Persuasive Wri ng: A Breakdown

De ni on
From NESA Stage 6 English glossary:
Persuasive texts – texts whose primary purpose is to put forward a point of view and persuade a
reader, viewer or listener. They form a signi cant part of modern communica on in both print
and digital environments. Persuasive texts seek to convince the responder of the strength of an
argument or point of view through informa on, judicious use of evidence, construc on of
argument, cri cal analysis and the use of rhetorical, gura ve and emo ve language. They
include student essays, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics, adver sing, propaganda,
in uen al essays and ar cles. Persuasive texts may be wri en, spoken, visual or mul modal.

Features and Characteris cs

• Focus: on the reader.
• Purpose: to convince the reader
• O en uses subjec ve language
• Style: formal, informal, colloquial, vulgar
• First-person, second-person, or third-person pronouns
Main Characteris cs:
• persuasive claim
• support points
• general warrant
• use of appeals: emo onal, personal, logical, stylis c
Minor Characteris cs:
• language appropriate to the audience
• direct address of reader

Types of Persuasive Texts

Each of the following formats have di erent quali es and techniques unique to each form that
can be used to persuade an audience.
• Essays
• Newspaper editorials
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 • Opinion or thought pieces

• Speeches
• Debates
• Adver sing
• Propaganda

Persuasive Wri ng: Speeches

The following notes refer speci cally to the persuasive speech. There are, of course,
other forms of persuasion you might wish to consider, such as the long form essay,
the opinion piece in a magazine. In addi on, there could be elements of persuasive
wri ng in other forms, such as discursive wri ng.

What is an argument, in this context?

➢ It is not a ght. It is not about expressing anger or hos lity
➢ It is not a debate, or a contest where there are winners and losers
➢ It engages both speaker and audience in a high level of cri cal enquiry
➢ It is reasoned, logical
➢ The speaker can argue passionately, expose weaknesses in opposing
arguments but the overall aim is to solve a problem
➢ It aims to nd the best solu on, the best possible outcome to complex
problems
Note: Speeches present explicit arguments to persuade their audiences. (Billboards,
cartoons, songs, ads slogans and so on present implicit arguments, persuading their
audience to adopt a par cular point of view. In order to understand how persuasive
texts appeal to their audience’s underlying assump ons, complete the exercise
a ached on analysing persuasion in adver sing).

USE OF RHETORIC
Rhetorical devices are the means by which appeals are made to the audience. They
are, in e ect, modes of persuasion.

Approaches To Construc ng A Persuasive Argument

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 A persuasive speech requires us to consider our thinking processes very carefully as

we grapple with the complex interplay between the issue under discussion and the
audience.
There are a number of di erent approaches to construc ng your persuasive speech
(or any other type of persuasive wri ng).
The classic approach is that described by Aristotle, categorising the three types of
appeal a speaker can employ.
The appeals the speaker makes to the audience can be classi ed into three types:
➢ Ethos
➢ Pathos
➢ Logos
➢ There is also a fourth category, not used as o en, called Kairos.
Aristotle's Rhetoric describes these modes of persuasion, these types of appeal, in
this way:
“Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstra on, since [people] are most fully
persuaded when we consider a thing to have been demonstrated."
Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds:
Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech
was so well spoken as to make us think them credible. (Ethos)
Secondly, persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech s rs
their emo ons. (Pathos)
Thirdly, persuasion is e ected through the speech itself when we have proved
a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to
the case in ques on. (Logos)

ETHOS
Ethos is an appeal to the authority or credibility of the speaker. This refers to how
convincing the audience nds the person who is a emp ng to persuade them to his/
her point of view.
Ways of achieving this:

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 • Being an expert or specialist in the eld in ques on

• Demonstra ng mastery of the terminology of the eld
• Being introduced by or recommended by other established authori es in the
eld
Ethos is o en conveyed through the writer’s investment in his or her claim, through
the fairness with which the writer considers alterna ve views, through the tone and
style of the message.

PATHOS
Pathos (Greek for “su ering” or “experience”) is an appeal to the audience’s
emo ons. The terms ‘sympathy’, ‘pathe c’, and ‘empathy’ are derived from this
term.
It can appear in a speech in the form of metaphor, simile or simply a passionate
delivery by the speaker. It can be used to induce fear, to shock or challenge an
audience; or it might be used to appeal to their dearest desires, their hopes and
dreams. For example, it can appeal to the imagina on of the audience, pain ng a
picture for them of a be er future if the proposed course of ac on is or change of
heart is put in place.
Pathos focuses a en on on the values and beliefs of the intended audience. It is
o en associated with emo onal appeal. But pathos appeals more speci cally to an
audience’s imagina ve sympathies—their capacity to feel and see what the writer
feels and sees. Thus, when we turn the abstrac ons of logical discourse into a
tangible and immediate story, we are making a pathe c appeal. Whereas appeals to
logos and ethos can further an audience’s intellectual assent to our claim, appeals to
pathos engage the imagina on and feelings, moving the audience to a deeper
apprecia on of the argument’s signi cance.

