Vivian Etsiapa Boamah

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 OUTLINE
• Composition of a virus
• Structural, genomic, physicochemical, and
replicative properties
• Cultivation of viruses
• Economic importance of viruses
• Viruses of importance to Africa - Reading
• Taxonomy of viruses
• Development and origin of virology

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 RESOURCES
• Pharmaceutical Microbiology by W. B Hugo
and A.D Russell

• Fundamental Virology by Fields, Knipe and

Howley

• Internet - ICTV website

https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/
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VIRUS

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 What is a virus?
• Sub-microscopic (20 - 400 nm)

• Obligate intracellular

• They possess DNA or RNA (never both).

• Resistant to antibiotics

• Incapable of replication unless occupying a

living cell.

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Size wise

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Composition
• Nucleic acid: DNA or RNA

• Capsid – a protective protein coat

• Envelope –outer lipoprotein membrane

• Non-structural proteins

Virion = complete viral particle (fully assembled)

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Covering

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Nucleic content

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Capsid arrangement

Icosahedral symmetry

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Complex structure
Head consists of an
icosahedral shell attached
via a collar to a helical tail.

At the end of the tail is a

plate which functions in
attachment to the bacterial
host.

In addition thin protein

fibres are attached to the
plate, involved in
binding to host.
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 Viral Proteins
• A viral protein is both a component and a
product of a virus.

Grouped according to their functions

• Structural proteins
• Non-structural proteins
• Regulatory proteins
• Accessory proteins
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 Viral Proteins . .

• Viruses do not code for many of

their proteins

• Use the host cell's machinery to

produce the proteins they require
for replication
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 Structural Proteins
•Capsid
•Envelope
•Membrane fusion proteins

Functions
•Protect nucleic acid
•Attach to receptors on cell
•Penetrate cell membrane
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Non-Structural Proteins

•Replication of nucleic acid

•Involved in replication
•Facilitates translation
•Modify host cell

Examples
• Replicon formation proteins
• Immunomodulation

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 Comparison of Viruses and Cells
Property Virus Cell

Nucleic acid DNA or RNA Both DNA and RNA

Proteins Few Many

Lipoprotein membrane Envelope present in some Cell membrane present in all

Ribosomes Absent Present

Mitochondria Absent Present in eukaryotes

Enzymes Few or none Many

Multiplication by binary No Yes (most cells)

fission

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 Viral Replication

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replication

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 Viral Replication Cycle
• Adsorption/attachment - virus binds to the host
cell.
• Penetration - virus injects its genome into host
cell.
• Replication - viral genome replicates using the
host's cellular machinery.
• Assembly - viral components and enzymes are
produced and begin to assemble.
• Maturation - viral components assemble and
viruses fully develop.
• Release - newly produced viruses are expelled
from the host cell
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Replication

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 Viral Replication

2. Penetration/release of
nucleic material
1. Adsorption/attachment

3. Replication of nuclei material

Assembly and Maturation

Assembly and Maturation Release 24

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Cultivation of Viruses

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 Whole Animal
Inoculation

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 Cultivating viruses
• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites
(need an appropriate host cell to
replicate).

• Bacteriophages are grown in culture of

their bacterial hosts.

• Stock cultures of phages are prepared by

allowing them to infect a broth culture of
the appropriate bacterium.

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 Cultivating viruses

• Successful propagation of phages results

in a clearing of the culture’s turbidity
Reason???

• Centrifugation removes any remaining

bacteria, leaving the phage particles in
the supernatant.

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• A quantitative measure of phages, known as
the titre, can be obtained by mixing the
phage with a much greater number of
bacteria and immobilising them in agar.

• Due to their numbers, the bacteria grow as

a confluent lawn.

• Some become infected by phage, and when

new viral particles are released following
lysis of their host, they infect more host
cells.

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• Because they are immobilised in agar, the
phages are only able to infect cells in the
immediate vicinity.

• As more and more cells in the same area

are lysed, an area of clearing called a plaque
appears in the lawn of bacteria

• Quantification is based on the assumption

that each visible plaque arises from
infection by a single phage particle.
- plaque-forming units (pfu).

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• pfu/ml = no. of plaques × dilution factor
volume (ml)

• e.g.
A phage suspension was diluted 10,000 times
and 100μl of this was plated. Determine the
pfu/ml if 53 colonies were counted.

