THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

AT ST. AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD

Department of Physics
Supervisors: Dr. Davinder Sharma, Dr. Roger Andrews and Dr. Nikolay Zyuzikov
PHYS 2155, PHYS 3160, PHYS 3163, PHYS 3202, PHYS 3204

LAB REPORT COVER SHEET

Student’s Date
JOSHUA HARRIPERSAD 07/03/2023
Name: Performed:
Student’s Date
816028060 14/03/2023
ID #: Due:
Demonstrator’s Date
NICHOLAS BOODOO 19/03/2023
Name: Submitted:
Lab Course
MUONS 2155
Title: Code:

For Lab Demonstrators and Supervisors Only

MARKING SCHEME
Section Total Marks
Performance Date Received: ___________________________
Abstract
Lab Supervisor/ TA: ____________________________
Introduction
Method Late Submission: _________(days)
Results
Calculations
Analysis of
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Total

Comments:
 ACADEMIC YEAR:____2022-2023_________________________
SEMSTER:________2________________

TITLE:_____MUONS______________________ COURSE CODE:___2155_______

NAME:___JOSHUA HARRIPERSAD________ ID:___816028060__________

1. I hereby certify that I am the author of the attacheditem of coursework and that all materials from reference sources have been
properly acknowledged.
2. I understand what plagiarism is and what penalties may be imposed on students found guilty of plagiarism. [See UWI
Examinations Regulations 97 (i)—(iv) and 103 (i) for both an explanation of plagiarism and the penalties].
3. I certify that this paper contains no plagiarized material.
4. I certify that this is my own work and that I did not receive any unfair assistance from others (including unauthorized
collaboration) in its preparation.
5. I certify that this paper has not previously been submitted either in its entirety or in part within the UWI system or to any other
educational institution.
6. In the case ofgroup work, I certify that the work that is the responsibility of each member ofthe group has been clearly indicated
and that where no such indication has been given, I take the responsibility for the work as if it were the section of the paper for
which I am solely responsible and that I have not collaborated with any member of the group to breach the University's
regulations.

……Joshua Harripersad………….. ……19/03/2023…..

Signature Date

EXTRACTS FROM THE EXAMINATION REGULATIONS FOR FIRST DEGREES, ASSOCIATE DEGREES,
DIPLOMAS AND CERTIFICATES INCLUDING GPA REGULATIONS

CHEATING

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Muons Lab – 30 Marks

Performance: 3 marks

Abstract: 4 marks

- Summary of the experiment. State the objectives/ significance of study, brief

methodology, summary of results and conclusion. One paragraph, no more than 150

words.

Definitively the purpose of this experiment was to determine: the lifetime of a muon, the

Fermi Coupling Constant and the Charge Ratio. Muons that cascade from earth’s atmosphere

travel at the speed of light where it eventually decays on the surface. The plastic scintillator

was able to detect various types of these muons which observably were produced at different

elevations thus, data in which the muons measured were completely decayed was expressed in

a histogram in which the average lifetime was determined; the lifetime observed from the

FPGA software was 2.544 ± 0.265 μs. This value was used to determine the Fermi constant,

calculated to be 3.8327 ± 11.8750 × 10−6 GeV −2 .The lifetime was also used to determine

the charge ratio of muons to be 1.55279 ± 0.00013. Deviations discovered from the

theoretical assumptions were based of calculable errors and the natural spontaneity of decay

and the interference of external E.M. Fs during experimentations.

Introduction: 5 marks

- The introduction should provide background information for the report. Start with the

general principle that is being tested, and answer why perform the experiment/ what

is the lab about? Word limit: 400 words. The following are some points which can

used to develop the introduction:

 What is a muon and its properties?

A muon is a sub-particle that has similar characteristics to an electron, although

being comparatively two hundred times its size. Being part of the lepton group of

subatomic particles, muons are considered fundamental in nature. They exist

containing both charges (positive and negatively charged muons) having ½ spin

on each particle. Muons are known to be particularly unstable; they possess very
 short lifetimes (within microseconds) thus decaying into other forms of

subatomic particles, evidently introducing the site of new sub atoms. (ZWE FRM

II 2012).

 What is the muon source and its lifetime?

Initially cosmic rays that are bombarded by earth’s atmosphere produce primary

particles that, when subjected to an electromagnetic field, deconstruct pions;

some pions interact via strong force with the surrounding nuclei via strong

forces, and others spontaneously decay to form muons and neutrinos of both

positive and negative charges (UWI 2022). This principle is applied to the

supplementation of muons from the Earth’s atmosphere. Muons exist for

approximately 2 microseconds and eventually decay into electrons and neutrinos.

(U.S. Dept of Energy 2013).

 How does the apparatus detect muons?