LOGOS
Logos is the appeal to logic and the term ‘logic’ is derived from it.
The a en on is focused on the quality of the message-on the internal consistency
and clarity of the argument itself and on the logic of its reasons and support. The
impact of logos on an audience is referred to as its logical appeal.
Having a logos appeal also enhances ethos because informa on enhances the sense
that the speaker is knowledgeable.
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 It is o en used to describe facts and gures that support the speaker's claims or the
argument being presented However, too many facts and sta s cs can be distrac ng
and even confusing for an audience. They can also be used to mislead, inten onally
or uninten onally inaccurate.
KAIROS
A related rhetorical concept connected to the appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos, is
that of kairos, from the Greek word for “right me,” “season,” or “opportunity.” This
concept suggests that for an argument to be persuasive, its ming must be
e ec vely chosen and its tone and structure in right propor on or measure.
Using these three classic appeals will help you to focus on your audience,
and they can also help you to develop your own voice and style.

Ethos-appeal to values Logos-appeal to reason Pathos-appeal to

emo on
Value of rela onships Dispassionate language Empha c statements
Appeal to truth Objec ve author stance Emo ve language
Duty of Care Ci ng a relevant Direct appeal to the
authority reader
Crea on of a just or Objec ve view of the Appeal to spurious
humane society opposi on authority*
Community Quali ed, measured Disparagement of
responsibility statements opposi on*

The De ning Features of a Persuasive Argument

➢ Argument requires jus ca on of Its claims
There are two necessary condi ons that must be met before we’re willing to call
something an argument:
• a set of two or more con ic ng asser ons
• the a empt to resolve the con ict through an appeal to reason.
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 However, good argument demands more than mee ng these two formal
requirements. For the argument to be e ec ve, an arguer is obligated to clarify and
support the reasons presented.
➢ Argument combines truth- seeking and persuasion
In thinking about argument the writer will nd herself con nually moving back and
forth between truth seeking and persuasion—that is, between ques ons
• about the subject ma er (What is the best solu on to this problem?)
• about audience (What do my readers already believe or value? What reasons
and evidence will most persuade them?)
Writers shi their focuses back and forth between truth- seeking and persuasion,
but with varying degrees of emphasis

Wri ng the speech

Finding Issues to Explore
Your engagement with an issue, controversial or otherwise, might be sparked by
personal experience, by conversa ons with others, or by something you listen to,
see, or read.
Some mes you will be confused about the issue, unable to take a stand.
At other mes, you will have a visceral gut reac on that causes you to take an
immediate posi on, even though you haven’t thought through the issue in depth.
As you begin to compose your argument, the confused or puzzled posi on is o en
the stronger one, because it promotes inquiry as truth- seeking. If you start with a
rm stand, you might be less disposed to uncover your issue’s complexity and to let
your posi on evolve.

Brainstorming
Make a list of the issues that really interest you. In the course of the year, you might
return to this list, adding to it or taking from it something that no longer interests
you. This list should consist of complex issues or problems that you are willing to
devote some me to researching, thinking and talking about, un l you arrive at a
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 posi on that you want to persuade others to accept. In the Module C unit, it might
be wise to link these to one or more of the modules or texts you have studied in
Advanced HSC English, including ideas about the cra of wri ng, the value of
reading, the appeal to the reader, the quali es of a signi cant text.

Be Open to the Issues All around You

We are surrounded by argumenta ve issues. You’ll start no cing them everywhere
once you get a uned to them. You will be invited into argumenta ve conversa ons
by posters, bumper s ckers, blog sites, newspaper editorial pages, magazine ar cles,
the sports sec on, movie reviews, song lyrics, and so forth. When you read or listen,
watch for “hot spots”—passages or moments that evoke strong agreement,
disagreement, or confusion. Again, making broad links to your HSC Advanced texts
might help you to narrow your focus, make your choices.