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Animal viruses can be cultivated on
1. Embryonated/fertilised chicken’s eggs

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Embryonated Egg Inoculation

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• 2. Cell cultures

• 3. Animal models

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 Plant viruses

• Plant viruses need to overcome the barrier presented

by the cellulose cell wall of the plant

• This is often achieved by the piercing mouthparts of

an insect vector or by entering areas of damaged
tissue.

• Experimentally, viruses can be introduced into an

appropriate host by rubbing the surface of a leaf with
the virus together with a mild abrasive to create a
minor wound.
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Atypical virus-like agents
1. Defective viruses are composed of viral nucleic acid
and proteins but cannot replicate without a ‘helper’
virus, which provides the missing function.
Defective viruses usually have a mutation or a deletion
of part of their genetic material.

2. Pseudovirions contain host cell DNA instead of viral

DNA within the capsid.
They can infect cells but they do not replicate.

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3. Viroids
• They consist solely of a short strand of circular, single-
stranded molecule of RNA without a protein coat or
envelope.
• All known viroids are inhabitants of angiosperms.
• Viroids replicate in the nucleus or cholroplast through
a 3-way RNA-based mechanism involving RNA
polymerase II and synthesis of mRNA from DNA.
• They cause several plant diseases but are not
implicated in any human disease.
• Viroid infections can be transmitted by aphids, by cross
contamination following mechanical damage to plants
or from plant to plant by leaf contact.
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4. Prions
• They are infectious protein particles that are composed
solely of protein (they contain no detectable nucleic
acid).

• The protein particles are misfolded and possess the the

ability to transmit their misfolded shape onto normal
variants of the same protein.

• They characterize several fatal and transmissible

neurodegenerative diseases in humans and many other
animals

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 Viruses and cancer - 1
• Cells contain genes called protooncogenes
for normal cell replication.
• Their functions are controlled by tumour-
suppressor genes.
• Some DNA viruses can encode for proteins
that block the function of these tumour-
suppressor genes.

• This makes protooncogene to function as

oncogene, and cell division is allowed to
proceed uncontrolled.
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 Viruses and cancer - 2
• Oncogenes are genes associated with the
conversion of cells to cancerous forms

• Some viruses carry their own, altered,

version of the cellular oncogene

• Which they integrate into host’s genome,

leading to uncontrolled cell growth
= cancer

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Economic Importance of Viruses

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 Advantages
• In preparing antidotes/vaccine: Pox, mumps, polio,
jaundice etc
• In controlling harmful animals and insects:
• Control of disease: destroying the infecting bacteria
• Virotherapy, viruses target cells and DNA.
• In the laboratory: genetic studies, genetic
engineering.
• In the evidence of evolution:
• In nanotechnology: as a template for organizing
materials on the nanoscale.
• In Seawater: increase the number of photosynthesis
in Oceans and are effective for reducing the amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
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 Disadvantages
• Cause diseases

• Destroy plants

• Destroy useful bacteria

• Can be weaponized for biological warfare

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Viruses of Importance to Africa

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 Ebola virus
HIV
Corona virus
Zoonotic Viral Infections

Read articles

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 Classification
of
Viruses

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 Classification can be based on
• Nucleic acid
• Structure
• Replication properties
• Site of replication
• Host range
• Mode of transmission
• Susceptibility to chemicals agents, etc.

• Baltimore Classification
• ICTV Classification
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 DNA viruses
• Most DNA viruses contain a single genome of
linear dsDNA

• dsDNA serves as a template both for mRNA and

for self-transcription

• ssDNA is usually expanded to double stranded in

host cell

• Replicate using a DNA-dependent polymerase

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 Classification based on nucleic acid

DNA virus:

i) Double stranded DNA virus: Adenovirus,

Herpesvirus, simain virus 40 (SV40), Small
pox virus

ii) Single stranded DNA virus: Parvovirus, φX174

virus (Phi X174 phage), Toolan’s H-1 virus
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 Nucleic acid . .

DNA containing viruses

• ssDNA – parvo-, erythro- and dependoviruses

• dsDNA (dsDNA) – simain virus 40 (SV40).

• Circular DNA genomes – papovaviruses,

(polyoma- and papillomaviruses)

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 RNA viruses
• 70% of all viruses

• ssRNA show much higher mutation rates than do the DNA viruses.

• RNA may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), and the

genome may occupy a single RNA

• dsRNA viruses consist of complementary sense and antisense

strand. Eg: reovirus, rotavirus, orbivirus

• The replication of these viruses is complex

• Only the sense RNA strands are released from the infecting virion to
initiate replication.

