Handout 2 PDF

EE 472: Control Theory II Outline
1. Introduction
Summer 2018
2. What is a Control System?
Handout #2 3. Elements of Control Systems?
4. Open-Loop Control Systems

Introduction to Modern Control 5. Closed Loop Control Systems
Engineering 6. Classification of Control Systems
7. Objectives for Control Systems

Prof. Mohamed Zribi
8. Control Design
Updated 30 May 2018
EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi 2
1. Introduction
• Automatic control plays a vital role in the advancement of
engineering and science.
1. Introduction • In addition to its extreme importance in space-vehicle

systems, missile-guidance systems, robotic systems, and
the like, automatic control has become an important and
integral part of modern manufacturing and industrial
processes.
EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi 3 EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi 4
What is a Control System?
• For example, automatic control is essential in the numerical
control of machine tools in the manufacturing industries, in Definition 1: “A control system is a device or set of devices to
the design of autopilot systems in the aerospace industries, manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of other devices
and in the design of cars and trucks in the automobile or systems.”
industries.
Definition 2: Control is the process of causing a system variable to
conform to some desired value (reference value).
• It is also essential in such industrial operations as controlling
pressure, humidity, viscosity, and flow in the process
A control (feedback) loop, including sensors, control algorithms
industries.
and actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a
variable at a set point or reference value.
6
EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi 5 EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Control is Everywhere, You just have to look for it Applications of Control

Control is used in
– Aerospace (Space shuttles, air planes)
– Manufacturing (Machine tools)
– Robotics (Assembly robots)
– Medical Equipment (Surgical robots)
– Chemical processing industry (Oil refineries)
– Body temperature regulation (Monetary policies)

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EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi
What do the Tornado and the Boeing have in common?
Other Applications of Control
- Energy generation - Materials
-Energy transmission - Physics
- Process control - Biology
- Discrete manufacturing - Economics Tornado Boeing 777
- Communication
Both are Highly nonlinear, complicated dynamics!
- Transportation
• Both are capable of transporting goods and people over long distances
- Buildings
BUT
- Entertainment
- Instrumentation
• One is controlled, and the other is not.
- Mechatronics • Control is “the hidden technology that you meet every day”
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9
• It heavily relies on the notion of “feedback” 10
Example 1: Example 2:
Process Control
Robotics
11 12
Building Control (Air) Traffic Control
13 14
Network Control
Vehicle Control
A craft capable of traveling in outer space

15
Control panel of an autopilot system

A missile-guidance system
A Computerized Numerical Control Turning Center

A Missile shooting a target
Example 12: Video laser disc player
Example 11: An Infant Incubator
(a)
A. Video laser disc player;

B. Objective lens reading pits
Precision temperature control
(b)
on a laser disc;
Skin temperature tracking
C. Optical path for playback
Oxygen concentration indicating
showing tracking mirror
rotated by a control system to
keep the laser beam (c)
positioned on the pits. 22

21 22
21
Example 14: Elevators

Example 13: CD Player a. Early elevators were
controlled by hand ropes
– The position of the laser spot in relation to the or an elevator operator.
Here, a rope is cut to
demonstrate the safety
brake, an innovation in
microscopic pits in a CD is controlled. early
elevators;
b. Modern Duo-lift
elevators make their way
up the Grande Arche in
Paris, driven by one motor,
with each car
counterbalancing the
other. Today, elevators are
fully automatic, using
23
control systems to regulate
24
23
position and velocity. 24
Example 16: A Rover Using an Embedded Computer in the
Example 15: Vehicle Systems Feedback Loop
Even window, doors, and lights

have embedded controllers.
Temperature control
Air bags
EGR control Active
Electronic fuel injection suspen
Electronic ignition sion
Electric power Electronic
26
steering (PAS) transmission
26
Anti-lock Cruise control 25
EE472 brakes
Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Example 17: A High-performance Race Car With An Adjustable Example 18: The Hybrid Fuel Car
Wing
27 28
27 28
Example 19: Idle-Speed Control System Example 20:
Ford Electronic Control Unit
There can be over 50
microprocessors on a given vehicle
today.
The trend is towards more and

more.
29 Each one adds functionality.