Analysing Persuasive Texts

Purpose and Audience
➢ Who is the author? What are the author’s creden als and what is his or her
investment in the issue?
➢ What audience is he or she wri ng for?
➢ What mo va ng occasion prompted the wri ng? The mo va ng occasion
could be a current event, a crisis, pending legisla on, a recently published
alterna ve view, or an ongoing problem.
➢ What is the author’s purpose? The purpose could range from strong advocacy
to inquiring into truth
➢ What is the writer’s perspec ve? Perspec ve means the lter, lens, or
‘selec ve seeing’ through which the writer is approaching the issue. In
considering perspec ve, think about what is le out of this argument. Are
there any gaps or silences you can iden fy and might wish to interrogate?
What does this author not see? How does perspec ve in uence the selec on
and framing of evidence in the speech?
In composing a classical argument, you are joining a me-honoured tradi on that
links back to the origins of democracy. It is not compulsory to use this structure when
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 composing a persuasive speech, and for certain purposes it might not be suitable at
all, but it might help you to organise your thoughts.

Di erence between a Persuasive Speech and a Persuasive

Essay/Editorial
Structure
• Speech format
A speech format includes an introduc on, examples, and a conclusion, but the speechwriter will
o en restate a point at the end of each sec on of the speech to ensure the audience is "with"
him or her.
• Each essay format
Expository, Narra ve, or personal essays follow a basic structure. Normally, includes an
introduc on with a thesis statement, body paragraphs, and a conclusion that synthesizes the
informa on. An essay's structure relies on smooth transi ons to the next theme.

Tone
• Essay
An essay does rely on tone for drama c e ect, the essay writer has less of a demand to please
all members of her audience than the speechwriter does. For example, in wri ng an essay, the
interest lays in making a point. In general, an essay communicates with a general audience.
• Speech
Wri ng a speech requires that a writer communicate a speci c theme or topic to an audience. It
uses a tone that produces an emo onal e ect on the audience. A presiden al speech, for
example, o en uses a par cular dic on, full of patrio c, hopeful, grave, or upli ing tones.
• Presenta on
A poli cian connects with an audience with gestures, words, and eye contact.
• The speechwriter ‘performs’ or delivers his speech in a way that gives his concepts, or
themes, a par cular meaning.
• In essay wri ng, a writer connects with her audience, whether live or on the page,
without trying to win them over with her delivery.
Reading an Essay
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 • During the process of reading an essay, there is an impassioned and enthusias c or a sad
and grave tone, plus the audience. Generally, there is more interest in hearing the
quality of wri ng and informa on rather than delivery, just as it is in a speech.
• An individual presen ng an essay only need to research his paper every few minutes,
and a person delivering a speech must conduct it through memoriza on whilst
occasionally glancing at the page or screen.

Using Rhetorical Devices

There is long history of distrust of rhetoric so it is wise to limit your use of devices
these days. Nevertheless, there are some useful ones in the list below. Look for
techniques that play on the ear of the audience, pa erns in words, phrases and
sentences that resonate rst because of the way they sound, then because of their
content. (Poetry works in a similar way.) If you can inject a li le humour or wit along
the way, it will assist you to engage your audience.
Do try to go beyond the rhetorical ques on, which is o en overused!

Some Basic Rhetorical Devices

You might become familiar with some or all of these devices and use them in your
wri ng and speaking. The names of the devices are o en di cult, but their e ects
can be very helpful in making your speaking and wri ng persuasive. Perhaps reading
the e ects rst will help you to iden fy these techniques in wri ng or in speech.
They can also be helpful to know when you are listening to or reading persuasive
texts, because you will have a be er understanding of how you are being persuaded
by language!
Allusion is a short, informal reference to a famous person or event:
· If you take his parking place, you can expect World War II all over again.
· Plan ahead: it wasn't raining when Noah built the ark. --Richard Cushing
No ce in these examples that the allusions are to very well known characters or
events, not to obscure ones.
(The best sources for allusions are literature, history, Greek myth, and the Bible.)
Note also that the reference
serves to explain or clarify or enhance whatever subject is under discussion, without
sidetracking the reader.
Ampli ca on involves repea ng a word or expression while adding more detail to it,
in order to emphasize what might otherwise be passed over. In other words,
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 ampli ca on allows you to call a en on to, emphasize, and expand a word or idea to
make sure the reader realizes its importance or centrality in the discussion.
· In my hunger a er ten days of rigorous die ng I saw visions of ice cream--
mountains of creamy, luscious ice cream, dripping with gooey syrup and
calories.
· This orchard, this lovely, shady orchard, is the main reason I bought this
property.
· Pride--boundless pride--is the bane of civiliza on.
· He showed a rather simple taste, a taste for good art, good food, and good
friends.
Analogy compares two things, which are alike in several respects, for the purpose of
explaining or clarifying some unfamiliar or di cult idea or object by showing how the
idea or object is similar to some familiar one.
· You may abuse a tragedy, though you cannot write one. You may scold a
carpenter who has made you a bad table, though you cannot make a table. It
is not your trade to make tables. --Samuel Johnson
· He that voluntarily con nues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which
ignorance produces, as to him that should ex nguish the tapers of a lighthouse
might justly be imputed the calami es of shipwrecks. --Samuel Johnson
· . . . For answers successfully arrived at are solu ons to di cul es previously
discussed, and one cannot un e a knot if he is ignorant of it. --Aristotle
No ce in these examples that the analogy is used to establish the pa ern of
reasoning by using a familiar or less abstract argument which the reader can
understand easily and probably agree with.