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RNA virus:
i) Double stranded RNA virus: Reo virus, rotavirus,
orbivirus.

ii) Single stranded RNA virus:

 Positive sense RNA (+RNA): Polio virus, Hepatitis

A

 Negative sense RNA (-RNA): Rabies virus,

Influenza virus

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 Based on presence of envelope

• Enveloped positive-strand RNA virus

Alphavirus, Togavirus, Flavivirus

• Enveloped negative-strand RNA virus

Orthomyxovirus, Paramyxovirus, Rhabdovirus.

• Non-enveloped positive-strand RNA virus

Picornavirus (rhinovirus, poliovirus 1 & 3,
mengovirus & FMDV)

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 Based on structure
• Cubical virus: Reo virus, Picorna virus

• Spiral virus: Paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus

• Radial symmetry virus: Bacteriophage

• Complex virus: Pox virus

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Based on replication properties and site of replication
• Replication and assembly in cytoplasm of host: all RNA virus
except Influenza virus

• Replication in nucleus and assembly in cytoplasm of host:

Influenza virus, Pox virus

• Replication and assembly in nucleus of host: all DNA viruses

except Pox virus.

• Virus replication through ds DNA intermediate: DNA virus,

Retro virus and some tumor causing RNA virus

• Virus replication through ss RNA intermediate: All RNA virus

except Reo virus and tumor causing RNA viruses.

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 Host range
• Bacteriophage: λ phage, T2, T4, φ174, MV-11

• Plant virus: TMV, cauliflower mosaic virus

• Animal virus: Polio virus, Retro virus, Herpes

virus, Adeno virus, rat parvo virus

• Insect virus: Baculovirus, Sacbrood virus,

Entomopox virus, Granulosis virus

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 Mode of transmission

• Virus transmitted through respiratory route: Swine flu,

Rhino virus

• Virus transmitted through faeco-oral route: Hepatitis A

virus, Polio virus, Rota virus

• Virus transmitted through sexual contacts: Retro virus

• Virus transmitted through blood transfusion: Hepatitis

B virus, HIV

• Zoonotic virus: Rabies virus, Alpha virus, Flavi virus,

COVID-19
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 Baltimore Classification

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ICTV Classification

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 STRUCTURAL, GENOMIC, PHYSICOCHEMICAL, AND
REPLICATIVE PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES USED IN
TAXONOMY.
• Characterization for taxonomic and other
purposes, is changing rapidly.
• invention by Brenner and Horne of the negative
staining technique for electron microscopic
examination of virions.
a. Virions could be characterized with respect to
size, shape, surface structure, presence or
absence of envelope and often symmetry.
b. Method could be applied simply and universally.
c. Virions could be characterized in unpurified
material including diagnostic specimen.
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Some properties of viruses extensively used in
taxonomy
• Morphology: virion size and shape, presence
or absence of peplomers or envelopes etc.

• Physicochemical and physical properties:

virion molecular mass, pH stability etc.

• Genome: type of nucleic acid, size of genome,

strandedness, sense etc,

• Proteins: number, size etc.

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• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
• Genome organization and replication:
genome organization, strategy of replication,
translational and transcriptional
characteristics.
• Antigenic properties: serologic properties.
• Biologic Properties: natural host range, mode
of transmission, pathogenicity etc.
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 TAXONOMY
a) pathogenic properties,
b) organ tropism and
c) ecological and transmission characteristics.

• ICTV recognizes more than 9000 viruses

• to describe a virus comprehensively,
approximately 500 to 700 characters must be
determined.

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 A TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF THE FAMILIES OF VIRUSES
CONTAINING HUMAN AND ANIMAL PATHOGENS
As at March 2021 ICTV had the following
• 6 realms
• 10 kingdoms
• 17 phyla
• 2 subphyla
• 39 classes
• 59 orders
• 8 suborders
• 189 families
• 136 subfamilies
• 2224 genera
• 70 subgenera
• 9110 species
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 Virus Realms
6 Realms – Ends with -viria
• Adnaviria
• Duplodnaviria
• Monodnaviria
• Riboviria
• Ribozyviria
• Varidnaviria

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 Kingdoms
10 Kingdoms – ends in virae
• Bamfordvirae
• Helvetiavirae
• Heunggongvirae
• Loebvirae
• Orthornavirae
• Pararnavirae
• Sangervirae
• Shotokuvirae
• Trapavirae
• Zilligvirae
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17 Phyla – Ends in -viricota

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 2 Subphyla – Ends in -viricotina

• Haploviricotina

• Polyploviricotina

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39 Classes – Ends in -viricetes

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59 Orders – Ends in -virales

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8 Suborders – Ends in -virineae

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 Virus Families
189 families – ends with viridae

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 Virus Subfamilies
136 families – ends with virinae

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 Virus Genera
2224 genera – ends with virus

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 Virus Genera and Species
Share common characteristics and are distinct
from the member viruses of other families.