29 30
Example 21: Example 22: Consider using a radar to measure distance and
velocity to autonomously maintain specified distance between
vehicles.
Application of brakes to make the vehicle ‘behave’ better.
vehicle
steer dynamics
driver vehicle
command
states
driver
augmented
cues yaw
inputs:
brakes rate
road
info
MEMS gyro
driver
loop controller
31 32
Example 24: Automated Parallel Parking of an Automobile
Example 23: Car Cruise Control
Road grade
desired speed Control speed

Car
unit Engine body
speedometer
Bock diagram of closed-loop car speed control
Control mechanism: compute the difference between the set

speed and the actual speed; then open throttle according to the
33
quantity of error 34
Example 25: High-speed Rail System Showing Pantograph Example 26: The Segway (The Human Transporter)
And Catenary
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35
36
Example 27: Example 28: Aircraft Attitude Defined
The flight deck of the Boeing 757 features digital control

electronics, including an engine indicating system and a
crew alerting system. All systems controls are within
reach of either pilot. 38
38
Example 29: X-29 Experimental Aircraft Example 30: An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Generally the UAV is

controlled by ground operators. One significant challenge is to
develop control systems which will avoid in-air collisions.
39
Example 31: Two Helicopters Used To Lift And Move A Large Load Example 32: Motion Control
Broad term to describe processes where things are
moving.
Servomechanism: Traditional term to a closed-loop

system that directs the precise movement of an
object, such as an antennae.
41
41
Example 34: Manufacturing. Industry

Example 33:
A three-axis control system for

inspecting individual
A cutting tool
semiconducting wafers with a
44
highly sensitive camera 44
Example 35: Grinder System Example 36: Machine Tool With Table
46
45 46
A robot A robot
Example 40: Robot Welder
Example 39: A Robot for Sample Preparation
49 50
49 50
Example 41: Teleoperation of a robot manipulator Example 42: Force control of a robot manipulator
PA-10: Mitsubishi heavy industries
Master manipulator
who gives control
commands
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EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE472 Control Theory
Dr. Mohamed II
Zribi EE370 Dr. 2016
Spring Mohamed Zribi 52
Example 43: Microsurgery Robotic Manipulator Example 44: The Honda P3 Humanoid Robot. P3 Walks,
Climbs Stairs, And Turns Corners. Photo Courtesy Of American
Honda Motor, Inc.
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53 54
Example 46: A Robotic Hand

Example 45: The obrero robot is responsive to the
properties of the object it holds and does not rely on vision as the
main sensor but as a complement. Obrero is part of the humanoid
robotics group at the MIT computer science and artificial
intelligence laboratory.
55 56
55 56
Example 47: Robots Example 48: An Artist Illustration of a Nano-robot
Interacting With Human Blood Cells
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58
57 58
Example 49: Example 50: Micro-rover Designed to Explore an Asteroid
Rover was built to

work in
contaminated
areas at three mile
island in middleton,
pa, where a nuclear
accident occurred in
1979. the remote
controlled robot’s long arm can be
seen at the front of the vehicle.
59 60
59 60
Example 51: Example 52: Pressure Regulator
Solar-powered Mars rover Spirit. The vehicle can be controlled

from Earth by sending it path commands, r(t). The system is
operated with feedback, whose goal is to operate the rover with
modest effects from disturbances such as rocks.
61 62
Example 53: High-speed Proportional Solenoid Valve

Example 54: Control of a Nuclear Reactor
63 64
Example 55: The Internet: Largest Feedback System Example 56: A Modern High Voltage Transformer
Built By Man
Applications
Web FTP Mail News Video Audio ping napster
Transport protocols
TCP SCTP UDP ICMP
IP
Ethernet 802.11 Power lines ATM Optical Satellite Bluetooth

Link technologies
65 66
Example 57: Pitch control of wind turbines to keep a Example 58: Conceptual Method of Efficient Water
certain frequency Extraction Using Solar Power
67 68
Example 59: Water flow control in a hydro turbine to keep a
frequency
2. What is a Control
System?
70
2. What is a Control System?