Anaphora is the repe on of the same word or words at the beginning of successive
phrases, clauses, or sentences, commonly in conjunc on with climax and with
parallelism:
· In books I nd the dead as if they were alive; in books I foresee things to come;
in books warlike
· a airs are set forth; from books come forth the laws of peace. --Richard de
Bury

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 · Finally, we must consider what pleasantness of teaching there is in books, how

easy, how secret! How safely we lay bare the poverty of human ignorance to
books without feeling any shame! --Ibid.
· Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing
what they would nd at the top of the hill, not knowing that they were so near
to Disneyland.
Anaphora can be used with ques ons, nega ons, hypotheses, conclusions, and
subordina ng conjunc ons, although care must be taken not to become a ected or
to sound rhetorical and bombas c. Consider these selec ons:
· Will he read the book? Will he learn what it has to teach him? Will he live
according to what he has learned?
· Not me, not money, not laws, but willing diligence will get this done.
· If we can get the lantern lit, if we can nd the main cave, and if we can see the
stalagmites, I'll show you the one with the bat skeleton in it. be used for

Antanagoge: placing a good point or bene t next to a fault cri cism, or problem in
order to reduce the impact or signi cance of the nega ve point:
· True, he always forgets my birthday, but he buys me presents all year round.
· The new an -pollu on equipment will increase the price of the product
slightly, I am aware; but the e uent water from the plant will be actually
cleaner than the water coming in.
An thesis establishes a clear, contras ng rela onship between two ideas by joining
them together or juxtaposing them, o en in parallel structure. Human beings are
inveterate systema zers and categorizers, so the mind has a natural love for
an thesis, which creates a de nite and systema c rela onship between ideas:
· To err is human; to forgive, divine. --Pope
· That short and easy trip made a las ng and profound change in Harold's
outlook.
· That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. --Neil Armstrong
An thesis can convey some sense of complexity in a person or idea by
admi ng opposite or nearly opposite truths:
· Though surprising, it is true; though frightening at rst, it is really harmless.
· If we try, we might succeed; if we do not try, we cannot succeed.
· Success makes men proud; failure makes them wise.

