= πρ R 3
3
R = radius of a ball, inside which a mass source is located
2GM
rS = 2 = Schwarzschild radius
c
Presented solutions of field equations fulfill below boundary values.
0 ≤ r < R, lim g 44 = 1
r →0
r ≥ R, lim g 44 = 1
r →∞
Quoted works
[1] A. Einstein: Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich
Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2, 48 (1915) 844-847.
[2] K. Schwarzschild: Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen
Theorie. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preuβischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1, 7
(1916) 189-196.
[3] C. Schwarzschild: Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit
nach der Einsteinschen Theorie. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preuβischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften 1, 18 (1916) 424-434.
[4] Richard C. Tolman: Static Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations for Spheres of Fluid.
Physical Review 55, 4 (February 15, 1939) 364-373.
22
4 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD OUTSIDE MASS SOURCE
• Exterior Schwarzschild metric
Space metric outside mass source ( r ≥ R , ρ = 0 ) is being described by exteror Schwarz-
schild metric [1]:
−1
(ds )2 = 1 − rS  (dr )2 + r 2 (dθ)2 + r 2 sin 2 θ (dϕ)2 + 1 − rS (dx 4 )2 , x 4 = ict , r ≠ rS =

2GM
 r  r c2
• Speed of light propagation and exterior Schwarzschild metric

Exterior Schwarzschild metric, for
θ = const , dθ = 0 , ϕ = const , dϕ = 0 ,
reduces itself to
−1
(ds ) = 1 − rS 
2
(dr )2 − 1 − rS  c 2 (dt )2 .
 r  r
We designate speed (v) of light propagation from condition:
(ds )2 = 0
or equivalent
2 2 2
 dr   r   2GM 
v =   = c 2 1 − S  = c 2 1 −
2
 .
 dt   r  rc 2 
Note that
  dr 
2
  1 
0 <   ≤ c  ⇔ r ≥ rS , r ≠ rS  .
2
  dt    2 
It means that exterior Schwarzschild metric is correct if and only if
1
r≥ rS , r ≠ rS .
2
• Gravitational acceleration of free fall outside mass source

We will designate radial coordinate of gravtational acceleration of free falling test particle
by equation of motion
 dx 4 dx 4 
~
ar = ~
~
( )
dr dr
a 1 = − k sgn ds 2 c 2  Γ111 ⋅ + Γ144 ⋅
ds ds 
, r ≠ rS , (ds )2 ≠ 0 .
 ds ds
Taking into account, that
23
rS 2GM ~
g 44 = 1 − , rS = , k = +1 ,
r c2
−1
1 ∂g 44  r  GM 1 ∂g  r  GM
Γ =−1
= − 1 − S  ⋅ 2 2 , Γ144 = − g 44 44 = − 1 − S  ⋅ 2 2 ,
2g 44 ∂r ∂r
11
 r cr 2  r cr
−1 2 2
 r   dr   r   dx 4 
1 = 1 − S    + 1 − S    ,
 r   ds   r  ds 
we get
c 2 ∂g 44
~
ar = ~
~
(
a 1 = k sgn ds 2
2 ∂r
) GM
(
= sgn ds 2 2 .
r
)
Physical (true) coordinate of gravitational acceleration of free fall
( )
df
â r = − sgn ds 2 g rr ~
ar ,
where
−1
 r 
g rr = g11 = 1 − S  ,
 r
finally can be written in the form:
( ) (
â r = − sgn ds 2 g rr sgn ds 2 ) GM
r2
.
• Gravity and anti-gravity

Above equation has interesting physical interpretation. For r > rS it describes gravity and
1
for rS ≤ r < rS – anti-gravity.
2
Gravity
−1
2GM  r  GM 1
r > rS = 2 , g rr = 1 − S  > 0 , (ds )2 < 0 , â r = − ⋅
c  r r2 rS
1−
r
Anti-gravity
−1
1 2GM  r  GM 1
rS ≤ r < rS = 2 , g rr = 1 − S  < 0 , (ds )2 > 0 , â r = + ⋅
2 c  r r2 rS
−1
r
24
• Main hypothesis
......Anti-gravity works in such a way that free test particle located in external gravitational
field (of a non rotating mass source) in certain area gets acceleration directed from the center
of that mass source.
In areas, where In areas, where

g µν ≥ 0 , (ds ) < 0 ,
2
(µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) , g µν ≤ 0 , (ds ) > 0 ,
2
(µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) ,
graviy occurs. anti-graviy occurs.
Quoted works
(1916) 189-196.
25
5 BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-GRAVITY HALO
• Black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo
Black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo we will call homogeneous ball with mass (M)
and radius (R), for which
M c2 kg
= ≈ 1.3466 × 10 27 .
R G m
Spatial radius of a black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo is equal to half of Schwarzschild
radius. Area of outside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo consist of two layers, in
first ( 0.5 rS ≤ r < rS ) anti-gravity occurs and in second ( r > rS ) – gravity. Thickness of this
anti-gravity shell is equal to spatial radius of black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo.
Inside of anti-gravity layer acceleration is directed from the center of mass source, and inside
of gravity layer – towards the center
Inside of anti-gravity layer acceleration is directed from

GRAVITY
the center of a mass source and it grows to the border
with gravity layer. Then acceleration changes direction,
ANTI-GRAVITY and its absolute value decreases together with a growth
of distance from the center.
This model can be called „layer model”: anti-gravity –
0.5rS 0.5rS gravity.
rS
First time model of black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo was proposed by me in 2005 on
the V Forum of Unconventional Inventions, Constructions and Ideas in Wrocław on the
occasion of the 100th anniversary of Einstein’s formulation of special theory of relativity.
This Forum was organized by Janusz Zagórski.
26
6 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE MASS SOURCE
• Spacetime metric inside mass source
Spacetime metric inside mass source ( 0 ≤ r < R , ρ = const > 0 ) is given by:
(ds )2 = g11 (dr )2 + r 2 (dθ)2 + r 2 sin 2 θ (dϕ)2 + g 44 (dx 4 )2 ,
where
2GM 1 4πGρ 2 GM r
x 4 = ict , r ≠ rS = , g 11 = , g 44 = 1 − 2
r = 1 − 2 3 r2 = 1 − S 3 r2 .
c2 g 44 3c cR 2R
• Speed of light propagation in virtual vacuum tunnel that is inside mas source
Spacetime metric inside mass source for
reduces itself to a form:
1 4πGρ 2 GM r
(ds )2 = g11 (dr )2 − g 44c2 (dt )2 , g 11 = , g 44 = 1 − 2
r = 1 − 2 3 r2 = 1 − S 3 r2 .
g 44 3c cR 2R
We will designate speed (v) of light propagation in virtual vacuum tunnel from condition
(ds )2 = 0
or equivalent
2 2 2
 dr   r   GM 
v 2 =   = c 2 1 − S 3 r 2  = c 2 1 − 2 3 r 2  .
 dt   2R   cR 
Notice that
  dr  2 1 
0 <   ≤ c , R ≥ rS  ⇔ [r < R ].
2
  dt  2 
It means that interior metric is correct if and only if
1
r < R, R ≥ rS .
2
27
• Gravitational acceleration of free fall inside mass source
Radial component of gravitational acceleration of freely falling test particle inside virtual
vacuum tunnel, which is located inside mass source, we will get from equation of motion
 dx 4 dx 4 
~
ar = ~
~
( dr dr
)
a 1 = − k sgn ds 2 c 2  Γ111 ⋅ + Γ144 ⋅
ds ds 
, 0≤r<R, r ≠ rS , (ds )2 ≠ 0 .
 ds ds
Taking into account that
~ 1 2GM
k = −1 , sgn ds 2 = −1 , R≥ rS , rS = ,
2 c2
1 ∂g 44
Γ111 = − ,
2g 44 ∂r
1 ∂g
Γ144 = − g 44 44 ,
2 ∂r
4πGρ 2 GM r
g 44 = 1 − 2
r = 1 − 2 3 r2 = 1 − S 3 r2 ,
3c cR 2R
2 2
 dr 
−1  dx 4 
1 = g   + g 44 
44  ,
 ds   ds 
we get
c 2 ∂g 44
~ ~
(
a r = k sgn ds 2
2 ∂r
)
~
= − k sgn ds 2
GM
R 3
GM
r=− 3 r.
R
( )
â r = − (sgn ds 2 ) g rr ~
df
ar ,
where
−1
 r 
g rr = g11 = 1 − S 3 r 2  ,
 2R 
in the end, can be written in a form:
~
(
â r = − k sgn ds 2 ) − (sgn ds ) g 2
rr
GM
R 3
GM
r =− 3 r⋅
R
1
.
rS 2
1− r
2R 3
28
7 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-
GRAVITY HALO
• Spacetime metric inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo

Spacetime metric inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo is given by:
−1
   
( )
2 2
(ds ) = 1 − r 2  (dr )2 + r 2 (dθ )2 + r 2sin 2θ (dϕ)2 + 1 − r 2  dx 4 2 ,
2
 R   R 
where
1 2GM 1 r2
x = ict ,
4
0 ≤ r < R = rS , rS = 2 , g 11 = , g 44 = 1 − 2 , ρ = const > 0 .
2 c g 44 R
• Speed of light propagation in virtual vacuum tunnel that is inside black hole with
maximal anti-gravity halo
Spacetime metric inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo for
reduces to a form
−1
 2
  2

(ds ) = 1 − r 2  (dr )2 − 1 − r 2  c 2 (dt )2 .
2
 R   R 
We will designate speed (v) of light propagation in virtual vacuum tunnel from condition
(ds )2 = 0
or equivalent
2 2
 dr   r2 
v =   = c 2 1 − 2  .
2
 dt   R 
Notice that
  dr 2 
0 <   ≤ c  ⇔ [r < R ].
2
  dt  
29
• Gravitational acceleration of free fall inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity
halo
Radial component of gravitational acceleration of freely falling test particle inside virtual
vacuum tunnel, which is located inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo, we will get
from equation of motion
 dx 4 dx 4 
a 1 = − k (sgn ds 2 ) c 2  Γ111 ⋅ + Γ144
~ dr dr
~
ar = ~ ⋅ , 0≤r<R, (ds )2 ≠ 0 .
 ds ds ds ds 
Taking into account that
2
~ 1 2GM M c
k = −1 , sgn ds = −1 ,
2
R = rS , rS = 2 , = ,
2 c R G
1 ∂g 44
Γ111 = − ,
2g 44 ∂r
1 ∂g
Γ144 = − g 44 44 ,
2 ∂r
2
r
g 44 = 1 − 2 ,
R
2 2
 dr 
−1  dx 4 
1 = g   + g 44 
44  ,
 ds   ds 
we get
c 2 ∂g 44
~ ~
(
a r = k sgn ds 2
2 ∂r
) ~ c2
(c2
= − k sgn ds 2 2 r = − 2 r .
R R
)
â r = − (sgn ds 2 ) g rr ~
df
ar ,
where
−1
 r2 
g rr = g11 = 1 − 2  ,

 R 
in the end, can be written in a form:
~
(
â r = − k sgn ds 2 ) − (sgn ds ) g
2
rr
c2
R2
r = −
c2
R2
r⋅
1
.
r2
1− 2
R
30
8 GRAPHIC AALYSIS OF THE FULL SOLUTIO
• Charts that show how time-time component of metric tensor and physical (true)
coordinate of gravitational acceleration of free fall depends on the distance from the
center of black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo
We will make those charts for case, where spatial radius of black hole is half of Schwarz-
schild radius
1 GM
R= rS = 2 ,
2 c
which is for black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo.