In other words, Control means measuring the value of
A control system is a device or set of devices to the controlled variable of the system and applying the
regulate the behavior of other devices or systems control signal to the system to correct or limit
for the purpose of achieving certain objective
deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
(desired system response)
Manual vs Automatic Control Manual vs Automatic Control
There are two modes of Control: For example, driving a car implies controlling the vehicle to follow
the desired path to arrive safely at a planned destination.
1. If you are driving the car yourself, you are performing manual
– Manual Control (example: driving a car) (Manual control
control of the car.
requires human intervention.)
– Automatic Control (air conditioning)
73
2. If you design a machine (or use a computer to do it) then you
74
73 74
have built an automatic control system.
Example 60: Manual Fluid-flow Control Example 61: The level of fluid in a tank control
Goal: Regulate the level of fluid by adjusting the output valve.
•The input is a reference level of fluid and is memorized by the

operator.
•The sensor is visual.
•The operator compares the actual level with the desired level
75 and opens or closes the valve ( actuator). 76
75 76
What is an Automatic Control System?
• If the operator above is replaced by a computer or a device that

does not depend on direct human intervention, the system is
Manual Control
called an automatic control system.
• Roughly speaking, an automatic control system is a closed-
loop control system that requires no operator action.

77
Automatic Control System 78

Example 62: thermometer

Desired temperature Feedback: Feedback control refers to an operation
furnace
that, in the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the
difference between the input and the output of a system
mixer
and does so on the basis of the difference.
valve
operator gas
air
air
Desired temperature
air temperature
Desired temperature operator valve mixer furnace
temperature output
operator valve mixer furnace plant
input
output
plant measurement
input
measurement
Feedback Control (Closed-loop Control): Example 63: Automatic furnace temperature control system
A person could be assigned the task of sensing the Analysis: What does the operator do?
actual value of the output and comparing it with the air

Desired temp. Ur
temperature
command input. If the output is not equal the desired comparison valve mixer furnace
UC
output
value, the person can alter the valve to achieve this Plant
input
value. air
Desired temperature
temperature The operator performs a comparison, that is, an algebraic
operator valve mixer furnace
output operation Ur-Uc, and then tunes the valve to change the
plant
input
value of Uc. Such control processes can be replaced by an
measurement
automatic controller.
UR UT
Amplifier Thermocouple
Uc
Power Amplifier
Furnace
Potentiometer
Tr
Mixer
Valve
Motor Gas
Air
Air t
UR Uc
Amplifier Motor Valve Mixer Furnace due to disturbance
UT
Amplifier Thermocouple
Example 64: Computer control of furnace temperature system Example 65: Automobile steering control system
Desired Steering
Actual
course Driver mechanism Automobile course
of travel of travel
Tr
Measurement,
visual and tactile
o t
Example 66: Disk Drive Read System
3. Elements of Control
Systems
Desired Actual
head head
position position
88
88
The Concepts of a Control System
The system’s boundary depends upon the defined objective
A system is a collection of components which are co-ordinated function of the system.
together to perform a desired task. The system’s function is expressed in terms of measured output
variables.
Systems interact with their environment across a separating The system’s operation is manipulated through control input
boundary. variables.
The system’s operation is also affected in an uncontrolled

The interaction is defined in terms of the following variables:
– system inputs
manner through disturbance input variables.
– system outputs
89 90
– environmental disturbances
89 90
Main Elements of a Typical (Feedback)

Control Systems
Control System
Plant/Process - system to be controlled
Disturbances Controllers - devices that compute and generate control
signals/actions
System Outputs
Actuators - devices that perform control actions
Subsystem (Converts the control signal to a power signal)
Sensors - devices that measure the output of the system