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 An thesis, because of its close juxtaposi on and inten onal contrast of two terms or
ideas, is also very useful for making rela vely ne dis nc ons or for clarifying
di erences which might be otherwise overlooked by a careless thinker or casual
reader:
· In order that all men may be taught to speak truth, it is necessary that all
likewise should learn to hear it. --Samuel Johnson
· I agree that it is legal; but my ques on was, Is it moral?
Climax (grada o) consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in the order of
increasing importance, weight, or emphasis. Parallelism usually forms a part of the
arrangement, because it o ers a sense of con nuity, order, and movement-up the
ladder of importance. But if you wish to vary the amount of discussion on each point,
parallelism is not essen al.
· At 6:20 a.m. the ground began to heave. Windows ra led; then they broke.
Objects started falling from shelves. Water heaters fell from their pedestals,
tearing out plumbing. Outside, the road began to break up. Water mains and
gas lines were wrenched apart, causing ooding and the danger of explosion.
O ce buildings began cracking; soon twenty, thirty, forty stories of concrete
were diving at the helpless pedestrians panicking below.
· To have faults is not good, but faults are human. Worse is to have them and
not see them. Yet beyond that is to have faults, to see them, and to do nothing
about them. But even that seems mild compared to him who knows his faults,
and who parades them about and encourages them as though they were
virtues.
In addi on to arranging sentences or groups of short ideas in climac c order, you
generally should also arrange the large sec ons of ideas in your papers, the points in
your arguments, and the examples for your generaliza ons climac cally; although in
these cases, the rst item should not be the very least important (because its
weakness might alienate the reader). Always begin with a point or proof substan al
enough to generate interest, and then con nue with ideas of increasing importance.
That way your argument gets stronger as it moves along, and every point hits harder
than the previous one.
Dirimens Copula o: men oning a balancing or opposing fact to prevent the
argument from being one-sided or unquali ed:
· This car is extremely sturdy and durable. It's low maintenance; things never go
wrong with it. Of course, if you abuse it, it will break.
Exemplum: ci ng an example; using an illustra ve story, either true or c ous:
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 · Let me give you an example. In the early 1920's in Germany, the government
let the prin ng presses turn out endless quan es of paper money, and soon,
instead of 50-pfennige postage stamps, denomina ons up to 50 billion marks
were being issued.
Hyperbole, the counterpart of understatement, deliberately exaggerates condi ons
for emphasis or e ect. In formal wri ng the hyperbole must be clearly intended as an
exaggera on, and should be carefully restricted. That is, do not exaggerate
everything, but treat hyperbole like an exclama on point, to be used only once a
year. Then it will be quite e ec ve as a table-thumping a en on ge er, introductory
to your speech or some sec on thereof:
· There are a thousand reaons why more research is needed on solar energy.
Or it can make a single point very enthusias cally:
· I said "rare," not "raw." I've seen cows hurt worse than this get up and get
well.
Or you can exaggerate one thing to show how really di erent it is from something
supposedly similar to which it is being compared:
· This stu is used motor oil compared to the co ee you make, my friend.
Hyperbole is the most overused and overdone rhetorical gure in the whole world
(and that is no hyperbole); we are a society of excess and exaggera on. Nevertheless,
hyperbole s ll has a righ ul and useful place in art and le ers; just handle it like
dynamite, and do not blow up everything you can nd.
Hypophora consists of raising one or more ques ons and then proceeding to answer
them, usually at some length. A common usage is to ask the ques on at the
beginning of a paragraph and then use that paragraph to answer it:
· There is a striking and basic di erence between a man's ability to imagine
something and an animal's failure. . . . Where is it that the animal falls short?
We get a clue to the answer, I think, when Hunter tells us . . . . --Jacob
Bronowski
This is an a rac ve rhetorical device, because asking an appropriate ques on
appears quite natural and helps to maintain curiosity and interest. You can use
hypophora to raise ques ons which you think the reader obviously has on his mind
and would like to see formulated and answered:
· What behavior, then, is uniquely human? My theory is this . . . . --H. J.
Campbell

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 · But what was the result of this move on the steel industry? The annual reports
for that year clearly indicate. . . .
Hypophora can also be used to raise ques ons or to introduce material of
importance, but which the reader might not have the knowledge or thought to ask
for himself:
· How then, in the middle of the twen eth century, are we to de ne the
obliga on of the historian to his facts?..... The duty of the historian to respect
his facts is not exhausted by . . . . --Edward Halle Carr
· But it is certainly possible to ask, How hot is the oven at its ho est point,
when the average temperature is 425 degrees? We learned that the peak
temperatures approached . . . .
And hypophora can be used as a transi onal or guiding device to change direc ons or
enter a new area of discussion:
· But what are the implica ons of this theory? And how can it be applied to the
present problem?
· How and why did caveat emptor develop? The ques on presents us with
mysteries never fully answered. --Ivan L. Preston
No ce how a series of reasonable ques ons can keep a discussion lively and
interes ng:
· How do we know the FTC strategy is the best, par cularly in view of the
complaints consumerists have made against it? Isn't there some chance that
greater penal es would amount to greater deterrents? Why not get the most
consumer protec on simultaneously with the most punishment to o enders
by easing the requirements for guilt without easing the punishment? . . . It
happens that that's been tried, and it didn't work very well. --Ivan L. Preston
In the above example, the writer went on for several paragraphs to discuss the case
which "didn't work very well." It would also be possible for a writer to ask several
ques ons and then answer them in an orderly way, though that has the danger of
appearing too mechanical if not carefully done.
Litotes, a par cular form of understatement, is generated by denying the opposite or
contrary of the word which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and
context of the usage, litotes either retains the e ect of understatement, or becomes
an intensifying expression. Compare the di erence between these statements:
· Heat waves are common in the summer.
· Heat waves are not rare in the summer.
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 Occasionally a lito c construc on conveys an ironic sen ment by its understatement:

· We saw him throw the buckets of paint at his canvas in disgust, and the result
did not perfectly represent his subject, Mrs. Ji ery.
Usually, though, litotes intensi es the sen ment intended by the writer, and creates
the e ect of strong feelings moderately conveyed.
· Hi ng that telephone pole certainly didn't do your car any good.
· If you can tell the fair one's mind, it will be no small proof of your art, for I
dare say it is more than she herself can do. --Alexander Pope
· He who examines his own self will not long remain ignorant of his failings.
· Overall the avors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices combine to make the
dish not at all disagreeable to the palate.
But note that, as George Orwell points out in "Poli cs and the English Language," the
"not un-" construc on (for example, "not unwilling") should not be used
indiscriminately. Rather, nd an opposite quality which as a word is something other
than the quality itself with an "un" a ached. For instance, instead of, "We were not
unvictorious," you could write, "We were not defeated," or "We did not fail to win,"
or something similar.
Oxymoron is a paradox reduced to two words, usually in an adjec ve-noun
("eloquent silence") or adverb- adjec ve ("inertly strong") rela onship, and is used
for e ect, complexity, emphasis, or wit.
Rhetorical ques on (erotesis) di ers from hypophora in that it is not answered by
the writer, because its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a yes
or no. It is used for e ect, emphasis, or provoca on, or for drawing a conclusionary
statement from the facts at hand.
· But how can we expect to enjoy the scenery when the scenery consists
en rely of garish billboards?
· . . . For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living
on? --Marcus Aurelius
· Is jus ce then to be considered merely a word? Or is it whatever results from
the bartering between a orneys?
O en the rhetorical ques on and its implied answer will lead to further discussion:
· Is this the end to which we are reduced? Is the disaster lm the highest form
of art we can expect from our era? Perhaps we should examine the
alterna ves presented by independent lm maker Joe Blow . . . .
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 · I agree the funding and support are s ll minimal, but shouldn't worthy
projects be tried, even though they are not certain to succeed? So the plans in
e ect now should be expanded to include . . . . [Note: Here is an example
where the answer "yes" is clearly desired rhetorically by the writer, though
conceivably someone might say "no" to the ques on if asked
straigh orwardly.]
Several rhetorical ques ons together can form a nicely developed and directed
paragraph by changing a series of logical statements into queries:
· We shrink from change; yet is there anything that can come into being without
it? What does Nature hold dearer, or more proper to herself? Could you have a
hot bath unless the rewood underwent some change? Could you be
nourished if the food su ered no change? Do you not see, then, that change in
yourself is of the same order, and no less necessary to Nature? --Marcus
Aurelius
Some mes the desired answer to the rhetorical ques on is made obvious by the
discussion preceding it:
· The gods, though they live forever, feel no resentment at having to put up
eternally with the genera ons of men and their misdeeds; nay more, they
even show every possible care and concern for them. Are you, then, whose
abiding is but for a moment, to lose pa ence--you who are yourself one of the
culprits? --Marcus Aurelius
When you are thinking about a rhetorical ques on, be careful to avoid sinking to
absurdity. You would not want to ask, for example, "But is it right to burn down the
campus and trash the bookstore?" The use of this device allows your reader to think,
query, and conclude along with you; but if your ques ons become ridiculous, your
speech may become wastepaper.
Scesis Onomaton emphasizes an idea by expressing it in a string of generally
synonymous phrases or statements. While it should be used carefully, this deliberate
and obvious restatement can be quite e ec ve:
· We succeeded, we were victorious, we accomplished the feat!
· But there is one thing these glassy-eyed idealists forget: such a scheme would
be extremely costly, horrendously expensive, and require a ton of money.
· Wendy lay there, mo onless in a peaceful slumber, very s ll in the arms of
sleep.
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 Senten a: quo ng a maxim or wise saying to apply a general truth to the situa on;
concluding or summing foregoing material by o ering a single, pithy statement of
general wisdom:
· But, of course, to understand all is to forgive all.
· As the saying is, art is long and life is short.
· For as Pascal reminds us, "It is not good to have all your wants sa s ed."
Symploce: one word or phrase is repeated at the beginning and end of another word
or phrase is repeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences:
· To think clearly and ra onally should be a major goal for man; but to think
clearly and ra onally is always the greatest di culty faced by man.
Understatement deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is,
either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. When the writer's audience can
be expected to know the true nature of a fact which might be rather di cult to
describe adequately in a brief space, the writer may choose to understate the fact as
a means of employing the reader's own powers of descrip on. For example, instead
of endeavoring to describe in a few words the horrors and destruc on of the 1906
earthquake in San Francisco, a writer might state:
· The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the
downtown area.
The e ect is not the same as a descrip on of destruc on, since understatement like
this necessarily smacks of ippancy to some degree; but occasionally that is a
desirable e ect. Consider these usages:
· Henry and Catherine were married, the bells rang, and everybody smiled . . . .
To begin perfect happiness at the respec ve ages of twenty-six and eighteen is
to do pre y well . . . . --Jane Austen
· Last week I saw a woman ayed, and you will hardly believe how much it
altered her person for the worse. --Jonathan Swi
· You know I would be a li le disappointed if you were to be hit by a drunk
driver at two a.m., so I hope you will be home early.
Understatement is especially useful in dealing with a hos le audience or in
disagreeing with someone, because the statement, while carrying the same point, is
much less o ensive. Compare:
· The second law of thermodynamics pre y much works against the possibility
of such an event.
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 · The second law of thermodynamics proves conclusively that that theory is
u erly false and ridiculous.
Remember, the goal of wri ng is to persuade, not to o end; once you insult or put
o your opponent, objector, or disbeliever, you will never persuade him of anything,
no ma er how "obviously wrong" he is or how clearly right you are. The degree and
power of pride in the human heart must never be underes mated. Many people are
unwilling to hear objec ons of any kind, and view disagreement as a sign of
contempt for their intellect. The use of understatement allows you to show a kind of
respect for your reader's understanding. You have to object to his belief, but you are
sympathe c with his posi on and see how he might have come to believe it;
therefore, you humbly o er to steer him right, or at least to o er what you think is a
more accurate view. Even those who agree with you already will be more persuaded
because the modest thinker is always preferable to the aming bigot. Compare these
statements and consider what e ect each would have on you if you read them in a
persuasive ar cle:
· Anyone who says this water is safe to drink is either stupid or foolish. The stu
is poisoned with coliform bacteria. Don't those idiots know that?
· My opponents think this water is drinkable, but I'm not sure I would drink it.
Perhaps they are not aware of the dangerous bacterial count . . . [and so on,
explaining the basis for your opinion].
Source: Virtual Salt: A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices Robert A. Harris h p://
www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm
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 More persuasive techniques