Time-time component of metric tensor and physical (true) coordinate of gravitational
acceleration of free fall, in three distance intervals from the center of blach hole, are given by
below relations.
GRAVITY
1  r2  c2 1
0 ≤ r < rS , g 44 = 1 − 2  > 0 , â r = − r⋅
2  R  R2 r2
1−
R2
ATI-GRAVITY
1  r  GM 1
rS ≤ r < rS , g 44 = 1 − S  < 0 , â r = + ⋅
2  r r2 rS
−1
r
GRAVITY
 r  GM 1
r > rS , g 44 = 1 − S  > 0 , â r = − ⋅
 r r2 rS
1−
r
g44
1
r
0
R = 0.5rS
1
rS
Chart that shows how time-time component of metric tensor depends on the distance from the
center of black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo.
31
g44
1
r
0
R = 0.5rS
1
rS
Chart that shows how time-time component of metric tensor depends on the distance from the
center of bkack hole with maximal anti-gravity halo.
â r
R = 0.5rS
GM
r2
r
0 rS
Chart of dependence of radial coordinate of physical (true) gravitational acceleration of free

fall on the distance from the center of black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo.
ATTETIO
First graph is doublet for better clearness on the same page.
From the charts we can see that:
0 ≤ r < 0.5 ⋅ rS ⇒ gravity

r = 0.5 ⋅ rS ⇒ transition from gravity to anti-gravity
0.5 ⋅ rS < r < rS ⇒ anti-gravity
r = rS ⇒ transition from anti-gravity to gravity
r > rS ⇒ gravity
Gravity and anti-gravity has layer-like nature.
32
9 FIELD EQUATIOS AD EQUATIOS OF MOTIO
• Equations of motion are contained in field equations
How schould one formulate equations of motion, so that non-rescaled radial coordinates
of 4-acceleration could be served with below forms?
( d 2r
) ~
( ~
) ( )
df GM GM
~
ainr = sgn ds 2 c 2 2 = − 3 r = − k sgn ds 2 r, 0 ≤ r < R, k = −1, sgn ds 2 < 0
3
ds R R
( ) ( ) ( )
2
~
df dr GM ~ GM ~
aexr = sgn ds 2 c 2 2 = − 2 = k sgn ds 2 2 , r > R, k = +1, sgn ds 2 < 0
ds r r
While answering to this question, we will use second of two field equations.
∂ 2g in44 2 ∂g in44 2
+ = − 2 ⋅ 4πGρ
∂r 2
r ∂r c
c ∂g 44
( )
2 in
c 2 in
= −2πGρr − g 44 − 1
2 ∂r 2r
4πGρ 2 GM r
g in44 = 1 − 2
r = 1 − 2 3 r2 = 1 − S 3 r2
3c cR 2R
c 2 ∂g in44 4 GM
= − πGρr = − 3 r
2 ∂r 3 R
( d 2r
) ~
( )
df GM GM
~
ainr = sgn ds 2 c 2 2 = − 3 r = − k sgn ds 2 r
ds R R3
c 2 ∂g in44
~ ~
(
ainr = k sgn ds 2
2 ∂r
)
dr dr 1 dx
4
dx 4 1 ∂g in44
Γ ⋅ + Γ 44
1
11 ⋅ =−
ds ds ds ds 2 ∂r
 dx 4 dx 4 
~ ~
( )
dr dr
ainr = − k sgn ds 2 c 2  Γ111 ⋅ + Γ144 ⋅
ds ds 

 ds ds
Analogical consideration for coordinate ~

a exr leads to a conclusion, that equations of motion
should have the form served below:
2 α µ
dx ν
( )
~a α = sgn ds 2 c 2 d x = − ~ ( )
df
α dx
k sgn ds 2
c 2
Γ µν ⋅
ds 2 ds ds

k=
33
• Equations of motion and field equations in General Relativity, and 2-potential nature
of ewton’s stationary gravitational field
Postulated by us, within the frames of General Relativity, equations of motion of free test
particle, leads to a conclusion, that Newton’s stationary gravitational field is a 2-potential
field. We will show it on an example of gravitational field, which source is a mass distributed
homogeneously in a volume of a ball with radius R.
~α µ ν
F
m
~ α ~
( α dx dx
= a + k sgn ds c Γ µν
2 2
ds ds
) (
, ds 2 = g µνdx µ dx ν ≠ 0, sgn ds 2 g µν ≤ 0 )
~α
F =0
x1 = r , x2 = θ, x3 = ϕ , x 4 = ict
(ds )2 = g11 (dr )2 + r 2 (dθ )2 + r 2sin 2θ (dϕ)2 + g 44 (dx 4 )2
1
g 11 = , g 22 = r 2 , g 33 = r 2 sin 2 θ
g 44
dr dr dx 4 dx 4 1 ∂g 44
Γ111 ⋅ + Γ144 ⋅ =−
ds ds ds ds 2 ∂r
2 c ∂g 44
( )
2
~a r = ~
k sgn ds
2 ∂r
r
a inr , a ex = radial acceleration respectively inside and outside of a ball
g in44 , g ex
44 = metric tensor components respectively inside and outside of a ball
4πGρ 2 GM r
g in44 = 1 − 2
r = 1 − 2 3 r 2 = 1 − S 3 r 2 , 0 ≤ r < R , ρ = const > 0
3c cR 2R
2GM r
44 = 1 −
g ex 2
=1− S , r ≥ R , r ≥ R , ρ = 0
cr r
c 2 ∂g in44
in (
~a r = ~
k sgn ds 2 )
2 ∂r
~
= − k sgn ds 2 (
GM
R3
)
r, 0 ≤ r < R
2 c ∂g 44
( ) ( )
2 ex
~ ~ ~ GM
aex = k sgn ds
r
= k sgn ds 2 2 , r ≥ R
2 ∂r r
2GM
r >> rS , v 2 << c 2 , rS =
c2
d 2r ~ + 1 outside of homogeneous ball
ar = , sgn ds 2 = −1 , k = 
dt 2 − 1 inside of homogeneous ball
~ c 2 ∂g in44 GM
a inr = − k = − 3 r, 0 ≤ r < R
2 ∂r R
~ c 2 ∂g ex GM
r
a ex = −k 44
=− 2 , r≥R
2 ∂r r
34
By substitution in last two equations
2ϕin 2ϕex
g in44 = 1 + , 44 = 1 +
g ex ,
c2 c2
where ( ϕin ) and ( ϕex ) are potentials of gravitational field respectively inside and outside of a
ball, we will get
~ ∂ϕ ∂ϕin
in
GM GM 2
a inr = − k = =− 3 r, 0≤r <R, ϕin = − r , lim ϕin = 0
∂r ∂r R 2R 3 r →0
~ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ex ex
GM GM
r
a ex = −k =− =− 2 , r≥R, ϕex = − , lim ϕex = 0
∂r ∂r r r r →∞
Now lets serve definition of potentials ( ϕin ) and ( ϕex ) that corresponds with standard defini-
tion of gravitational potential.
df r < R GM 2
ϕ = ∫a dr = −
in r
in r
0
2R 3
df ∞
GM
ϕex = − ∫a dr = −
r
ex
r ≥R
r
We will serve field equations inside mass source, in a form convienient for further con-
templation.
∂ 2g in44 2 ∂g in44 2
+ = − 2 ⋅ 4πGρ
∂r 2
r ∂r c
2 ∂g 44 2 in
( )
in
2
+ 2 g 44 − 1 = − 2 ⋅ 4πGρ
r ∂r r c
2ϕin
g =1+
in
44
c2
∂ 2ϕin 2 ∂ϕ
in
Poisson’s equation for potential ϕin
+ = −4πGρ
∂ r2 r ∂r
2 ∂ϕ
in
2 in
+ ϕ = −4πGρ
r ∂r r2
First of those equations is a Poisson’s equation for potential ( ϕin ) in spherical coordinate
system. From classical Poisson’s equation it differs only in sign of right side. Then, from both
equations it appears that
∂ 2ϕin 2 in
= ϕ
∂r 2
r2
35
Now we will analize second field equation for potential ( ϕin ).
∂ϕin ϕin
= −2πGρr −
∂r r
GM 2
ϕin = − r
2R 3
∂ϕin GM
=− r
∂r R3
GM
a inr = − r
R3
∂ϕin Equation of motion

= a inr
∂r for radial coordinate of free fall acceleration
If we will do analogical analize to Poisson’s equation for potential ( ϕin ), we will also get the
same result. Equations of motion are contained in field equations.
In field equations outside of mass source we will substitute time-time component ( g ex

44 ) of
metric tensor with potential ( ϕex ).
∂ 2g ex 2 ∂g ex
44
+ 44
=0
∂r 2
r ∂r
2 ∂g ex
r ∂r r
44 2
+ 2 g ex (
44 − 1 = 0 )
2ϕex
g =1+
ex
44
c2
∂ 2ϕex 2 ∂ϕ
ex
Poisson’s equation for potential ϕex
+ =0
∂ r2 r ∂r
2 ∂ϕ
ex
2 ex
+ ϕ =0
r ∂r r2
First of those equations is a Poisson’s equation for potential ( ϕex ) in spherical coordinate
system. Then, from both equations it appears that
∂ 2ϕex 2 ex
= ϕ
∂r 2
r2
36
Now let’s analize second field equation for potential ( ϕex ).
∂ϕex ϕex
=−
∂r r
GM
ϕex = −
r
∂ϕex GM
=
∂r r2
GM
r
a ex =−
r2
∂ϕex Equation of motion

= −a ex
r
∂r for radial component of acceleration of free fall
If we will do analogical analize to Poisson's equation for potential ( ϕex ), we will also get the
same result. Equations of motion are contained in field equations.
Introducing two potentials into Newton’s theory of gravitation allowed to find solution of
field and motion equations (within the frames of General Relativity), which in boundary case
( r >> rS , v 2 << c 2 ) leads to compabillity of both theories, both inside as well as outside of
mass source.
ϕ GM 2
R r ϕin = − r , 0 ≤ r < R, lim ϕin = 0
0 2R 3 r →0
ϕin ϕex
GM
GM ϕex = − , r ≥ R, lim ϕex = 0
− r r →∞
2R
GM
−
R
Diagram that shows how potentials ( ϕin ) and ( ϕex ) depend on the distance from the center of
mass source in case of ( r >> rS ) and ( v 2 << c 2 ).
37
ϕ GM 2
R r ϕin = − r , 0 ≤ r < R, lim ϕin = 0
0 2R 3 r →0
ϕin ϕex
GM
GM ϕex = − , r ≥ R, lim ϕex = 0
− r r →∞
2R
GM
−
R
Diagram that shows how potentials ( ϕin ) and ( ϕex ) depend on the distance from the center of
mass source in case of ( r >> rS ) and ( v 2 << c 2 ).
ar GM
a inr = − r, 0 ≤ r < R
R r R3
GM
r
a ex − , r≥R
r2
r
a inr a ex
r
Diagram that shows how radial coordinates of free fall acceleration ( a inr ) and ( a ex ) depend on
the distance from the center of mass source in case of ( r >> rS ) and ( v 2 << c 2 ).
ATTETIO
For clearness, we have also featured diagrams from previous page.
38
10 EW TEST OF GEERAL RELATIVITY
• The proposition of the experiment
How to show in Earth conditions, 2-potential nature of gravitational field and also prove
the existence of black holes with anti-gravity halo? In this purpose we have to measure ratio
of distance passed by light to the time of flight, in a vertically positioned vacuum cylinder,
right under and right above the surface of Earth (of the sea level). If the difference of squares
of those measurements will be equal to the square of escape speed, then it will prove exis-
tence of black holes with anti-gravity halo. This experiment would be a new test of General
Theory of Relativity.
Below we will justify purpose of this experiment:
2 2
 dr   dr 
  −  =?
 dt in  dt ex
 dr   dr 
  i   – ratio of path travelled by the light to the time of travel
measured respectively right under and right over Eartt surface
2 2
 dr  2 r 2
  = c 1 − S 3 r 
 dt in  2R 
2 2
 dr  2 r 
  = c 1 − S 
 dt ex  r
r≈R
2GM
rS = 2
c
rS
<< 1
R
 dr   dr 
  +   ≈ 2c
2
GM  km 
=  7.91 
R  s 
m m
c = 2.99792458⋅108 ≈ 3 ⋅108
s s
2 2
 dr   dr  2GM  dr   dr  GM m
  −  ≅   −  ≅ ≅ 0.208
 dt in  dt ex R  dt in  dt ex cR s
39
11 BLACK HOLE MODEL OF OUR UIVERSE
• Our Universe as a black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo
In the center of black hole, gravitational acceleration of