Initially muons are detected by a plastic scintillator before their properties could

be determined. A ‘plastic scintillator’, a cylinder, aluminium, alloy, black tube

placed above an organic material lined with fluors and an aromatic solid solvent,

is used for this process (UWI 2022). The solid solvent is made up of molecules

that absorb the kinetic energy of these charged particles that causes activation to

the conduction band. Subsequently, when muons are subjected to the scintillator,

they degenerate, slowing muons down at sufficient time for decay, thus

producing photons; photons, these photons are lower in energy than in the solid

solvent.(Knoll 2000) The emission spectrum is shifted to longer wavelengths and

will not be influenced by the optical absorption band of the bulk crystal. ¨ The

photons produced by these degenerated muons are emitted in the visible range

and therefore could be detected with P.M. Ts (Photomultiplier Tubes). (Knoll

2000)

 What is the Fermi coupling constant and how does it relate to muons?

Muon decay mandates the interaction of weak forces, and there parameter

satisfies the principle behind the Fermi Coupling Theory. For standard parameter

between weak forces such as those observed by muons, the strength of these

weak forces due to its mass, can be found using the Fermi Coupling Constant;
 the constant is described as a ratio of the muon’s lifetime, and its mass. (UWI

2022)

 How can background be reduced?

Unfortunately there would be major conflict in the detection of actual muons in

the scintillator because of the scintillator’s inability to distinguish specifically

which charged particle is giving off scintillation light as it traverses it. To add,

the scintillation light that is detected could be a result of muons that completely

go through the scintillator without decaying one after the other. (UWI 2022) This

problem could be alleviated by restricting the time interval during which we look

for the two successive flashes of scintillator light characteristic of muon decay

events. Secondly, we can estimate the background level by looking at large times

in the decay time histogram where we expect few events from genuine muon

decay (UWI 2022).

Theory: 1 mark

The lifetime τ(measured in microseconds μsec or seconds) , of a decaying muon of mass m, is

given by:

192π3 h7
τ= G2F m5 c4

where h is Planck’s constant of units Joules per second, c is the speed of light in a vacuum

and m is the mass if the muons.

thus GF , the Fermi Coulping constant can be found by rearragning the equation into

GF 192π3 ℏ
= √
(hc)3 (mc 2 )5 τ

for this equation, τ, the lifetime of a muon is measured in seconds

h
ℏ= = 6.2851 × 10−25 GeVs
2π
 mc 2 is the assumed energy required bythe muons to stop inside the scintillator

= 160MeV or 0.16 GeV

22
π=
7

Charge ratio ρ:

τ+ τ− − τobs
ρ = −( + )
τ τ − τobs

τ+ , theoretical lifetime of a positive muon = 2.19703 ± 0.00004 μsec

τ− , theoretical lifetime of a negative muon = 2.04300 ± 0.00300 μsec

τobs = the observed lifetime in the experiment

τc = lifetime of carbon = 2.04300 ± 0.00300 μsec

1GeV = 103 MeV

the Gain on the amplifier G, used in this experiment, is calculated using:

Vout
G = 21 ( )
Vin

Vout = the output voltage in Voltz

Vin = the input voltage in Voltz

Method/ Experimental Setup: 3 marks

The experiment was executed exactly as stated in the PHYS 2155 Major Laboratory

Manual with the aid of the lab demonstrator. (UWI 2022).

- Include at least 2 precautions.

1. The time interval for detection was found, noting the two successive flashes of

scintillator light characteristic of muon decay events, by discovering and

maintaining the threshold voltage. This method was used to reduce background.

2. External electromotive forces disturbed the frequency seen on the oscilloscope,

therefore the setup was moved to a precise location in the lab which minimalized

interaction with other devices. This maintain legitimacy of the threshold

frequency, signalling output and histogram output given by the FGPA software

and the oscilloscope

Results and Calculations: 5 marks

 Table showing the signal generator output and amplifier output for different

frequencies.

 The saturation output voltage of the amp.

Saturation Voltage, V = 66.8 V

Over Saturation Voltage = 70.0V

 The discrimination behaviour screenshot

 Table showing pulse spacing on scope and corresponding decay time on

software.

 The timeout interval.

Maximum Oscillation from Oscilloscope= 24.910μs

Minimum Oscillation from Oscilloscope= 1.377μs

 Maximum Oscillation from FPGA= 20μs

Minimum Oscillation from FPGA= 1μs

 The ideal discriminator threshold.

Threshold Voltage= 0.126 V

 Ideal HV value.

High Voltage= 10.71 V

 Amplifier and discriminator appearance on scope.

 Muon lifetime with associated uncertainty.

τ = 2.544 ± 0.265μs
 Muon decay histogram screenshot.
 Graph of amplifier gain vs frequency.

Gain vs Frequency
73.5

68.5

63.5

58.5

53.5
Gain G

48.5
x-intercept
43.5

38.5

33.5

28.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Frequency/kHz

 Estimate maximum decay rate by finding the x-intercept.

Maximum Decay Rate = x − intercept = 450 kHz

 Graph of pulse spacing on scope vs software.

PULSE SPACING ON THE OSCILLOSCOPE VS PULSE SPACING

y = 1.019x
ON THE FGPA SOFTWARE
25

20

15
Pulse Spacing on the Oscilloscope

10

0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25

-5
Pulse Spacing In The FGPA Software
 Part 10 - Fermi coupling constant with associated uncertainty.

