Lecture 5. Phraseology of Modern English.

1. Free word-combinations and phraseological units. The essential features of

phraseological units: a) lack of semantic motivation (idiomaticity);
b) lexical and grammatical stability.
2. Approaches to the classification of the phraseological units:
a) semantic (by ac. V.V.Vinogradov);
b) functional (structural);
c) structural-semantic (by pr. A.V.Koonin);
d) thematic (etymological) (by L.P.Smith).

1. The term ‘phraseology’ (Gr.) is mostly used for describing various

structural and semantic types of phrases characterized by different degrees of
stability and idiomaticity in a given language.
Idiom (a polysemantic word) – is a mode of expression peculiar to a
language; the genus or peculiar cast of a language; dialect.
In their speech people use free word-combinations. In free word-
combinations they use syntactical patterns characteristic of a given language
according to the grammar rules of it and according to certain speech situations.
In free word-combinations each component has its meaning.
E.g.: to unite one’s efforts; step by step; first of all; to play a false game.
Besides them we use stable word-combinations. They are called
phraseological units. Phraseological units are ready-made. In them the meaning
of a whole is not derived from the meaning of its components, e.g. bosom-friend;
by heart.
Phraseological units are semantic equivalents to words. They are
semantically inseparable. The whole unit belongs to definite part of speech. Thus
phraseological units are grammatically inseparable. They are functionally
inseparable too. In sentence they make up one member; functionally they are
equivalent to words. They cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced
in speech as ready-made units.
Thus, phraseological units are ready-made word-combinations that are
semantically, grammatically and functionally inseparable.
They may be equivalent to single words and to sentences.
E.g. a dark horse (a man you know little about); Black Friday (day of rent
paying or tax-paying), etc.
Linguists abroad use such terms as: set phrases, idioms, set expressions,
collocations, word equivalents. The essential features of phraseological units
are: stability of lexical components and lack of motivation (idiomaticity).
 Stability of phraseological units implies that it exists as a ready-made
linguistic unit which does not allow of any variability of its lexical components
and grammatical structures.
Idiomaticity is the quality of phraseological unit when the meaning of the
whole is not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts.

2. Ways of classifying phraseological units.

A) The semantic classification of phraseological units was given by ac.

V.V.Vinogradov. It is called semantic because it is based on discrimination on
the meaning of the whole unit and the meanings of its components. Thus, taken
into account mainly the degree of idiomaticity, phraseological units are classified
into 3 big groups:
1) phraseological fusions;
2) phraseological unities;
3) phraseological combinations.

1) Phraseological fusions (cast-iron idioms) are completely non-motivated

word-groups. The meaning of the whole can’t be derived from the meaning of its
components. Idiomaticity is combined with complete stability of lexical
components and grammatical structure of the fusion.
E.g. to kick the bucket – to die;
to know where the shoe pinches – to know where hardship occurs;
to beat about the bush – not to speak to the point;
skeleton in the cupboard (closet) – a hidden and shocking secret.

2) Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated as their meaning can

usually be perceived through metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological
unit. E.g. to fall ill;
to lose one’s head;
to fall in love;
to feel like a fish out of water;
to get to the point.
The components of phraseological unities can’t be changed without changing
the meaning of the whole. In phraseological unities we observe the metaphorical
use of the verbs of motion and their meaning is generalized. Phraseological
unities are as a rule marked by a high degree of stability of lexical components.
E.g. to lead smb. by the nose; to kill two birds with one stone.
We can guess the meaning easily. Some are easily translated, even international.
 3) Phraseological combinations are word-groups with a partially changed
meaning, clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced
from the meaning of its constituents.
E.g. to make a mistake;
to take advice;
to do one’s duty;
to make an attempt;
to take steps;
to win a victory;
deep gratitude.
One component is often used in its direct meaning while the other is used
figuratively (metaphorically).

Some comparisons may be added to this class:

as blue as the sky; as poor as a church mouse;
as black as a crow; as pretty as a picture;
as busy as a bee; as soon as a possible;
to sleep like a baby; as stubborn as a mule;
pale as a ghost; as wise as an owl.
plain as a day;

B) The functional or structural classification is made according to

grammatical structure of phraseological units:
1) phraseological units functioning like nouns:
a) N + N: Solomon’s judgement; maiden name;
b) Adj + N: close friendship; black ingratitude;
c) N + Prep + N: snake-in-the-grass (low and deceitful person);
2) phraseological units functioning like verbs:
a) V + N: to beat the air (to try in vain); to lose the game; to take
advantage;
b) V + Prep + N: to cry for the moon; to fall into a rage;
3) phraseological units functioning like adjectives:
a) Adj + Adj: safe and sound;
b) Adj + as + Adj: as mad as a hatter.