GRAVITY
free particle is equal to zero which corresponds with
Gauss law. Later, absolute value of acceleration grows
ANTI-GRAVITY together with growth of distance from the center. In
anti-gravity layer, gravitational acceleration is pointed
GRAVITY
from the center of mass source and it grows to the
0.5rS gravity-layer bordeline. Then, acceleration turns direc-
tion, and its absolute value decreases with growth of
distance from the center.
0.5rS
This model can be called „layer model”:
rS
gravity – anti-gravity – gravity.
Our Universe can be treated as a gigantic, homogeneous Black Hole. It is isolated from the
rest of universe with a space area where anti-gravity occurs. Our galaxy together with Solar
system and Earth (which in cosmological scales can be treated merely as a point) should be
located near the center of Black Hole. Once again let’s remind that in the center of black hole,
gravitational acceleration of free particle, leaving out local gravitational fields, is equal to ze-
ro. In other words: Black Hole is not generating gravitational field in its center.
• Radius of Our Universe

Below, let’s estimate radius of Our Universe, assuming that, its average density is the
same as density (np) of protons in every cubic meter.
1 GM
R= rS = 2
2 c
4
M= πρR 3
3
3c 2 1
R= ⋅
4πG ρ
3 3
m 8 m −11 m −11 m
c = 2.99792458 ⋅10 ≈ 3 ⋅10 , G = 6.6742 ⋅ 10
8
≈ 6.7 ⋅ 10
s s kg ⋅ s 2 kg ⋅ s 2
kg
ρ ≈ n p ⋅ 1.67 ⋅ 10− 27 3
m
n p = average amount of protons in every cubic meter
m p = 1.67262171 ⋅ 10−27 kg = proton mass
light year ≈ 0.95 ⋅ 1016 m
19 19
R≈ ⋅ 1026 m ≈ 10.5 ⋅ ⋅ 109 light years
np np
40
12 PHOTO PARADOX
• Introduction
Theory of relativity, both special and general, is strictly connected with wave theory of
light (electomagnetic waves). Attempt to explaining gravitational redshift on a ground of
photon light theory in spacetimes other than conformally flat leads to a paradox.
• Gravitational redshift
Gravitational redshift we call a phenomenon that describes spectrum of light which comes
to Earth from the Sun or other stars, is shifted towards longer wavelenghts relative to
analogical spectrum of light that comes from emitter which is located on Earth.
• Conformally flat spacetime

Conformally flat spacetime is a spacetime with metric type like:
(ds )2 = [K (x1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 )] 2 [( dx ) + ( dx ) + ( dx ) + ( dx ) ].
1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2
x1 = x, x 2 = y, x 3 = z, x 4 = ict
( )
K = K x1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 = conformal factor
• Schwarzschild spacetime
Gravitational field outside of mass source (M) is being described by Schwarzschil metric
[3].
 x α xβ  r 
−1
   r  4 4
(ds ) = δαβ + 2
2
1 − S  − 1  dx α dx β +  δ 44 − S  dx dx , (α, β = 1,2,3)
 r  r     r 
1 ⇔ α = β
δαβ = 
0 ⇔ α ≠ β
( ) ( ) ( )
2
r 2 = x1 + x 2 + x 3
2 2
2GM
rS =
c2
• Friedman-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker spacetime
FLRW metric [4, 5, 6, 8, 9] describes spatially isotropic and homegeneous universe.
[(
ds 2 = B 2 L2 dx1 ) + (dx ) + (dx ) ] + (dx )
2 2 2 3 2 4 2
x 4 = ict
L = L( t ) = dimensionless time scale factor
41
1 1 1
B= = =
2 2
1 L r 1 r
2
1 + 4 kr 2
1
1+ 4 2 2 1+ 4 2
La a
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
r 2 = x1 + x 2 + x 3
2
1 1
k = 2 , sgn k = sgn 2 = − 1, 0, + 1
a a
2
a = square of non-rescaled constant radius of space curavutre
• Photon paradox
Idea of photon in the context of Schwarzschild and Friedman-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker
metric leads to a paradox. Calculating the influence of those metrics on photon energy from
h hc
the equation E = or equivalent E = , we get different results, depending on used
T λ
equation. For simplification, let’s assume that dx 2 = dx 3 = 0 . Then we get:
h hc
Ê = , Ê =
T̂ λ̂
T̂ = KT , λ̂ = Kλ for conformally flat metric
λ
T̂ = g 44 T , λ̂ = for Schwarzschild metric
g 44
T̂ = T , λ̂ = BLλ for FLRW metric
This paradox was called by me „photon paradox”.
• Does photons have memory?

Photon paradox doesn’t occur in conformally flat spacetimes. In other spacetimes, one of
solutions for photon paradox is an assumption that photon energy depends on point of space-
time, inside which its emission happened and it remains constant during photon movement. It
means that photons have memory, or more scholarly – photon energy is invariant. Wherein, in
stronger gravitational field, given source should send photons with less energy, then the same
source located in weaker field.
• Energy of photon in ewton’s gravitational field

Let’s remind a deduction for total energy equation ( Ê ), for body source with mass (M)
and for photon emitted by given atom, which in emission moment is at distance (R) from the
center of mass souce.
GMm
Ê = hν − = const
R
hν
m= 2
c
GMhν  GM 
Ê = hν − 2
= hν1 − 2  = const
Rc  Rc 
GM 2GM
1− 2
≈ 1−
Rc Rc 2
42
2GM
Ê = hν 1 − = const
Rc 2
1 c
ν= , ν=
T λ
h hc Ê const
hν = = = =
T λ 2GM 2GM
1− 2
1−
Rc Rc 2
h = const
c = const
Ê = const
R ↑, ν ↓, T ↑, λ ↑
Interpretation of gravitational redshift (or blueshift) based on above equations, relies on an

assumption that photon energy in the moment of emission doesn’t depend on gravitatio-
nal field, inside which given atom was placed. It should be ephasized that those relations
aren’t generatig photon paradox.
Analogical reasoning to above, has been served for the first time by Einstein [1] and I
think it has only heuristic meaning.
GMm In a frame on the left, previous calculations

Ê = hν − = const
R were repeated, based on new form of expres-
sion for rest energy [13, 14].
2 hν
m=
c2 1 2
E= mc
2
2GMhν  2GM 
Ê = hν − 2
= hν1 −  = const
Rc  Rc 2 
1 c
ν= , ν=
T λ
h hc Ê const
hν = = = =
T λ 1 − 2GM 1 − 2GM
Rc 2 Rc 2
h = const
c = const
Ê = const
R ↑, ν ↓, T ↑, λ ↑
43
• Hydrogen atom in Schwarzschild gravitational field – heuristic approach
We will estimate energy of photon emitted by hydrogen atom inside gravitational field
described by exterior Schwarzschild mertic.
1
Ê ~ −
r̂
−1 −1
 2GM   R  1 2GM 1
r̂ = r g11 , g11 = 1 − 2  = 1 − S  , g 44 = , RS = , E~−
 cR   R  g11 c2 r
1 E
Ê ~ − , Ê = = g 44 E
r g11 g11
∆E  2GM   2GM 
∆Ê = = g 44 ∆E ,  2  ≈ 1.4 ⋅ 10− 9 ,  2  ≈ 4.3 ⋅ 10
−6
g11  c R Earth  c R Sun
E = energy on allowed (stationary) orbit under the absence of gravitational field

r = radius of allowed (stationary) orbit orbit under the absence of gravitational field
Ê = energy on allowed (stationary) orbit orbit in exterior gravitational field
r̂ = radius of allowed (stationary) orbit orbit in exterior gravitational field
g11 , g 44 = meric tensor components of exterior gravitational field
R = distance of photon emission place from the center of body source
M = mass of body source
G = gravitational constant
c = speed of light in vacuum
R S = Schwarzschild radius of body source
Einstein couldn’t serve such reasoning in 1911 [1], because Bohr atom model was formu-
lated by Bohr in 1913 [2] and Schwarzschild metric showed on in 1916 [3].
• How to define redshift?
df E lab − E out E lab

z∗ = = −1
E out E out
E max
E lab =
lab
g11
E max
E out =
out
g11
out
g11
z∗ = −1
lab
g11
44
E lab = photon energy emitted from a source that is in laboratory
E out = photon energy emitted from a source that is outside laboratory
E max = photon energy emitted from a source in the absence of gravitational field
lab
g11 = component of metric tensor in laboratory in a place of photon detection
out
g11 = component of metric tensor outside of laboratory in a place of photon emission
• Redshift of light which comes to Earth from the Sun
out
∗ g11
z = −1
lab
g11
−1 −1
  2GM    2GM 
g out
11 = 1 −  2 S  , lab
g
11 = 1 −  2 E 
  c R S    c R E 
 2GMS   2GM E 
 2  ≈ 4.3 ⋅ 10− 6 ,  2  ≈ 1.4 ⋅ 10−9
 c RS   c RE 
1  2GM  1  2GM  1  2GM  2GM 

z∗ ≈  2 S  −  2 E  −  2 S  2 E  ≈ 2.15 ⋅ 10− 6
2  c R S  2  c R E  4  c R S  c R E 
Sun-light redshift is a local effect, thats why for components of metric tensor we used
equations right for exterior Schwarzschild metric, which depends on local mass sources and
their sizes. Also we assumed that given light source is located either on Sun or Eartth surface.
• Redshift of light which comes to Earth from a distant galaxy
out
g11
z∗ = −1
lab
g11
−1
 r2 
g out
11 = 1 − 2 
 R 
−1
  2GM  1
g lab
= 1 −  2 Earth  ≈
1 − 1.4 ⋅ 10 − 9
11
  c R Earth 
 2GM 
1 −  2 Earth 
 c R Earth  1 − 1.4 ⋅ 10− 9
z∗ = −1 ≈ −1
r2 r2
1− 2 1− 2
R R
On a next page there is a graph of redshift (z*) dependence on the distance (r) of the source
from the center of Our Universe, (R) is the radius of Our Universe.
45
Z*
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
r/R
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Diagram that shows dependence of redshift (z*) versus the distance (r) of the source from the
center of Our Universe. [Attension: (z*) has negative values for ratio (r/R) approximate less
than 3.74·10–5.]
Below let’s estimate redshift (z*) for case, when ( r 2 << R 2 ).
1 − 1.4 ⋅ 10 −9 1 1
z∗ ≈ −1 ≈ −1 = −1
2 2
r r r r
1− 2 1− 2 1− ⋅ 1+
R R R R
1
−
 r 2 1 r
1 −  ≈1+ ⋅
 R 2 R
1 r
1+ ⋅
z∗ = 2 R −1
r
1+
R
r
1+ ≈1
R
1 r
z∗ ≈ ⋅
2 R
46
• Hubble’s law
First let’s remind a definition of redshift (z) which bases on an assumption that photon
energy doesn’t depend on place of emission and changes during the movement of photon.
df E emitted − E observed E emitted

z= = −1
E observed E observed
h hc
E=hν= =
T λ
ν emitted T λ
z= − 1 = observed − 1 = observed − 1
ν observed Temitted λ emitted
Hubble’s law [7] is a result of connection between Hubble’s observations and non-relativistic
Doppler law for light.
λ observed
z= −1
λ emitted
Hubble’s observations: k H ≈ 0.81 ⋅ 10 −26 m −1 ,

z = k Hr , k H = Hubble’s coefficient
v
non-relativistic Doppler law for light: z =
c
df
v = ck H r = Hr, H = ck H ≈ 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 ≈ 2.43 ⋅ 10−18 s −1 Hubble’s law
In literature [12] given values of Hubble constant (H) are contained in wide range:
( ) (
H = 60 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 ≈ 1.944 ⋅ 10 −18 s −1 ÷ 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 ≈ 2.43 ⋅ 10−18 s −1 )
Let’s emphasize that proposed by us definition of redshift (z*) was basing on assumption
that photon energy depends on place of emission and doesn’t change during movement of
photon. Redshift values (z) and (z*) are the same.
• Radius of Our Universe according to Hubble’s observation