• Genera are designated with the suffix –virus

• There are currently 2224 different genera
Subgenera (70)
• Also ends with the suffix virus.
Species (9110)
• Also ends with virus
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Virus species - ICTV

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 Virus Species
• Most important hierarchical level in
classification.

• Proved to be the most difficult to address.

• A virus species is defined as a polythetic class

(defined by more than one property and all of
them important)

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 VIRUS NOMENCLATURE
The Usage of Formal Taxonomic Nomenclature
• First letters of virus family, subfamily, and
genus names are Capitalized
• Genus and species names are printed in
italics
• Species designations are not capitalized
(except from a place name or a host family or
genus name).
• No latinized binomial terms. Eg: Flavivirus
fabrics and Herpesvirus varicellae.
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The Vernacular Usage of Virus Nomenclature
• family, subfamily, genus and species names
are written in lower case.
• They are not capitalized, nor italized or
underlined.
• Name of the taxon should not include the
formal suffix.
• Name of the taxon should follow the term for
the taxonomic unit. For example, the
picornavirus family, the enterovirus genus.
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 QUIZ 1 – True or False
Consider the following statements about the Baltimore classification
• 1. Group I comprises double stranded DNA viruses
• 2. Group III consists of ssRNA
• 3. Group V consists of Retro viruses
• 4. Group VII comprises DNA Retroviruses

Which of the following is/are employed in the Baltimore classification

• 5. Method of replication
• 6. Type of nucleic material
• 7. Sense of DNA
• 8. Presence of envelop

Consider the following statements about Sense (virology)

• 9. Positive sense nucleic material can be translated directly into
protein
• 10. Negative sense nucleic material cannot be translated directly into
protein
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 The Family Piconaviridae
• 28-30nm in diameter, protomers arranged in
icosahedral symmetry.
• Single stranded RNA.
• Replication and assembly takes place in the
cytoplasm and virus is released via cell
destruction.
• Infection is acute and cytolytic, but persistent
infection can occur with some viruses.
• Narrow host range and transmission is horizontal,
mainly by contact, feacal/oral, or airborne route.
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• Unstable below pH 7
• Stabilized by divalent cations
• Insensitive to ether, chloroform and nonionic
detergents.
Examples:
Enterovirus: polioviruses
Rhinovirus: human rhinovirus
Hepatovirus: hepatitis A virus
Aphthovirus: Foot and mouth disease 91
 The Family Caliciviridae
• 30-38nm in diameter with 32 cup shaped
surface depressions
• Arranged in icosahedral symmetry
• Single stranded RNA (positive)
• Replication and assembly takes place in the
cytoplasm and virus is released via cell
destruction.
• They have narrow host range.

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• Insensitive to ether, chloroform and
detergents.

• Some are inactivated, others are enhanced by

trypsin.

Example:
Calicivirus: cause gastroenteritis in human.

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 The Family Astroviridae

• 28-30nm in diameter

• Spherical in shape

• Single stranded RNA (positive)

• Have narrow host range and transmission is

feacal/oral route.

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• Distributed worldwide.
• Thermostable
• Resistant to acidic pH , ether, chloroform, lipid
solvents and nonionic, anionic and
zwitterionic detergents.

Example
Astrovirus:
Causes in both human and animal infections.

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 The Family Togaviridae
• 70nm in diameter
• Spherical, with a lipid envelope.

• Single stranded RNA (positive).

• Structural protein consist of a basic capsid

protein and two envelope glycoproteins.