Engineering systems
Reference Input: Represents the desired output
Biological systems
Information systems Control objectives - tasks, targets of control
91 92
91 92
Control Inputs
A General Control System Block Diagram of a Control System
Error n Disturbance
Disturbance r e u y
Controller Actuator Plant
Desired Controlled
Set-point
Controlled Manipulated
value - variable
Error Signal Variable
or
Reference Actual
input + + Output Sensor
Controller Actuator + Process
+ + lead-out point:
- comparison component Here, the signal is
(comparison point) : transferred along two
its output equals the algebraic separate routes.
Sensor sum of all input signals. The Block represents
Feedback Signal
the function and name of its
“+”: plus; “-”: minus corresponding mode, we don’t
need to draw detailed structure,
and the line guides for the transfer route.
93
Detailed Descriptions of the Elements

of Feedback Control Systems 1. Plant or Process
Plant/Process A physical object to be controlled such as a mechanical device, a
– The object or system to heating furnace, a chemical reactor or a spacecraft.
be controlled.
• Terminology comes from
chemical process plants like oil As an example consider position control of an aeroplane, or
refineries or power plants.
temperature control of a room.
• They were some the first to
pioneer closed loop control:
e.g. temperature, pressure. The physical layout of a plant is an intrinsic part of control
• We’ll use the state space
representation for these problems. Thus a control engineer needs to be familiar with the
systems. Coal-fired plant
95 "physics" of the process under study. 96
95 96
2. Sensors Sensors
– a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it Sensors are the eyes of control enabling one to see what is
into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an
instrument. going on. Indeed, one statement that is sometimes made
– Sensors are devices that allow you to determine what the about control is:
plant is doing.
– For example, in electrical systems, they measure: If you can measure it, you can control it.
• Current, voltage, etc. MEMS accelerometer
used in vehicle airbags
– For example, in mechanical systems, they measure: As an example consider the altitude sensor in an aeroplane or the
• Pressure, force, speed, position, etc.
thermometer that measures the temperature in a room.
– Usually, a system has fewer sensors than system variables
due to cost. 97 98
97 98
3. Controller 4. Actuators
– The controller is an agent that can calculate the required control - An actuator is a mechanical device that takes energy, usually
created by air, electricity, or liquid, and converts that into some
signal.
kind of motion.
– It is a device or operation that gives commands to the plant.
- Once sensors are in place to report on the state of a process,
– These commands are usually based on the current performance
then the next issue is the ability to affect, or actuate, the system in
of the plant compared to the desired performance of the plant.
order to move the process from the current state to a desired state.
– The controller may or may not include the actuator,
– The actuator is the device that enforces the controllers - As an example consider the ballet in an aeroplane or the fan in a
commands on the plant.
room.
99 100
99 100
Example 67: Typical flatness control set-up for rolling
mill
A typical industrial control problem will usually involve

many different actuators - see below:
101 A Modern Rolling Mill 102

101 102
5. Disturbances and Uncertainties Disturbances

Disturbances are the unexpected factors disturbing the normal
functional relationship between the controlling and controlled
parameter variations. – Any process that is not accessible to the controller
One of the things that makes control science interesting is that all real
but has an effect on the plant as well.
life systems are acted on by noise and external disturbances. These disturbances
factors can have a significant impact on the performance of the
system.
As a simple example, aircrafts are subject to disturbances Controller Plant
in the form of wind-gusts, and cruise controllers in cars
have to cope with different road gradients and different car
loadings. 103 Sensors 104
103 104
6. Reference Input 7. Feedback
Reference Input: What you’d like the measured output of Feedback: Variables that are coming out of your plant
your controlled plant to be.
that are being compared to your reference.
The reference input is also called the desired value of the – e.g. speed measurement of your car from wheel speed
controlled variable based on the specifications. sensors

– e.g. speed setting for your cruise control.
105 106
105 106
8. The Controlled Variable 9. Input