Knowing (z*) and (r), we can designate radius of Our Universe (R).
r
R=
2
 1 
1−  ∗ 
 z + 1
r 2 << R 2
r
R≈
2z∗
Hubble’s observations: z = k Hr , k H ≈ 0.81 ⋅ 10 −26 m −1 for H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1

z = z∗
light year ≈ 0.95 ⋅ 1016 m
47
1
R≈ ≈ 0.6 ⋅ 10 26 m ≈ 6.31 billion light years
2k H
• Average density of Our Universe according to Hubble’s observation

Now let’s calculate average density of Our Universe, using estimated above radius value
of Our Universe and equation from page 40.
3c 2 1
R= ⋅
4πG ρ
3c 2 1 3c 2 k 2H 3H 2 This density is 8 times bigger than critical density

ρ= ⋅ 2 ≈ =
4πG R πG πG of Friedman Universe.
R = R H ≈ 0.6 ⋅ 10 26 m = radius of Our Universe for H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1

ρ = ρ H = density of Our Universe for H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1
ρ F ≈ 4.97 ⋅ 10 −27 kg m 3 that is almost 3 protons per every cubic meter
ρ F = density of Friedman Universe according to [11] for H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 and
Ω = 0.47
ρ H ≈ 84.59 ⋅ 10 −27 kg ⋅ m −3 that is almost 51 protons/m3
ρH
≈ 17.02
ρF
For Hubble’s constant H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 and density parameter Ω = 0.47 density of

Black Hole Universe is over 17 times bigger than density of Friedman Universe.
Our model doesn’t require us to assume the existence of dark energy.
• Constancy of photon energy and Pound-Rebka experiment

The purpose of Pound-Rebka experiment [10] was to prove a hypothesis, that photon
energy doesn’t depend on place of emission and changes during movement in Newton’s
gravitational field. Therefore result from this hyphothesis is also: energy absorbed by atom
doesn’t depend on place of absorption.
1
hν ~
GM
1− 2
Rc
dfν emitted
z= −1
ν absorbed
1 GM
νe ~ ≈1+ 2
GM Rc
1− 2
Rc
48
1
νa ~
GM
1−
(R ± L )c2
R = distance from Earth’s center
L = distance between photon’s absorption and emission points
± plus, when emission point was closer to the center than absorption point
± minus, when emission point was further from the center than absorption point
GM  1 1 
z≈ 2 
− 
c R R ±L
GM
g= = gravitational acceleration in distance (R) from Earth’s center
R2
gL 1
z≈±
c2 1 ± L
R
L << R
gL
z≈±
c2
Last relation was confirmed experimentally by Pound and Rebka in 1960, using
Mössbauer and Doppler phenomenons. Gamma ray emiter was ( hν = 14.4 keV ) 57 Co and
57
Fe was an absorber. Emitter and absorber was located alternately, in turns. First, emitter on
botton and absorber on top, then vice-versa. Gravitational redshift was being neutralized by
Doppler shift. Energy differences of appropriate energetical atom levels of emitter and absor-
ber (which was in the same distance from the center of Eatrth) was identical.
Now let’s make analogical deduction, granted this time, that energy of photon depends on
place of emission and is constant during its migration in Schwarzschild gravitational field.
Let’s notice that energy absorbed by atom also depends on place of absorbtion.
2GM
hν ~ 1 −
Rc 2
df E absorbed − E emitted E absorbed ν

z∗ = = − 1 = absorbed − 1
E emitted E emitted ν emitted
2GM GM
ν absorbed ~ 1 − ≈ 1−
(R ± L )c 2
(R ± L )c2
1 1 GM
~ ≈1+ 2
ν emitted 2GM Rc
1− 2
Rc
R = distance from Earth’s center
L = distance between photon’s absorption and emission points
± plus, when emission point was closer to the center than absorption point
± minus, when emission point was further from the center than absorption point
49
GM  1 1 
z∗ ≈ 2 
− 
c R R ±L
GM
g= = gravitational acceleration in distance (R) from Earth center
R2
gL 1
z∗ ≈ ±
c2 1 ± L
R
L << R
gL
z∗ ≈ ±
c2
Pound-Rebka experiment does not settle which hypothesis is correct.
Quoted works
[1] A. Einstein: Über den Einfluß der Schwerkraft auf die Ausbreitung des Lichtes. Annalen
der Physik 35, 10 (1911) 898-908.
[2] N. Bohr: On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules. Part I. Philosophical Magazine 26
(1913) 1-24.
Niels Bohr: On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules. Part II. Systems Containing Only a
Single 7ucleus. Philosophical Magazine 26 (1913) 476-502.
(1916) 189-196.
[4] A. Friedman: Über die Krümmung des Raumes. Zeitschrift für Physik 10, 6 (1922) 377-
386.
[5] A. Friedmann: Über die Möglichkeit einer Welt mit konstanter negativer Krümmung des
Raumes. Zeitschrift für Physik 21, 5 (1924) 326-332.
[6] G. E. Lemaître: Un univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant, rendant
compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques. Annales de la Société
Scientifique de Bruxelles A 47 (1927) 29-39.
[7] E. P. Hubble: A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-galactic
7ebulae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
15, 3 (March 15, 1929) 168-173.
[8] H. P. Robertson: On the Foundations of Relativistic Cosmology. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 15, 11 (11/1929) 822-829.
[9] A. G. Walker: On Milne’s theory of world-structure. Proceedings of London
Mathematical Society 42 (1937) 90-127.
[10] R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.: Apparent weight of photons. Physical Review Letters
4, 7 (April 1, 1960) 337-341.
[11] J. H. Oort: The Density of the Universe. Astronomy & Astrophysics 7 (09/1970) 405-
407.
[12] N. Jackson: The Hubble Constant. arXiv:0709.3924v1 [astro-ph]
[13] Z. Osiak: Energy in Special Relativity. http://viXra.org/abs/1512.0449
[14] Z. Osiak: Szczególna Teoria Względności (Special Theory of Relativity).
50
13 EARTH GRAVITATIOAL FIELD AD UIVERSE GRAVITATIOAL
FIELD
• Influence of gravitational field on space and time distances

Gravitational fields studied by us can be clearly characterized by time-time component of
metric tensor.
In big distances from the center of Our Universe, spacetime metric
 r2 
(g )44 Universe = 1 − 2 
 R 
  Universe
has different form than locally near Earth
 r 
(g )44 Earth = 1 − S
 r


.
 Earth
From above equations results, that:

1. In cosmological scale: the further from Earth, the stronger gravitational field is. Locally
near Earth we observe opposite situation.
2. Space distance between two closely placed events is the greater, the stronger gravitational
field is.
r ↓ ⇒ g11 ( ) (dr )
Earth
2
↑ ( )
r ↑ ⇒ g11 Universe (dr )2 ↑ (g ) = (g )
11 44
−1
This phenomenon can be called „gravitational dilatation of space distance”.

3. Time distance between two closely placed events is the lower, the stronger gravitational
field is.
r ↓ ⇒ g 44 ( ) (cdt )
Earth
2
↓ ( )
r ↑ ⇒ g 44 Universe (cdt )2 ↓
This phenomenon can be called „gravitational dilatation of time distance”.
• Local properties of redshift

Let’s designate the distance (r0) from the center of Our Universe, which is needed for
given light source that is emitting photons with the same energy as identical source located on
Earth surface. In this purpose we will equate time-time componets of metric tensors that
characterize accordingly: Universe and Earth gravitational fields.
r02 rSE
1− = 1 −
R 2U RE
rSE = Schwarzschild radius for Earth

R E = radius of Earth
R U = radius of Our Universe
51
rSE
r0 = ⋅ RU
RE
rSE
≈ 3.74 ⋅ 10 − 5 , R U ≈ 0.6 ⋅ 10 26 m , light year ≈ 0.95 ⋅ 1016 m
RE
r0 ≈ 2.245 ⋅ 1021 m ≈ 2.363 ⋅ 105 light years = 236300 light years
In distance (r0) from the center of Our Universe, time-time component of metric tensor is
equal to analogical component on Earth surface.
• Conclusions
1. In a distance from the center of Earth, approximately equal to (r0) redshift (z*) measured in
regard to Our Planet changes sign from negative to positive.
2. Light that comes to Earth from Our Galaxy, which radius is around 50000 ly, and its
thickness around 12000 ly, should be shifted towards violet in regard to the light emitted on
the surface of Earth. Wherein negative value of reshift (z*) should depend on the direction of
observation.
52
14 OLBERS PARADOX
• Olbers paradox
Olbers’ paradox, also called photometric paradox, was formulated by Olbers in 1826 [1]:
„If universe is static, homogeneous and infinite in time and space, then why sky at night is
dark?”
Olbers tried to explain this paradox, assuming that interstellar matter is absorbing light
that is heading towards Earth.
......According to commonly accepted idea, formulated within the frames of Friedman’s ex-
panding universe theory [2, 3] and based on it hypothesis about Bing Bang, sky at night is
dark, because age of universe is finite and light from distant stars didn’t manage to reach us
yet, in addition its spectrum is redshifted.
In my view, above statement is wrong in a part reffering to the age of universe. According
to this statement, sky at night should get brighter over time. In turn, redshift can be explained
within the scope of other hypotheses.
• Probability of photon hitting Earth

Portion of photons that come to Earth at night is only a negligable amount of all photons,
especially photons emitted in very far distances from Earth in comparision with Earth radius.
Dividing by 4π Earth’s solid angle of view from the emission point of a photon, denoted
by (α), we obtain the probability that the photon „hit” the Earth.
2πR 2E
R E << r ⇒ α ≈
r2
α 1 R 2E
R E << r ⇒ ≈
4π 2 r 2
R E ≈ 6.371 ⋅ 106 m
r ≈ 0.6 ⋅ 10 26 m
2
α 1 R 2E 1  6.371 ⋅ 106 m 
≈ =   ≈ 1.388 ⋅ 10 − 40
4π 2 r 2
2  0.6 ⋅ 10 m 
26
Probability that photon emitted on the edge of Our Universe will „hit” Earth is only
1.388 ⋅ 10 −40 .
• Bohr hydrogen atom in Our Universe

Below we will serve a formula for hydrogen atom energy in Our Universe, when electron
is on n-th allowed (stationary) orbit.
Ê n = g in44 E n
1
En = E1
n2
53
1
Ê n = 2
g in44 E1
n
E1 = − 13.6 eV
4πGρ 2 GM 2 rS 2 r2
g =1−
in
44 r = 1− 2 3 r = 1− r =1− 2
3c 2 cR 2R 3 R
R = R H ≈ 0.6 ⋅ 10 m = Our Universe radius for H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1
26
1 1 r2 1 r2
Ê n = − g in
44 13.6 eV = − 1 − 13.6 eV = − 1 − 13.6 eV
n2 n2 R2 n2 0.36 ⋅ 1052 m 2
En = energy on n-th stationary orbit in the absence of gravitational field