C).The Structural – Semantic Classification of phraseological units is the

concept of A. Koonin. The main classes are based on the function the unit fulfils
in the speech.
 1) nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups which
denote things, phenomena, actions, state, quality, etc.:
crocodile tears (false grief);
odd fish;
Wall Street; (USA financial centre)
Downing Street; (British Government)
A bull in a china shop.
2) nominative-communicative. They nominate and give information:
to close one’s eyes to smth; (pretend not to see)
to fish in troubled waters; (to use the situation for one’s own sake)
to brake the ice;
to cross the Rubicon; (to take final step which may be dangerous)
3) communicative, those which inform. They are sentences, proverbs
and sayings:
The coast is clear.
Hold your horses! (be careful)
One’s heart sank into one’s boots.
4) Interjectional (neither nominative nor communicative):
e.g. Good Heavens! Oh Gosh! Come on! Wow! A pretty kettle of fish!
They express surprise, admiration, anger, annoyance, etc.

D) The Etymological or Generic Classification.

1) phraseological units originated from theatre:

E.g. to play to (for) the gallery (to try to win approval by appalling to the
taste of gallery); to be in the limelight (to receive great publicity); to pull the
strings (to control the other’s actions);

2) phraseological units originated from technics:

E.g. to get down to bed-rock (from mining – to get to know the essence); in
full blast (in progress, running without restrain = the party is in full blast); to
get up steam (зібратись з силами, набратись рішучості); at full steam
(ahead! повний хід вперед)to let off steam (to release excess energy or
anger);

3) from sport:
E.g. to keep the ball rolling (football – to keep the conversation); to hit
below the belt (boxing – to act unfairly);
 4) zoosemy:
E.g. crocodile tears (insincere); lion’s share; old fox; dark horse; let the
sleeping dogs lie.

5) from fishing:
E.g. to fish in troubled waters; to drink like fish; don’t teach fishes to swim.

6) from hunting:
E.g. to beat about the bush (to avoid answering the question); to be at a lost
or to be at a fall (lost of scent of a haunt).

7) from sea-life:
E.g. tell to that to the marines (I do not believe, maybe the marines will); to
be hard up for smth. (to be greatly in need of smth. = I was so hard up, I
couldn’t afford to buy food);

8) from folklore:
E.g. to cry wolf (to give alarm without reason);

9) from music: E.g. to play the first fiddle;

10) from literary sources (familiar quotations):

E.g. Something is rotten in the state of Denmark (Hamlet); There’s the rub
or here lies the rub (Shakespeare = difficulty arises = ось у чому загвоздка);
to give the devil his dew (Shakespeare = to be just = віддати належне);
vanity fair (Thackeray); to find windmills (Servantes).

11) from painting: e.g. the dark side of the picture; to put the finishing
touches.

12) from medicine: e.g. to take one’s medicine (to submit to what is
disagreable); to feel the pulse (to try to learn smb’s intentions =тримати
руку на пульсі);

13) from Bible:

E.g. daily bread; a fly in the ointment (a small, unpleasant matter which
spoils smth.); in the twinkling of an eye (миттєво, оком змигнути); Judas
kiss; thirty pieces of silver;
 14) from customs:
E.g. baker’s dozen (чортова дюжина); new lords, new laws; to blow one’s
trumpet ( to boast, to praise oneself).

Proverbs and sayings as specific type of phraseological units

The proverb is the figurative didactic utterance, the saying is the same but
syntactically incomplete. Proverb is always a sentence. Koonin considers
sayings to be communicative phraseological units. He does not regard
proverbs in which all their components have their literal meanings as
phraseological units (better late than never). In English and American
literature there is no distinctive boarder-line between proverbs and sayings.
E.g. No pains, no grains.
No smoke without fire.
Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you.
Fortune favours the brave.
Smooth water runs deep. (Тиха вода греблю гне).
Proverbs have much in common with phraseological units because their
lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly
figurative and they are introduced into speech ready-made.

Getting back to the familiar quotations we should distinguish so called

clichés (Fr.). The term comes from the printing trade: it’s a metal block used
for printing pictures and turning them out in great numbers. Some phrases
being constantly and mechanically repeated lost their original expressiveness
and so are better avoided. The most generally used are: astronomical figures;
the arms of Morpheus; to break the ice; the irony of fate; to stand shoulder to
shoulder, etc. They are in fact empty and worn-out but pompous.