Persuasive Example How the technique persuades

technique and
de ni on
Allitera on ‘Li le Lucas le in • Gains a en on; adds emphasis;
Repe on of a limbo’ o en in headlines
consonant, (Headline to a story • Draws a en on to key words
especially at the about a child wai ng • Not persuasive on its own but
start of words for surgery) can be when used with other
techniques
Anecdote ‘Three years ago my • Personal experience lends
A story about brother was killed in weight/credibility to the
someone or a car crash. Every writer’s viewpoint
something that the month I watch with • Gives a human angle, making
writer has horror as the road the issue seem more relevant or
experienced or toll con nues to rise.’ ‘real’
heard about
Colloquial language ‘That totally grossed • Colloquial language is seduc ve
Colloquial language me out’ vs ‘That because it appears friendly, and
is informal, really disgusted me.’ can make the audience feel that
everyday, the author is on the same
conversa onal wavelength as them.
language that
includes down to
earth views
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 Emo ve appeals ‘Soon we will see • If a writer can manipulate a

(pathos) civilians lying dead in reader to feel a certain way,
Emo ve appeals aim our own streets if we that reader should be more
to engage people’s do not act against likely to agree with the writer’s
feelings, not logic or terrorism.’ overall conten on.
reason. O en • Examples of emo ve appeals
writers will use include appeals to: family
other forms of values, fear and insecurity, hip-
persuasive language pocket nerve, loyalty and
techniques in order patrio sm, tradi on and
to appeal to custom, charity, compassion,
people’s emo ons. environmentalism, fairness,
freedom, safety, etc.
A acks and praise ‘The CEO of this bank • A ack: posi ons us to think
A acks or praises an is both immoral and badly of the person and
individual or group. unethical.’ therefore to dismiss their ideas
or viewpoint.
• Praise: makes us regard the
person and therefore their
ideas or viewpoint
Clichés ‘Some celebri es may • sympathe cally.
Reassures the reader through a
Overused phrase seem shallow, but we familiar expression
quickly understood shouldn’t judge a • Lulls the reader into an
by a wide audience book by its cover’ uncri cal mindset.
• O en has a comic e ect. This
can produce a light-hearted
amusing tone, or a sarcas c,
cri cal tone.
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 Emo ve language ‘Helpless animals are • Encourages the reader to
Language that has a su ering needlessly respond on an emo onal level.
strong emo onal cruel and painful • The readers’ emo onal
impact. Uses the deaths.’ response posi ons them to
posi ve and share the writer’s viewpoint.
nega ve
connota ons of
words to in uence
the reader’s
response.
Ethos A recipe given by a • As an audience, our percep on
Appeals based on stranger vs a recipe in of the speaker/writer's ethos is
the reliability, a recipe book by a what leads us to trust them.
credibility, or famous chef, e.g.
exper se of the Jamie Oliver.
writer
Evidence ‘According to food • Numbers and scien c ndings
The use of facts and industry sta s cs, appear factual.
gures to suggest a Victorians spend $3.8 • Make the writer’s viewpoint
ra onal or scien c billion a year on seem objec ve rather than
basis for a point of takeaways.’ subjec ve/personal.
view. • Beware – facts and gures can
be used selec vely, by omi ng
evidence to the contrary.
Exaggera on, ‘The reigning soccer • A racts the reader’s a en on
overstatement and champions were through a surprising or extreme
hyperbole completely destroyed claim, especially in headlines
Exaggerates the true in last night’s epic • O en combined with an
situa on for ba le.’ emo onal appeal