Ê n = energy on n-th stationary orbit of hydrogen atom which is in distance (r) from the
center of Our Universe
g in44 = component of metric tensor of gravitational field in distance (r) from the center of
Our Universe
r = distance of photon emission place from the center of Our Universe
M = mass of Our Universe
R = radius of Our Universe
ρ = density of Our Universe
c = speed of light in vacuum
rS = Schwarzschild radius of Our Universe
EXAMPLE
In what distance from Earth should hydrogen atom be, so that energy of emitted photon which
correspond in Earth conditions to shortwave edge of Lyman series (13.6 eV) was equal to
maximal energy which correspond in Earth conditions to infrared radiation (1.59 eV)?
r2
1.59 eV = 1 − 13.6 eV
R2
r
≈ 0 .9
R
Light emitted by hydrogen atoms on the edges of Our Universe ( r ≈ 0.9 ⋅ R ) lies completly in
infrared.
REMIDER
Infrared radiation (Infrared) are photons with energies from 1.24 ⋅10-3 eV to 1.59 eV
• Illuminance of Earth surface at night

Luminous intensity of Earth’s horizontal surface by starry sky at night is 3 ⋅ 10 −4 lx [4,
page 204].
54
To appoint Earth’s horizontal surface luminous intensity caused by the starry sky at night
with light emitted by hydrogen atoms, let’s hypothetically assume that there are 51 hydrogen
atoms in every cubic meter of Our Universe. Also let’s take into account energy correspon-
ding to given spectral line, which would be emitted by hydrogen atom in Earth conditions,
fraction of hydrogen atoms that in a time unit emitt photons which correspond to given
spectral line, probability for a photon hitting the Earth and redshift.
1 ρH R 2E r2
dIi = ⋅ ⋅ 4 πr 2
dr ⋅ E ⋅ η ⋅ ⋅ 1 −
4πR 2E m H
i i
2r 2 R2
R
π ρH
Ii = E i ηi ∫ R 2 − r 2 dr
2 mH R R Z
π Rρ H
Ii ≈ E i ηi
8 mH
In the end, for the Earth’s horizontal surface luminous intensity by the starry sky at night,
we will get below formula:
π Rρ H
I ≈ ∑ Ii = ∑E η
8 mH
i i
i i
Ii = Earth’s horizontal surface luminous intensity at night, with light emitted by hydro-
gen atoms corresponding to given spectral line
I = Earth’s horizontal surface luminous intensity by the starry sky at night
4πR 2E = Earth surface area
ρH
= amount of hydrogen atoms in one cubic meter
mH
4πr 2dr = spherical shell volume with thickness dr
E i = energy corresponding to given spectral line which would be emitted by hydrogen
atom in Earth conditions
ηi = fraction of hydrogen atoms which emit (in time unit) photons corresponding to
given spectral line
[η] = s−1
2πR 2E
= probability that photon will hit Earth
r2
r2
1− = time-time component of Our Universe metric tensor
R2
ρH = Our Universe density
m H = hydrogen atom mass
R E = Earth radius
R = Our Universe radius
r = distance from the center of Our Universe
55
Quoted works
[1] H. W. M. Olbers: Über die Durchsichtigkeit des Weltraums. Berliner astronomisches
Jahrbuch für das Jahr 1826.
[2] A. Friedman: Über die Krümmung des Raumes. Zeitschrift für Physik 10, 6 (1922) 377-
386.
[3] A. Friedmann: Über die Möglichkeit einer Welt mit konstanter negativer Krümmung des
Raumes. Zeitschrift für Physik 21, 5 (1924) 326-332.
[4] Szczepan Szczeniowski: Fizyka doświadczalna. Część IV. Opyka. (Experimental physics.
Part IV. Optics.) PWN, Warszawa 1963.
56
15 MICROVAWE BACKGROUD RADIATIO
• Background radiation
Background radiation is a microwave radiation that corresponds to 2.7 Kelvin degree
temperature, which comes to Earth almost equally from all directions. It’s being called relict
radiation or residual radiation.
Background radiation was discovered by Penzias and Wilson in 1965 [2]. Back then, they
were working for Bell Laboratories, probing a radio connection with satelittes. In that purpose
they were using 6 meter directional antenna. Noise popping out from that antenna was proven
to be a microwave isotropic background radiation.
Detailed studies of cosmic microwave background radiation has been done with instru-
ments which was placed on a COBE satelitte. Cosmic Background Explorer has been laun-
ched on 18 November 1989. Initial results of measurements were known two months later [3].
It turned out that spectrum of cosmic microwave background radiation is almost identical
with spectrum of black body radiation with 2.735 Kelvin degree temperature with 0.06 K
error margin. According to other data from COBE [4, 5] there is a quadrupole effect in Our
Galaxy, and there are only negligible fluctuactions in spatial distribution of background radia-
tion temperature.
• Background radiation in Big-Bang theory

According to commonly accepted opinion, discovery of cosmic microwave background
radiation confirms hypothesis about existence of relict radiation as remant of Big Bang. Such
hypothesis was first formulated by Gamov in 1948 [1].
• Background radiation in Black Hole Universe

We postulate that cosmic microwave background radiation in black hole with maximal
anti-gravity halo universe model, are photons emitted by atoms and molecules which are on
the edges of Our Universe.
EXAMPLE
Here we will use expression (given in the chapter 12 of this lecture) for energy of hydrogen
atom in Our Universe, when electron is on a n-th allowed (stationary) orbit.
1 r2
Ê n = − 2 1 − 2 13.6 eV
n R
Ê n = energy on n-th stationary orbit of hydrogen atom which is in distance r from the
center of Our Universe
r = photon emission distance from the center of Our Universe
What distance from Earth is needed for hydrogen atom, so that energy of emitted photon
which in Earth conditions corresponds to shortwave Lyman series limit (13.6 eV) was equal
to energy 6.6 ⋅ 10−4 eV , which in Earth conditions corresponds to maximum radiation
intensity of black body that is in 2,7 Kelvin degree temperature?
−4
r2
6.6 ⋅ 10 eV = 1 − 13.6 eV , r ≈ 0.999999999 ⋅ R
R2
57
REMIDIG
Microwaves correspond to photons with energies from 4.14 ⋅ 10−6 eV to 1.24 ⋅ 10 −3 eV .
Quoted works
[1] G. Gamow: The Evolution of the Universe. Nature 162, 4122 (October 30, 1948) 680-682.
[2] A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson: A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080
MHz. Astrophysical Journal 142 (07/1965) 419-421.
[3] COBE Group: J. C. Mather and his co-workers: A Preliminary Measurements of the
Cosmic Microwave Background Spectrum by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
Satellite. Astrophysical Journal Letters 354 (May 10, 1990) L37-L40.
[4] COBE Group: G. F. Smoot and his co-workers: First results of the COBE satellite
measurement of the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Advances in
Space Research 11, 2 (1991) 193-205.
[5] COBE Group: G. F. Smoot and his co-workers: Structure in the COBE differential
microwave radiometer first-year maps. Astrophysical Journal 396, 1 (September 1, 1992) L1-
L5.
58
16 AVERAGE UIVERSE DESITY I FRIEDMA’S THEORY
• Critical density
Critical density of universe in Friedman theory [2] is a density, where universe becomes
spatially flat.
3H 2 3H 2
ρc = =
κc 4 8πG
H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 ≈ 2.43 ⋅ 10−18 s −1

8πG − 43 s2 m m
κ= = 2.073 ⋅ 10 , c = 2.99792458 ⋅108 ≈ 3 ⋅108
c4 kg ⋅ m s s
kg
ρc ≈ 1.058 ⋅ 10 − 26
m3
• Density parameter and current average density of Friedman’s universe

Density parameter we call the ratio of current average density (ρF) of Friedman Universe
to critical density (ρc).
df ρF
Ω=
ρc
Knowing the value of density parameter and critical density, we can state current average den-
sity of Friedman Universe.
ρ F = Ωρc
Ω = 0.47 according to [1]

kg
ρc ≈ 1.058 ⋅ 10 − 26 3
m
kg
ρ F ≈ 4.97 ⋅ 10 − 27 that is almost 3 protons per cubic meter
m3
• Dark energy
Interpretation of observattional data within Friedman’s Model of Universe forced cosmo-
logists to hypothesise about existence of dark energy.
ATTETIO
For H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 density of Universe in Our Model is over 17 times bigger than in
Friedman’s Model of Universe. Our Model doesn’t require us to assume existence of dark
energy.
Quoted works
[1] J. H. Oort: The Density of the Universe. Astronomy & Astrophysics 7 (09/1970) 405-407.
59
17 ATI-GRAVITY I OTHER MODELS OF UIVERSE
• Gravitational acceleration of free particle corresponding with F-L-R-W metric [1]
µ ν
~ α
( )
2 ~ α dx dx
a grav&iner = − sgn ds c k Γ µν
2
ds ds
sgn ds 2 ≤ 0
~ α
agrav µ ν
α dx dx
~ = Γµν
& iner
c2 k ds ds
~ 1
agrav &iner µ ν
1 dx dx
~ = Γ µν =
c2 k ds ds
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 dx dx 1 dx dx 1 dx dx 1 dx dx
= Γ11 + Γ12 + Γ13 + Γ14 +
ds ds ds ds ds ds ds ds
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4
+ Γ 21 + Γ 22 + Γ 23 + Γ 24 +
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4
+ Γ 31 + Γ 32 + Γ 33 + Γ 34 +
4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4
+ Γ 41 + Γ 42 + Γ 43 + Γ 44
α
Expressions for Γµν come from [1].
[(
ds 2 = B 2 L2 dx 1 ) + (dx ) + (dx ) ] + (dx )
2 2 2 3 2 4 2
x 4 = ict , L = L( t ) = dimensionless time scale factor
B=
1
2 2
Lr
=
1
r 2
=
1
1 + 4 kr
1 2
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
2
, r 2 = x1 + x 2 + x 3 , k=
1
a2
1 + 14 2 2 1 + 14 2
La a
2
a = square of nonrescaled constant radius of space curvature
1
sgn k = sgn 2 = − 1, 0, + 1
a
1
−
 B2 L2  dx1   dx 2   dx 3   
2 2 2 2
γ F = 1 − 2   +   +    
 c  dt   dt   dt   
ds = icγ −F1dt
1
~ ~ 2 1 ∂L dx
&iner = −2kγ F +
1
a grav
L ∂t dt
~  1  dx dx dx dx dx 3 dx 3  dx1  1 dx1 dx 3 
1 1 2 2
dx 2
− kB2 kγ 2F  x1  + + − x + x2 + x3 
 dt dt  dt  
 2  dt dt dt dt  dt dt dt 
60
Now let’s determine physical component of gravitational acceleration of free particle in spa-
cetime with F-L-R-W metric.
~ α
g11 ~ α
â grav &iner = agrav &iner
g11 = B2 L2
~ α ~α
âgrav & iner = BL a grav & iner
1
~ ~ 2 ∂L dx
&iner = −2kγ F B +
1
â grav
∂t dt
  1 1 dx 2 dx 2 dx 3 dx 3  dx1  1 dx1
3 ~ 2 1 1  dx dx 2 dx
2 3
3 dx 