• Infection of vertebrate cells is cytolytic and

results in the shutdown of host cell
macromolecular synthesis.
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 The Family Alphaviridae
• Transmited by mosquitoes and hematophagous
arthropods
• Stable at pH 7-8 (rapidly inactivated at acidic pH)
• Thermolabile and sensitive to organic solvents
and detergents.
• Exhibit pH dependent hem agglutinating activity.
Examples:
Alphavirus and Rubivirus (Rubella virus).
Rubella virus occurs worldwide but infects only
humans and is transmitted by contact and
aerosols.
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 The Family Flaviviridae
• 45-60nm in diameter.
• Spherical with a lipid envelope.
• Single stranded RNA (positive).
• Has 2-3 membrane-associated proteins and core
proteins.
• pH dependent hem agglutinating activity.
Examples:
Flavivirus: (causes yellow fever)
(cytolytic and transmitted by mosquitoes and ticks)

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 Pestiviridae
• Infect only certain animals
• Transmitted by direct and indirect contact(eg;
faecal contaminated food, urine or nasal
secretions); transplacentally and congenitally.

• Hepatitis C infects only humans and is

transmitted by close contact, sexual contact,
and blood transfusion.
• Stable at pH 7-8 (inactivated at acidic pH)
• Thermolabile and sensitive to organic solvents
and detergents.
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 The Family Coronaviridae

• 80-220nm in diameter

• Pleomorphic

• Single-stranded RNA (positive)

• Some contain a hemagglutinin-esterase
protein.
• Virions mature in the cytoplasm by budding
through the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
membranes.
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Coronaviridae

• Narrow host ranges

• Aerosol, faecal /oral and fomite transmission.
• Sensitive to heat, lipid solvents, nonionic
detergents, formaldehyde, and oxidizing
agents.
• Some are stable at pH 3.0.
Examples:
Coronavirus and Torovirus.
(Common cold and respiratory tract infection).
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 The Family Paramyxoviridae
• 150-300nm in diameter and pleomorphic
• Has a lipid-containing envelope with a coiled
helical nucleocapsid.
• Single stranded RNA (negative-sense).
• The surface glycoproteins of some viruses
have neuraminidase (genus Parammyxovirus)
• Paramyxovirus and Mobillivirus genera have
hemagglutinating activity.
• All genera have fusion activity.
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Paramyxoviridae
• Narrow host range
• Present in vertebrates, mostly mammals and
birds.
• Transmission is mainly by aerosols and droplets.
• Sensitive to heat, lipid solvents, nonionic
detergents, formaldehyde and oxidizing agents.
• Paramyxovirus: human influenza virus 1 & 3
Rubulavirus: mumps virus
• Morbillivirus: measles virus
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 The Family Filoviridae
• Enveloped and pleomorphic

• U-shaped, 6 shaped or circular forms.

• Single stranded RNA (negative-sense).

• Sensitive to lipid solvents, detergents,

hypochlorites, phenolic disinfectants and UV
radiations.

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 The Family Orthomyxoviridae
• 80-120nm in diameter.
• Pleomorphic (often spherical)
• Single stranded RNA (negative-sense)
• Virus enzyme include a transcriptase,
endonuclease and a receptor destroying
enzyme.
• Transmission among humans is by aerosols
and droplets
• It is water-borne among ducks.
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Orthomyxoviridae

• Sensitive to heat, lipid solvents, nonionic

detergents, formaldehyde and oxidizing
agents.

• Exhibit hemagluttinating activity.

• Genus: Influenzavirus A, B and C.

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 The Family Retroviridae

• 80-100 nm in diameter.

• Spherical (icosahedral) and enveloped.

• Single stranded RNA (positive-sense).

• Associated with many different diseases:

leukemia, lymphomas, sarcomas, carcinomas,
immunodeficiencies, etc.
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Retroviridae

• Sensitive to heat, detergents, and

formaldehyde
• Relatively resistant to UV light.
• Genus include:
Spumavirus
Lentivirus (HIV 1 & 2).
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Family Retroviridae

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 The Family Hepadnaviridae

• 40-48nm in diameter.
• Spherical (occasionally pleomorphic).
• Single DNA molecule.
• Host specific
• Although integration of viral DNA into the host
genome is not required for replication, this
occurs in hepatitis B-associated hepatocellular
carcinoma.
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Hepadnaviridae
• Persistence is associated with chronic disease and
neoplasia.

• Sensitive to acid, heat, detergents, and organic

solvents and UV- and gamma-irradiation.

• Genus include
Orthohepadnavirus (hepadnaviruses of
mammals)
Avihepadnavirus (Avihepadnaviruses of birds).

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 The Family Papovaviridae

• Enveloped, have icosahedral symmetry.

• Narrow host range.
• Transmitted by contact (sexual contact) and
aerosols.
• Resistant to ether, acid and heat.