GF 192π3 ℏ
= √
(hc)3 (mc 2 )5 τ

τ = (2.544 ± 0.265) × 10−6 s

GF 192π3 × 6.2852 × 10^ − 35 Js−1

= √
(hc)3 (0.160)5 (2.544 ± 0.265 μs)

GF
= 3.8327 ± 11.8750 × 10−6 GeV −2
(hc)3

 Part 11 - charge ratio of positive to negative muons at ground level.

Charge ratio ρ:

2.19703 ± 0.00004 2.04300 ± 0.00300 − 2.544 ± 0.265

ρ= ( )
2.04300 ± 0.00300 2.19703 ± 0.00004 − 2.544 ± 0.265

charge ratio ρ = 1.55279 ± 0.00013

Discussion: 5 marks

- Explain how your data makes theoretical sense. It should reflect/ reiterate what the

exercise is about and why are we doing it? It should also include the meaning and

significance of the results, which can be compared to other studies. Ensure the

results are not simply restated. Word limit: 400 words. The following are some

points which can used to develop the discussion:

The amplifier increased the signalling output of the voltage, which made the reaction of

the frequency seen almost immediate. Astute observations of the oscilloscope indicated

that the estimated decay rate was 400 kHz.

There was an increased in the pulse width of the waves when approaching the saturated

voltage, thus, the periodicity of the FPGA increased. Before approaching its threshold,

the FGPA responded to a longer brilliant flash indication on the scintillator. Faintly

blinking light patterns signified that the threshold frequency had been achieved.

The timeout interval determined that the maximum time between pulses could have been

manipulated; The entry of high voltage detected from muons could have been collected

with a time variation when recording results. Therefore, information about muons

detected was determined factoring time which presented the binning of data at different

time periods (or intervals) of decay of muons, a suitable measure of control for the

objective of this experiment. Minimum timeout intervals implied that the muons that

immediately decayed at the point of detection were extrapolated.

Detection takes place in the scintillator, and notably the lifetime of muons and the decay

time were determined inconsiderate of the time between the conception of muons in the

atmosphere and its entrance into the scintillator. To explain, the lifetime is a calculation

made under the principle, that the chance of detecting decay of a muon is exponential,

therefore, the greater the sample of muons detected, the more likely that there exist

muons that were both “born” in the atmosphere and the scintillator (UWI 2022).
Based on the graph of Gain vs Frequency, from 100Hz to 200Hz, spikes were observed

showing a wave-like motion of decrease and increase. Little to no changes were

recorded between 250Hz to 400 Hz, where the graph showed a slight depression in the

curve. At 400 Hz a sharp, steep slope was observed from the graph, which reduced the

gain of the amplifier to less than half, briefly after producing average values at 500Hz.

No significant changes trends from 500 Hz to 900 Hz, a generally smooth line was noted

within that range. Ultimately, from 900 Hz to 1000Hz another sharp depression was

produced, this time, the gain remained close to its lowest summit.

The lifetime of a muon, when compared to theoretical data, was an overestimation. This

could be accounted for by interferences of emf devices that were close to the scintillator

(phones, electrical apparatus). This difference in value affected the calculated Fermi

Coupling Constant, which was a severely lesser value. Another factor for inaccuracy in

the calculation of Fermi’s constant arose from the incorrect equation use in this

experiment, the assumption that the muons possessed no energy in the scintillator gave

more precise results and should be considered for future experiments (George, 2012). To

add, the charge ratio was also incident of the slight variation of the lifetime value found

from the histogram and these variations are common for these types of experiments.

(Chitwood, 2007)
Conclusion: 2 marks

The lifetime of muons subjected to a scintillator at the earth’s surface was 2.544 ±

0.265 μs. This value was then used to calculate the Fermi’s Coupling Constant which

was 3.8327 ± 11.8750 × 10−6 GeV −2. The charge ratio, that was also calculated based

on the observed lifetime value, was 1.55279 ± 0.00013.

Reference: 2 marks

Bittner, Drew. “Doe Explains...muons.” Energy.gov. U.S. Department of Energy, 2010.

https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsmuons

Chadee, Xsitaaz, Harshan Lal, and Rory Sarafat. “PHYS 2155 Major Laboratory Level II.” St.

Augustine: University of The West Indies, Department of Physics, 2022.

Chitwood, D.B. (2007) Improved measurement of the positive-muon lifetime and

determination of the Fermi constantD, Physical Review Letters. American Physical

Society. Available at:

https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.032001 (Accessed: March

20, 2023).

FRM II, ZWE. “More about Muons.” Characteristics of muons - Muon research - The NMI3

information portal. NM13, 2012. https://nmi3.eu/muon-research/characteristics-of-

muons.html.

George, A. (2012) “MUON AND TAU LIFETIME.” Available at:

http://hep.ucsb.edu/people/cag/Muon_Lifetime.pdf (Accessed: March 7, 2023).

- In text citation and references are to be done in Chicago Manual Style 16th Edition

Please refer to link for guidelines on CMS 16th

https://libguides.uwi.edu/cms16authordate