− kB Lkγ F  x + +  −  x +x +x 
 dt dt  dt  dt 
 2  dt dt dt dt dt dt
In case of spatially flat spacetime (k = 0):
1
~ ~ 2 ∂L dx ∂L ~
& iner = −2k γ F , γ 2F > 0, k = +1
1
âgrav
∂t dt ∂t
Let’s notice, that
dx1 dx1
>0 ⇒ ~ 1
âgrav & iner < 0 <0 ⇒ ~ 1
âgrav & iner > 0
dt dt
From the relation between signs of velocity components and gravitational acceleration of free
particle, emerges that occurrence of gravity or anti-gravity depends on the velocity direction
of test particle in spatially flat Friedman Universe.
• Gravitational acceleration of free particle corresponding with metric of simple model

of expanding spacetime [1]
µ ν
~ α
(
a grav&iner = − sgn ds c k Γ µν
2
)
2 ~ α dx dx
ds ds
sgn ds 2 ≤ 0
~ α
agrav µ ν
α dx dx
~ = Γµν
& iner
c2 k ds ds
~ 1
agrav&iner dx µ dx ν
1
~ = Γ µν =
c2k ds ds
dx1 dx1 dx1 dx 2 dx1 dx 3 dx1 dx 4
= Γ111 + Γ112 + Γ113 + Γ114 +
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4
+ Γ 21 + Γ 22 + Γ 23 + Γ 24 +
61
dx 3 dx1 dx 3 dx 2 dx 3 dx 3 dx 3 dx 4
+ Γ131 + Γ132 + Γ133 + Γ134 +
dx 4 dx1 dx 4 dx 2 dx 4 dx 3 dx 4 dx 4
+ Γ141 + Γ142 + Γ143 + Γ144
α
Expressions for Γµν come from [1].
ds 2 = L2 dx 1[( ) + (dx ) + (dx ) + (dx ) ]

2 2 2 3 2 4 2
x 4 = ict , L = L( t ) = dimensionless time scale factor

1
−
 1  dx1  2  dx 2  2  dx 3  2   2
γ = 1 − 2   +   +     , ds = icLγ −1dt
 c 
  dt   dt   dt   
1
~ ~ 2 1 ∂L dx
& iner = −2k γ
1
agrav
L3 ∂t dt
Let’s now determine physical component of gravitational acceleration of free particle in spa-
cetime with metric that represents a metric of a simple expanding spacetime model.
~ α
g11 ~ α
â grav &iner = agrav &iner
g11 = L2
~ α ~α
âgrav & iner = L a grav & iner
1
~ ~ 2 1 ∂L dx 1 ∂L ~
& iner = −2 kγ , γ2 2 > 0, k = +1
1
agrav
L ∂t dt
2
L ∂t
Let’s notice, that
dx1 dx1
>0 ⇒ ~ 1
âgrav & iner < 0 <0 ⇒ ~ 1
âgrav & iner > 0
dt dt
From the relation between signs of velocity components and gravitational acceleration of free
particle, emerges that occurrence of gravity or anti-gravity depends on the velocity direction
of test particle in spacetime with metric that represents a metric of a simple model of expan-
ding spacetime.
Quoted works
62
18 OUR UIVERSE AS A EISTEI’S SPACE
• Other form of field equations – Our Universe as an Einstein’s space
 1  8πG − 43 s2
R αβ = κ Tαβ − g αβT  , κ= = 2.073 ⋅ 10
 2  c4 kg ⋅ m
g12 = g 21 = g13 = g 31 = g14 = g 41 = g 23 = g 32 = g 24 = g 42 = g 34 = g 43 = 0

1
g 11 = , g 22 = r 2 , g 33 = r 2sin 2θ
g 44
4
1 df
1 1
Tαα = g ααρc2 , T = ∑ g ααTαα = 2ρc 2 , Tαα − g αα T = − g ααρc 2
2 α =1 2 2
R 12 = R 21 = R 13 = R 31 = R 14 = R 41 = R 23 = R 32 = R 24 = R 42 = R 34 = R 43 = 0
1  1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44 
2
R 11 = +
g 44  r ∂r 2 ∂r 2 
∂g 44
R 22 = −1 + g 44 + r
∂r
 ∂g 
R 33 = sin 2θ  − 1 + g 44 + r 44 
 ∂r 
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44 
2
R 44 = g 44  + 
 r ∂r 2 ∂ r 2 
 
R αα = − 12 ρc2 κg αα , R µν = 0, (α, µ, ν = 1,2,3,4; µ ≠ ν)
Spacetime described by above equations, in which every component of Ricci tensor is pro-
portional to adequate component of metric tensor is an Einstein’s space [1]. So spacetime of
Our Universe is an Einstein’s space.
ATTETIO
All mixed components of Ricci tensor are always equal to zero. Set of remaining equations
can be reduced only to two independent variables.
1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44
2
1
+ = − κρc 2
R11 = − 12 ρc2 κg11 r ∂r 2 ∂r 2
2
⇒
R 22 = − 12 ρc2 κg 22 ∂g 44 1
− 1 + g 44 + r = − κr 2ρc 2
∂r 2
Quoted works
[1] А. З. Петров: Пространства Эйнштейна. Физматгиз, Москва 1961.
There is an English translation of the above book:
A. Z. Petrov: Einstein Spaces. Pergamon Press, Oxford 1969.
63
19 ASSUMPTIOS
• Main postulates of General Relativity
General Theory of Relativity (General Relativity) studies conclusions that emerge from
assumptions:
1. Maximum speed of signals propagation is the same in every frame of reference.
2. Definitions of physical quantities and physics equations can be formulated in a way so that
their overall forms are the same in all frames of reference.
3. Spacetime metric depends on density distribution of source masses.
4. Inertial mass is equal to gravitational mass.
• 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field

Stationary gravitational field is a 2-potential field:
∂E ~
= 0 , rotE = 0 Ein = gradϕin = − kgradϕin , 0 ≤ r < R , lim ϕin = 0
∂t ⇒ ~
r →0
rot gradϕ = 0 E = − gradϕ = − k gradϕ , r ≥ R , lim ϕex = 0

ex ex ex
r →∞

k=
• Poisson’s equation and 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field
∂E
=0 Poisson’s equation
∂t
~
Ein = − kgradϕin ~
Gauss law: ∆ϕin = 4πkGρ = −4πGρ
divEin = −4πGρ
In empty space, outside of a mass source, right side of
divαA = αdivA + Agradα
Poisson’s equation is equal to zero.
div gradϕ = ∇ 2ϕ = ∆ϕ
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 Laplace’s equation
∆= + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∆ = Laplace operator ∆ϕex = 0
laplacian
• Signes of right sides of Poisson’s and Einstein’s equations and boundary conditions
In Newton's theory of gravity, boundary conditions for the gravitational potentials
0 ≤ r < R, lim ϕin = 0

r →0
r ≥ R, lim ϕex = 0
r →∞
in spherical coordinates correspond to the following forms of Poisson’s equation
64
∂ 2ϕin 2 ∂ϕ
in
1 ∂ 2ϕin 1 ∂ 2ϕin 1 ∂ϕin
0 ≤ r < R, + ⋅ + 2 2 ⋅ + ⋅ + ctgθ ⋅ = −4πGρ
∂ r2 r ∂ r r sin θ ∂ ϕ2 r 2 ∂ θ2 r 2 ∂θ
∂ 2ϕex 2 ∂ϕ
ex
1 ∂ 2ϕex 1 ∂ 2ϕex 1 ∂ϕex
r ≥ R, + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ctgθ ⋅ =0
∂ r2 r ∂ r r 2sin 2θ ∂ ϕ2 r 2 ∂ θ2 r 2 ∂θ
Equivalents of those relations in General Relativity are:
0 ≤ r < R, lim g 44 = 1
r →0
r ≥ R, lim g 44 = 1
r →∞
 1 
0 ≤ r < R, R µν = κ  Tµν − g µν T 
 2 
r ≥ R, R µν = 0
Signes of right sides of Poisson’s and Einstein’s equations depend on assumed boundary con-
ditions, which are connected with 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field.
• Hypothesis about memory of photons

We assume that energy of photon depends on point in spacetime, where that photon was
emitted and it stays constant during the movement. It means that photons have „memory”, or
more scholarly – energy of photon is invariant. Wherein, in stronger gravitational field, given
source should send photons with lower energy than the same source in weaker gravitational
field.
Photon energy, mitted in certain point of spacetime, is given by equation:
E max
E=
g11
E max = photon energy emitted in nondeformed spacetime

g11 = component of metric tensor in photon’s emission point
65
20 STABILITY OF THE MODEL
• Stability of the model
In order for proposed by me model was real, we should additionally assume that, each
element of Universe moves in such way, so that it guarantees its stability. It’s possible when
gravitational acceleration ~ r
agrav acts as a centripetal acceleration ~ r
acent .
~ r
agrav =~ r
acent
~ c2
r
agrav =− 2 r (page 30)
R
3c2 1
R= ⋅ (page 40)
4πG ρ
~ 4
r
agrav = − πGρr
3
~
acent = −ω2 r
r
c2 4
ω = 2 = πGρ
2
R 3
2π
ω=
T
4π2 R 3π
T2 = =
c2 Gρ

r = distance from the center of Our Universe
c = maximal speed of signals propagation
ω = angular velocity of circulation of given element around the center of Our Universe
ρ = density of Our Universe
T = period of circulation of given element around the center of Our Universe
It follows from the foregoing that period of circulation of given element around the center of
Our Universe does not depend on the distance from the center.
• Gravitational Gauss law and galaxies

Performing analogical calculations for given galaxy, within the limits of Newton’s gravi-
tation theory, we will get that: period of circulation of given star around the galactic center
does not depend on distance (r) of this element from the center. In below calculations we as-
sumed that galaxy is a ball with constant density (ρ), and star with mass (m) interacts gravita-
tionally with part of galaxy with radius (r) (according to Gauss law, gravitational interactions
with the remaining part of galaxy is eliminated).
66
The force of gravity Fgrav act as centripetal force Fcent .
Fgrav = Fcent
GMm
Fgrav = (Newton’s gravity force)
r2
4 3
M= πr ρ
3
4
Fgrav = πGmr
3
Fcent = mω2 r (centripetal force)
4
ω2 = πGρ
3
2π
ω=
T
3π
T2 =
Gρ
R = radius of galaxy
r = distance from the galaxy center
M = part of galaxy mass with radius r
m = mass of given star
ρ = galaxy density
ω = angular velocity of circulation of given star around the galactic center
T = period of circulation of given star around the galactic center
67
21 MAI RESULTS
• Hypothesis about existence of anti-gravity
Quadratic differential form of spacetime can be interpreted as square of spacetime distan-
ces of two points, called „events”, that are located very close to each other in spacetime. Spa-
cetime distance between two events is not a magnitude that can be directly measured, because
we don’t have „4 dimensional rulers”. Also, depending on the sign of the quadratic differen-
tial form of spacetime, spacetime distances can be imaginary or real.
Sign change (from negative to positive) of quadratic differential form of spacetime means
transition from gravity to anti-gravity.
ds 2 < 0 ⇔ GRAVITY
ds 2 > 0 ⇔ ANTI - GRAVITY
• Black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo

It has been shown that exterior (vacuum) solution of gravitational field equations, which
has been served by Schwarzschild in 1916, hides anti-gravity. Spatial radius of black hole
with maximal anti-gravity halo is equal to half of Schwarzschild radius. Space outside of the
black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo consists of two layers, in first ( 0.5 rS ≤ r < rS ) anti-
gravity occurs, in second ( r > rS ) – gravity. Thickness of anti-gravity layer is equal to the
spatial radius of black hole with maximal anti-gravity layer. Inside this anti-gavity layer, ac-
celeration is pointed away from the center of mass source, in gravitational part – to the center.
• Hypothesis about 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field

Acceptance of hypothesis about 2-potential nature of stationary gravitational field made it
possible to find interior solution for field equations that correspond with gravitational Gauss
law and also made it possible to accomplish a modification of field equations.
• Field equations contain equations of motion

Has been justified that equations of motion of free test particle are contained in gravitatio-
nal field equations (that is in spacetime metric equations).
• Black Hole model of Our Universe