• Papillomaviruses cause tumours (warts,

papillomas, and carcinomas).
• Polyomaviruses are associated with UTIs.
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 The Family Herpesviridae

• Spherical or pleomorphic.
• Consist of an envelope and an icosahedral
capsid.
• Narrow host range.

• Transmission is usually by contact (saliva,

urogenital excretions or aerosols).

• Some induce neoplasia and most persist for

the lifetime of their hosts.
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Herpesviridae
• Sensitive to acid, heat, detergent, organic
solvents, and UV and gamma irradiation.
• Subfamily:
Alphaherpesvirinae, Betaherpesvirinae
Gammaherpesvirinae
• Genus eg:
Simplexvirus
Varicellovirus
Cytomegalovirus
• Causes chicken pox (varicella zoster virus) and
herpes simplex infection.
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 The Family Poxviridae

• Large and brick shaped.

• Single molecule of double stranded DNA.
• Transmission is by direct contact, formite,
aerosol or arthropods.
• Generally sensitive to detergents and
formaldehyde.
• Orthopoxvirus which causes small pox and
cowpox infections.
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DEVELOPMENT AND ORIGIN OF
VIROLOGY

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 INTRODUCTION
• All living organisms have viral parasites

• They exert significant forces upon all life forms

including themselves

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• Jacob Henle hypothesized the existence of
infectious agents that were too small to be
observed with the light microscope but were
able to cause specific diseases.

• His ideas were not accepted due to lack of

evidence.

• Little evidence : spontaneous generation does

not occur(Louis Pasteur).

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• Koch's Postulate for defining whether an
organism was indeed the causative agent of a
disease.

• The dominant paradigm of medical

microbiology.

• Failure of Koch's Postulate led to the concept

of virus.

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 The discovery period
• In 1979, Adolf Mayer, began a research on
diseases of tobacco = tobacco mosaic disease.
• Inoculated healthy plants with juice extracted.
• Neither a bacteria nor a fungal agent could be
cultured or detected.
• Inference: Soluble enzyme-like contagium.
• Conclusion: Bacteria, but that infectious forms
have not yet been isolated nor are their forms
or mode of life.
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• Dimitri Ivanofsky repeated Mayers
observations.
• One additional step : filtered the infected sap
through a Chamberland filter.
• Filtrate retains its infectious properties
• Ivanofsky, like Mayer could not culture an
organism from the filtered sap and failed to
satisfy Koch’s postulates.
• Filter paper may be defective or something
may be wrong with his methods.
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• Martinus Beijerinck also filtered sap.
• Diluted and then reinfected in growing tissue
of the plant.

• Set stage for an organism,

- Smaller than bacteria (a filterable agent)
- Not observable in the light microscope
- Able to reproduce itself only in living cell or
tissue

124
• Beijerinck called this agent a “contagium
vivum fluidum”, or a contagious living liquid.

• Liquid or Particles?

• Conflict settled when d’Herelle developed the

plaque assay.

• Loeffler and Frosch rapidly described and

isolated the first filterable agents from animals
that is the foot and mouth virus.
125
 The Bacteriophages
• In 1915, Fredrick W. Twort looked for variants
of the vacinnia virus, that would replicate in
simple defined media outside of living cells.
• Virus failed to replicate, bacteria grew.
• Colonies became watery looking
(transparent).
• Twort called this phenomenon glassy
transformation.
• Inoculation of colony of bacteria with the
glassy transforming principle would kill the
bacteria. 126
• Felix d’Herelle isolated Shigella bacillus.

• Circular spots where no bacteria grew and he

called these taches vierges or plaques.

• He named them bacteriophages.

• Ellis, Delbruck and Salvador E. Luria

(Phage group)

127
 Animal Viruses
• Characterized by
- Size
- Resistance to chemical and physical agents
- Pathogenic effects
• In 1912, S.B Wolblach, an American
pathologist remarked that it is quite possible
that when our knowledge of filterable viruses
is more complete, our conception of living
matter would change considerably, and that
we shall cease to attempt to classify the
filterable viruses as animal or plant.
128
 Some Individuals associated with the history of virology

• Adolf Mayer • Lady Wortley

• Alfred Hershey Montagu
• Charles Chamberland • Louis Pasteur
• Dimitri Ivanofsky • Martha Chase
• Edward Jenner • Martinus Beijerinck
• Emory Ellis • Max Delbruck
• Felix d’Herelle • Paul Frosc
• Frederick Loeffler • Robert Koch
• Fredrick W. Twort • S.B Wolblach
• Jacob Henle • Salvador E. Luria 129