drama c impact. ‘Councils are losing • Can generate humour to make
the war against the reader view the writer’s
vandals.’ viewpoint posi vely.
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 Formal language ‘If we consider the • Formal language can make the
Proper language situa on in author sound knowledgeable
used when wri ng emergency wards, while removing emo on from
for professional or with increasingly low the issue.
academic purposes sta reten on rates, • Can make the argument sound
there are concerns reasonable and ra onal, and
about the capacity of the conten on seem balanced.
hospitals to maintain
adequate doctor to
pa ent ra os.’

Generalisa on ‘Genera on Y are • Appeals to a widely held belief

A sweeping spoilt, ckle and lazy.’ or prejudice
statement that • Can be combined with an
suggests what is emo onal appeal since the use
true for some is true of reason will reveal the aws in
for most or all. the generalisa on.
Inclusive language ‘Aussie homes are • The sense of belonging to the
Uses ‘we’, ‘our’, ‘us’, now the world’s same group posi ons the
etc., to include the biggest. But though reader to share the same ideas
readers in the same we’re gaining space, as others within that group.
group as the writer. we’re losing in macy, • Invokes our desire not to be
and the sense that ‘le out’ or regarded as an
there should be limits outsider.
to our consump on.’
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 Jargon When announcing a • The author can persuade

Specialised terms recession whilst the audience that they are
trying to save face a an expert on a certain issue
poli cian may call it or topic.
‘period of economic
adjustment’ or
‘interrup on of
economic expansion.’

Metaphor and ‘Ci zenship was • Creates a striking image, o en

simile thrown around like working on an emo onal level.
Figures of speech confe ’ • O en wi y; more engaging
that iden fy a than dry descrip on.
similarity between
two di erent things.
A simile uses ‘as’ or
‘like’; a metaphor
does not.
Pun ‘Koala cull un- • O en used in a headline to grab
A play on a word bearable for animal the reader’s a en on,
that suggests a rights ac vists’ especially through the use of
double meaning humour.
(e.g. ‘Bombers’ • Not essen ally persuasive but
meaning the the ‘double’ meaning of a word
football team or usually has a posi ve or
aircra in WWII). nega ve connota on.
O en plays on a
word with a similar
sound by di erent
spelling (e.g. whet/
wet)
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 Reason and logic ‘If we don’t have the • Suggest that the writer’s
(logos) resources to support viewpoint is true and not just
Used to link ideas an increased their opinion or emo onal
together and popula on, we can’t response.
develop an sustain this level of • Make the argument ‘water ght’
argument in support immigra on. It’s that so opposing viewpoints seem
of the main simple.’ less convincing.
conten on through • O en used with a detached
logical argument; an tone and/or formal style.
appeal to logic or
reason
Repe on ‘Women’s mags are • Emphasises the main point or
Using a word or self-hate manuals, key term
phrase several full of diets you’ll • O en used in speeches or
mes. never be able to s ck reinforce or highlight a point.
Anaphora to, lives you’ll never
Repe on of be able to lead,
beginning words or recipes for food
phrases. that’ll never look as
good on the table as
it does in the
pictures.’
Rhetorical ques on ‘Do members really • Forces the reader to supply the
A ques on with an want a lying, answer and see things from the
implied but incompetent business writer’s perspec ve.
unstated answer. as the club • Implies the answer is self-
president?’ evident and therefore correct.
• O en contains an emo onal
appeal.
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