Our Universe can be treated as a gigantic homogeneous black hole with spatial radius
equal to half of Schwarzschild radius. It is isolated from the rest of universe with an area of
spacetime where anti-gravity occurs.
Our Galaxy, together with Solar system and Earth, which in cosmological scales can be
viewed only as a small point, should be located near the center of Black Hole Universe. Let’s
emphasize again, that in the center of black hole, gravitational acceleration of free test partic-
le, ignoring local gravitational fields, is equal to zero. In other words: black hole is not crea-
ting gravitational field in its center.
The gravitational field is stronger, the space is more stretched. For Earth observer, the
local space with increasing distance from Earth is becoming less stretched. In cosmic scale we
have different situation: the further away from the Earth, the space is more stretched.
68
• Size of Our Universe
For H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 radius of Our Universe has value:
R ≈ 0.6 ⋅ 1026 m ≈ 6.31 ⋅ 109 light years
In a distance from the center of Earth approximate equal to:
r0 ≈ 2.245 ⋅ 10 21 m ≈ 2.363 ⋅ 105 light years = 236300 light years
redshift measured in regard to our planet, changes its sign from negative to positive.
Light that comes to Earth from Our Galaxy (which radius is around 50,000 light years and
thickness is around 12,000 light years) should be shifted towards violet in regard to light that
is emitted on Earth surface. Wherein negative value of redshift should depend on direction of
observation.
• Density of Our Universe

For H = 75 km ⋅ s −1 ⋅ Mpc −1 density of Universe in Our Model is over 17 times bigger than
in Friedman Universe Model and is: ρ = 84.59 ⋅ 10 −27 kg ⋅ m −3 , that almost 51 protons per cu-
bic meter.
ATTETIO
Our Model doesn’t require assumption about existence of dark energy.
• Photon paradox
Commonly accepted assumption, that photon energy doesn’t depend on place of emis-
sion, leads to a paradox. In spacetimes other than conformally flat, length and oscillation pe-
riod of electromagnetic wave modelled by photon depends in different way on respective
components of metric tensor. However photon energy depends on length or period in analogi-
cal way (that is inversely proportional).
• Hypothesis about memory of photons

Within the model of Our Universe as a black hole with maximum anti-gravity halo, hypo-
thesis about memory of photons explains:
1. photon paradox,
2. Olbers’ photometric paradox,
3. redshift dependence on the distance from Earth:
A. nonlinear growth of redshift for big distances from Earth,
B. existence of distance from Earth, where redshift changes its sign from negative to positi-
ve,
4. origin of cosmic microwave background radiation,
5. why hypothesis about existence of dark energy is unnecessary.
ATTETIO
It should be highlighted that Pound-Rebka experiment doesn’t exlude hypothesis about me-
mory of photons.
• Our Universe is an Einstein’s space

It has been shown that field equations which are modelling Our Universe and black hole
with maximum anti-gravity halo can be brought to a form which describe so called Einstein’s
space.
• Anti-gravity in other cosmological models

From the relation between signs of components of velocity and gravitational acceleration
of free test particle emerges that occurrence of gravity or anti-gravity depends on the direction
of velocity of test particle in spatiallly flat Friedman Universe as well as in spacetime with
metric of a simple expanding spacetime model [1].
69
• ew tests of General Relativity
To show in Earth conditions, existence of a black holes with anti-gravity halo and also 2-
potential nature of gravitational field, we need to measure ratio of distance passed by light to
the time of flight, in a vertically positioned vacuum cylinder, right under and right above the
surface of Earth (of the sea level). If the difference of squares of those measurements will be
equal to the square of escape speed, then it will prove existence of black holes with anti-gravi-
ty halo. This experiment would be a new test of General Theory of Relativity.
If Our Universe is a black hole with anti-gravity halo, then in the distance from the center
of Earth approximately equal to 236,000 light years redshift measured in regard to Our Planet
changes its sign from negative to positive. Light that comes to Earth from Our Galaxy (radius
of Milky Way is around 50,000 light years and its thickness is around 12,000 light years)
should be shifted towards violet in regard to light that is emitted on Earth. Wherein negative
value of redshift should depend on direction of observation
Quoted works
70
22 ADDITIO – MATHEMATICS
• Explicit form of Christoffel symbols of first and second kind
x1 = r , x2 = θ, x3 = ϕ , x 4 = ict ,
ds 2 = g11dr 2 + r 2dθ 2 + r 2sin 2θ dϕ2 + g 44dx 4dx 4 ,
1 1 1 1
g 11 = , g 22 = r 2 , g 33 = r 2sin 2θ , g11 = , g 22 = , g 33 = ,
g 44 g 44 r2 r sin 2θ
2
g11 = g11 (x1 )
[ ] =− 2g 1g
1 1
1
∂g 44
∂x 1
=−
1 ∂g 44
2g 44g 44 ∂r
Γ111 =
1
g11
[ ] = − 2g1
1 1
1
∂g 44
∂r
44 44 44
[ ] = − 12 ∂∂gx
2 2
1
22
1
= −r Γ22
1
=
1
g11
[ ] = −g
2 2
1 44 r
[ ] = − 12 ∂∂gx
33
1
33
1
= −r sin 2θ Γ33
1
=
1
g11
[ ] = −g
3 3
1 44 r sin 2θ
[ ]
33
2 =−
1 ∂g 33
= − r 2sinθ cosθ
Γ44
1
=
1
g11
[ ] = − 12 g
4 4
1
∂g 44
∂r
44
2 ∂x 2
[ ] = − 12 ∂∂gx
4 4 44
=−
1 ∂g 44 Γ122 = Γ212 =
1 12
g 22
2 [ ]
=
1
g 22
r=
1
r
1 1
2 ∂r
Γ332 =
1 33
[ ] =−
1 2
r sinθ cosθ = −sinθ cosθ
[ ] = [ ] = 12 ∂∂gx
12
2
21
2
22
1
=r g 22
2
g 22
Γ133 = Γ313 =
1 13
[ ]
=
1
r sin 2θ =
1
[ ] = [ ] = 12 ∂∂gx
13
3
31
3
33
1
= r sin 2θ g 33
3
g 33 r
Γ233 = Γ323 =
1 23
[ ]
=
1 2
r sinθ cosθ = ctgθ
[ ] =[ ] 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂g 44 3
14 41
= = g 33 g 33
4 4
2 ∂x1 2 ∂r
Γ144 = Γ414 =
1
[ ] = 2g1
1 4 ∂g 44
[ ] = [ ] = 12 ∂∂gx
4
g 44 ∂r
2 3
3
3 2
3
33
2
= r 2sinθ cosθ 44
• Explicit form of covariant Ricci curvature tensor
∂Γ122 ∂Γ133 ∂Γ144

R 11 = 1 + 1 + 1 + Γ122 Γ122 + Γ133 Γ133 + Γ144 Γ144 − Γ111 Γ122 − Γ111 Γ133 − Γ111 Γ144
∂x ∂x ∂x
1  1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44 
2
R 11 = +
g 44  r ∂r 2 ∂r 2 
∂Γ323 ∂Γ122
R 22 = − 1 + Γ122 Γ22
1
+ Γ233 Γ233 − Γ22
1 1
Γ11 − Γ22
1
Γ133 − Γ22
1
Γ144
∂x 2 ∂x
∂g 44
R 22 = −1 + g 44 + r
∂r
71
∂Γ133 ∂Γ 33
2
R 33 = − − + Γ133 Γ33
1
+ Γ233 Γ332 − Γ33
1 1
Γ11 − Γ33
1
Γ122 − Γ33
1
Γ144
∂x1 ∂x 2
 ∂g 
R 33 = sin 2θ  − 1 + g 44 + r 44 
 ∂r 
∂Γ1
R 44 = − 441 + Γ14 Γ 44 − Γ144 Γ111 − Γ144 Γ12
4 1 2
− Γ144 Γ13
3
∂x
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
R 44 = g 44  + 
 r ∂r 2 ∂ r 2 
 
R 12 = R 21 = 0
R 13 = R 31 = 0
R 14 = R 41 = 0
R 23 = R 32 = 0
R 24 = R 42 = 0
R 34 = R 43 = 0
• Field equations
 1  8πG − 43 s2
R αα = κ  Tαα − g αα T  , κ= = 2.073 ⋅ 10
 2  c4 kg ⋅ m
4
1 df
1 1
Tαα = g ααρc2 , T = ∑ g ααTαα = 2ρc 2 , Tαα − g αα T = − g ααρc 2
2 α =1 2 2
1  1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44 
2
∂g 44
R 11 = + , R 22 = −1 + g 44 + r
g 44  r ∂r 2 ∂r 2  ∂r
 ∂g   1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
R 33 = sin θ  − 1 + g 44 + r 44  ,
2
R 44 = g 44  + 
 ∂r   r ∂r 2 ∂ r 2 
 
1  1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44 
2
1 1
+ =− κ ρc2
g 44  r ∂r 2 ∂r 
2
2 g 44
∂g 44 1
− 1 + g 44 + r = − κr 2ρc 2
∂r 2
 ∂g  1
sin 2θ  − 1 + g 44 + r 44  = − κr 2sin 2θρc 2
 ∂r  2
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
g 44  +  = − 1 κg 44ρc 2
 r ∂r 2 
2 ∂r  2

Above four equations reduce to two equations.
72
1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ g 44
2
1
+ = − κρc 2
r ∂r 2 ∂r 2
2
∂g 44 1
− 1 + g 44 + r = − κr 2ρ c 2
∂r 2
• Curvature scalar
df
R = g αβ R αβ
R = g11R 11 + g 22 R 22 + g 33R 33 + g 44 R 44
1 1 1
g11 = 44 , g 22 = 2 , g 33 = 2 2
g r r sin θ
g11g 44 = 1
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
R 11 = g11  +  , R 22 = −1 + g 44 + r ∂g 44
 r ∂r 2 
2 ∂r  ∂r

R 33 = R 22sin 2θ , R 44 = R 11g 44g 44
∂ 2g 44 4 ∂g 44 2g 44 2
R= + + 2 − 2
∂r 2 r ∂r r r
• Field equations expressed by curvature scalar
1
R µν − g µν R = κTµν
2
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
R 11 = g11  +  , R 22 = −1 + g 44 + r ∂g 44
 r ∂r 2 ∂r 
2
∂r

R 33 = R 22sin θ , R 44 = R 11g 44g 44
2
∂ 2g 44 4 ∂g 44 2g 44 2
R= + + 2 − 2
∂r 2 r ∂r r r
8πG s 2
κ = 4 = 2.073 ⋅ 10− 43
c kg ⋅ m
1
Tαβ = g αβρc 2
2
g11g 44 = 1 , g 22 = r 2 , g 33 = r 2sin 2θ
1
R 11 − g11R = κT11
2
g11 ∂g 44 1 g11 1 2
− − 2 + 2 = ρc κg11
r ∂r r r 2
After multiplying both sides of above equations by ( − g 44 r 2 ), we get
73
∂g 44 1
r + g 44 − 1 = − ρc 2 κr 2
∂r 2
 1 
R 22 = κ T22 − g 22T 
 2 
After multiplying both sides of penultimate equation by ( sin 2θ ), we get
 ∂g  1
sin 2θ  r 44 + g 44 − 1 = − ρc 2 κr 2sin 2θ
 ∂r  2
 1 
R 33 = κ T33 − g 33T 
 2 
Now let’s examine next field equation expressed by scalar curvature.
1
R 22 − g 22 R = κT22
2
∂g 44 1 2 ∂ g 44 1 2 2
2
−r − r = ρ c κr
∂r 2 ∂r 2 2
g11
After multiplying both sides of above equations by ( − ), we get
r2
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
g11  +  = − 1 ρ c 2 κg11
 r ∂r 2 ∂r 
2
2

 1 
R 11 = κ T11 − g11T 
 2 
 1 ∂g 44 1 ∂ 2g 44 
g 44  +  = − 1 ρ c 2 κg 44
 r ∂r 2 
2 ∂r  2

 1 
R 44 = κ T44 − g 44T 
 2 
74
• Laplace operator (Laplacian) in Cartesian and spherical coordinate systems
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∆= + +
∂ x 2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2
x = r sinθ cοsϕ, y = r sinθ sinϕ, z = r cosθ
∂2 2 ∂ 1 ∂2 1 ∂2 1 ∂
∆= 2 + ⋅ + 2 2 ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2 ctgθ ⋅
∂r r ∂ r r sin θ ∂ ϕ 2
r ∂θ r ∂θ
• Used relations
dr dr dx 4 dx 4
g11 ⋅ + g 44 ⋅ =1
ds ds ds ds
1 ∂g 44 dr dr dx 4 dx 4 1 ∂g 44
− = g11Γ144 = g 44 Γ111 Γ111 ⋅ + Γ144 ⋅ =−
2 ∂r ds ds ds ds 2 ∂r
g11g 44 = 1
75
23 ADDITIO – PHYSICS
• Hydrogen spectral series in Earth conditions
Energies of photons emitted by hydrogen atom in Earth conditions are contained in the
range from 1.89 eV to 13.6 eV.
Energies of photons in Lyman series are contained in range from 10.20 eV to 13.60 eV.
Lyman series
∞
5
4
3
2
1
Energies of photons in Balmer series are contained in range from 1.89 eV to 3.40 eV.
Balmer series
∞
6
5
4
3
2
Energies of photons in Paschen series are contained in range from 0.66 eV to 1.51 eV.
Paschen series
∞
7
6
5
4
3
Energies of photons in Brackett series are contained in the range from 0.31 eV to 0.85 eV.
Brackett series
∞
7
6
5
4
Energies of photons in Pfund series are contained in range from 0.17 eV to 0.54 eV.
Pfund series
∞
9
7
6
5
76
Energies of photons in Humphreys series are contained in range from 0.10 eV to 0.38 eV.
Humphreys series
∞
10
9
7
6
• Hydrogen spectral series in Our Universe
1 1 r2
Ê n = g in
44 E1 = − 1 − 13.6 eV
n2 n2 R2
1 1 r2
Ê m = 2 g 44 E1 = − 2 1 − 2 13.6 eV
in
m m R
 1 1  r2  1 1 
Ê n → m = Ê n − Ê m = − g in44 E1  2 − 2  = 1 − 2  2 − 2  13.6 eV, n > m
m n  R  m n 

• Electromagnetic spectrum
Radio waves
correspond to photons with energies from 1.24 ⋅ 10 −11 eV to 1.24 ⋅ 10 −3 eV .
Microwaves
correspond to photons with energies from 4.14 ⋅ 10−6 eV to 1.24 ⋅ 10 −3 eV .
Light
correspond to photons of energies in the range 1.24 ⋅ 10 −3 eV ÷ 124 eV .
Infrared radiation
correspond to photons with energies from 1.24 ⋅ 10-3 eV to 1.59 eV .
Visible light
correspond to photons with energies from 1.59 eV to 3.26 eV .
Ultraviolet radiation
correspond to photons with energies from 3.26 eV to 124 eV .
X-rays
correspond to photons with energies from 124 eV to 12.4 keV.
Gamma radiation
correspond to photons of energies greater than 12.4 keV.
77
• Choosen concepts, constants and units
Speed of light in vacuum

m m
c = 2.99792458⋅108 ≈ 3 ⋅108
s s
Planck’s constant
h = 6.6260693 ⋅ 10 −34 J ⋅ s = 4.13566743 ⋅ 10 −15 eV ⋅ s
Gravitational constant
m3 −11 m
3
G = 6.6742 ⋅ 10−11 ≈ 6.7 ⋅ 10
kg ⋅ s 2 kg ⋅ s 2
Einstein’s constant
8πG − 43 s2
κ = 4 = 2.073 ⋅ 10
c kg ⋅ m
Light year (ly), distance passed by light in vacuum during average sun year
1 ly = 9.460536 ⋅ 1015 m ≈ 9.5 ⋅ 1015 m
1pc = 3.086 ⋅ 1016 m
1year = 3.156 ⋅ 107 s
Mass of proton
m p = 1.67262171⋅ 10−27 kg
Mass of the Earth

M E = M ⊕ = 5.9736 ⋅ 10 24 kg ≈ 6 ⋅ 10 24 kg
Mass of the Sun

M S = 1.9891 ⋅ 1030 kg ≈ 2 ⋅ 1030 kg
Hubble’s constant unit

km 1
= 0.324 ⋅ 10−19
s ⋅ Mpc s
Critical density of Universe in Friedman’s models expresssed by Hubble’s constant (H) and
gravitational constant (G)
3H 2 3H 2
ρc = 4 =
κc 8πG
Average radius of the Sun

R S = 0.696 ⋅ 109 m
78
Average radius of the Earth
R E = 6.371 ⋅ 106 m
Radius of Bohr hydrogen atom

R B = 0.5291772083 ⋅ 10−10 m
1 eV = 1.60217653 ⋅ 10−19 J
3c 2 4πG
≈ 0.32 ⋅ 10 27 kg ⋅ m −1 , ≈ 3.125 ⋅ 10 − 27 kg −1 ⋅ m
4πG 3c 2
79
24 ADDITIO – HISTORY
• ewton’s law of gravitation
First theory of gravitation comes from Newton. It describes in a simple way, gravitational
pull effects which occur between two material points, between two homogeneous balls, bet-
ween homogeneous ball and test particle.
According to Newton’s law, gravitational acceleration value of free particle (outside of a
mass source which homogeneous ball is) decreases inversely to the square of distance from
the center of the ball.
Isaac Newton
(1642-1727)
• Gauss law of gravitation

From gravitational Gauss law we know that gravitational acceleration value in center of
homogeneous ball with constant density is equal to zero. It grows linearly with growth of dis-
tance from the center, reaching its maximal value on a surface of a ball. With further growth
of distance – it decreases inversely squared.
Carl F. Gauss
(1777-1855)
80
• Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity
General Theory of Relativity (General Relativity) explains gravity as a result of deforma-
tion of spacetime, which depends on density distribution of source masses. The free test parti-
cles move in space along the tracks, which correspond to geodetic lines in spacetime. General
Relativity forces us to revise, inter alia, concepts such as gravitational forces, the forces of
inertia and inertial frames.
General Relativity was finally formulated by Einstein on

25 November 1915. This theory bases on four postulates:
1. Maximum speed of signals propagation is the same in

every frame of reference.
2. Definitions of physical quantities and physics equations

can be formulated in a way so that their overall forms are
the same in all frames of reference.
3. Spacetime metic depends on density distribution of

source masses.
4. Inertial mass is equal to gravitational mass.

Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)
• External (vacuum) Schwarzschild solution
Precise external (vacuum) solution for gravitational field

equations was served by Schwarzschild in 1916:
1 r
g 44 = = 1− S , r ≥ R
g11 r
M = mass of a homogeneous ball with constant density
R = radius of a ball
2GM
rS = 2 = Schwarzschild radius
c
Anti-gravity is hidden in this solution.
It is easy to see that, for r > rS sign of quadratic differen-

tial form of spacetime
Carl Schwarzschild (ds )2 = g11 (dr )2 + g 44 (dx 4 )2
(1873-1916)
is negative, and for r < rS this sign is positive.
81
25 EDIG
• Author’s reflections
I used main scheme of searching for solutions of field equations which describe anti-gra-
vity to known external (vacuum) Schwarzschild metric which was „cut” by me to only two
elements. Such heuristic approach should be treated as an initial stage in exploring anti-gra-
vity phenomenon.
As an author I’m fully aware of all imperfections and defects of a model of black hole
with anti-gravity halo and Our Universe model.
Experiments proposed by me – measurement of speed of light, over and under Earth sur-
face in vertical vacuum cylinder, and also observations of light spectrum that comes to Earth
from Our Galaxy – will confirm or disprove presented here hypotheses.
82
83
Zbigniew Osiak
I belong to a generation of physicists, whose idols
were Albert Einstein, Lev Davidovich Landau
and Richard P. Feynman. Einstein enslaved me
with the power of his intuition. I admire Landau
for reliability, precision, simplicity of his arguments
and instinctual feel for the essence of the problem.
Feynman magnetized me with the lightness
of narration and subtle sense of humor.
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Portraits (drawings) of Newton, Gauss, Einstein and Schwarzschild – Małgorzata Osiak

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Translated by Rafał Rodziewicz

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4 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD OUTSIDE MASS SOURCE 23

5 BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-GRAVITY HALO

6 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE MASS SOURCE 27

7 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-

• Spacetime metric inside black hole with maximal anti-gravity halo 29

8 GRAPHIC AALYSIS OF FULL SOLUTIO 31

9 FIELD EQUATIOS AD EQUATIOS OF MOTIO 33

11 BLACK HOLE MODEL OF OUR UIVERSE 40

13 EARTH GRAVITATIOAL FIELD AD UIVERSE GRAVITATIOAL

• Influence of gravitational field on space and time distances 51

16 AVERAGE UIVERSE DESITY I FRIEDMA’S THEORY 59

17 ATI-GRAVITY I OTHER MODELS OF UIVERSE 60

18 OUR UIVERSE AS A EISTEI’S SPACE 63

20 STABILITY OF THE MODEL 66

• Limitations for components of a metric tensor

• Cause-and-effect link between two events

g αβ dx α dx β ≤ g 44dx 4dx 4 , x 4 = ict, (α, β = 1,2,3) .

g µν ≤ 0 , (ds )2 ≥ 0 , (µ, ν = 1,2,3,4) .

Areas that fulfill above conditions, we will call physical spacetime.

there is no single pair of events that stays in cause-and-effect link.

• Relations between components of a metric tensor and local basis vectors

• Vector value expressed by physical vector components

• Cosine of an angle between local basis vectors

• Stationary metric with spatial-temporal zero-components

• Components of 4-vector expressed by components of 3-vector

• Total acceleration 4-vector

• Total acceleration 3-vector

g αβ dv α dvβ g αβ dvα dvβ

• Physical (true) components of total acceleration 3-vector

• Components of total acceleration 4-vector expressed by components of total accelera-

Postulated motion equations of a test particle has interpretation as follows:

µ ν Sum of components (corresponding

(ds )2 = g κλ dx κ dx λ + g 44dx 4dx 4 , ∂g κλ4 = 0 , ∂g 444 = 0 , (κ, λ = 1,2,3) ,

rot gradϕ = 0 E = − gradϕ = − kgradϕ , r ≥ R , lim ϕex = 0

On the surface of a ball, we have

Adopted assumptions let us reduce number of field equations to two.

Equations are fulfilled, when

Presented solutions of field equations fulfill below boundary values.

(ds )2 = 1 − rS  (dr )2 + r 2 (dθ)2 + r 2 sin 2 θ (dϕ)2 + 1 − rS (dx 4 )2 , x 4 = ict , r ≠ rS =

• Speed of light propagation and exterior Schwarzschild metric

We designate speed (v) of light propagation from condition:

It means that exterior Schwarzschild metric is correct if and only if

• Gravitational acceleration of free fall outside mass source

Taking into account, that

finally can be written in the form:

• Gravity and anti-gravity

In areas, where In areas, where

4 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD OUTSIDE MASS SOURCE 23

5 BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-GRAVITY HALO

6 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE MASS SOURCE 27

7 GRAVITATIOAL FIELD ISIDE BLACK HOLE WITH MAXIMAL ATI-

8 GRAPHIC AALYSIS OF FULL SOLUTIO 31

9 FIELD EQUATIOS AD EQUATIOS OF MOTIO 33

11 BLACK HOLE MODEL OF OUR UIVERSE 40

13 EARTH GRAVITATIOAL FIELD AD UIVERSE GRAVITATIOAL

16 AVERAGE UIVERSE DESITY I FRIEDMA’S THEORY 59

17 ATI-GRAVITY I OTHER MODELS OF UIVERSE 60

18 OUR UIVERSE AS A EISTEI’S SPACE 63

• Energy of photon in ewton’s gravitational field