The signal that is passed from the controller to the plant to affect
some action.
Controlled variable: the variable controlled by the Automatic
– e.g. Throttle variation.
Control System, generally refers to the system output.
10. Output
Difference between your reference and your feedback signals.
All the signals coming out of the plant.
– e.g. 10 km/h difference between reference and feedback.
– Note: not all outputs are used in feedback
107 108
107 108
11. Architectures and Interfacing
12. Communications
The issue of what to connect to what is a non-trivial one in
control system design. One may feel that the best solution
Interconnecting sensors to actuators, involves the use of
would always be to bring all signals to a central point so that
communication systems. A typical plant can have many
each control action would be based on complete information
thousands of separate signals to be sent over long distances. Thus
(leading to so called, centralized control).
the design of communication systems and their associated
However, this is rarely the best solution in practice. Indeed, protocols is an increasingly important aspect of modern control
there are very good reasons why one may not wish to bring all engineering.
signals to a common point. Obvious objections to this include
complexity, cost, time constraints in computation, 109 110
maintainability, reliability, etc. 109 110

14. Computing 15. Algorithms
In modern control systems, the connection between

sensors and actuators is invariably made via a computer of
Finally, we come to the real heart of control
some sort. Thus, computer issues are necessarily part of engineering i.e. the algorithms that connect the sensors
the overall design.
Current control systems use a variety of computational

to the actuators. It is all to easy to underestimate this
devices including DCS's (Distributed Control Systems), final aspect of the problem.
PLC's (Programmable Logic Controllers), PC's (Personal
Computers), etc. 111 112
111 112
Example 68: A Control System Example 69: A Control System
Electronic
Ford ECU throttle body
reference error input output reference error input output

Controller Plant Controller Plant
feedback feedback
Sensors Sensors
Delphi
wheel speed
sensor
113 114
113 114
Example 70: Furnace temperature control system

Plant: Furnace
Controlled variable: Temperature of the furnace Uc
Reference signal: Desired temperature Ur

reference error input output
Controller Plant Control objective: To make Uc track Ur through the
controller as soon as possible.
The throttle could
UCD HEV Control actions analysis:
have a feedback feedback
Sensors Future Truck
loop of its own! 1) If Uc=Ur, no control actions are needed for the
Champs 2001
operator;
2) If Uc<Ur valve Gas Uc Uc=Ur;
115 3) If Uc>Ur valve Gas Uc Uc=Ur.
115
Example 71: Flush toilet
Example 72: Antenna Positioning Control System
Plant: water tank water

Input: water flow piston Original system: the antenna with
Output: water level h(t )
Expected value: h0 float lever electric motor drive systems.
Sensor: float h0
Controller: lever Control objective: to point the
h(t)
Actuator: piston antenna in a desired reference direction.
h0 q1 (t ) Water h(t ) Control inputs: drive motor voltages.
Lever Piston Tank threshold
Outputs: the elevation and azimuth of the antenna.
Disturbances: wind, rain, snow.

Float 118
118
Sensor 117
Antenna Control System

Example 73:
Functional Block Diagram
The output process is monitored by a sensor providing
Wind force
feedback, allowing the controller to make adjustments to the
Antenna System
volts torque Angular actuator.
Ref. + volts power position
input Diff. Power
_
amp amp Motor Antenna
Error
volts
Angle
Feedback Path sensor
Information Variables Physical Variables

119
119 120
The difference in the actual and set point produce an error,
The comparator compares the set point to the actual and
produces an error. which the controller responds too.
Error = set point – Actual
The controller works

to minimize the error
signal.
Zero error indicates

actual = set point.
121
Example 74:
Adjustable
Turntable
Speed Example 75:
battery
As a simple example from our everyday experience, consider the
DC DC motor
Speed setting +_ Amplifier problem of playing tennis at top international level.
Tachometer
(a)
Error
Desired Actual One can readily accept that one needs good eye sight (sensors)
speed Control Device Actuator Process speed
and strong muscles (actuators) to play tennis at this level, but
+_ Amplifier DC motor Turntable
these attributes are not sufficient. Indeed eye-hand coordination
Sensor (i.e. control) is also crucial to success.
Measured speed Tachometer
(voltage)
(b) 124
Turntable speed control: closed-loop 123 124
Better Sensors
Provide better Vision In summary:
Sensors provide the eyes and actuators provide the

Better Actuators
Provide more Muscle
muscle but control science provides the finesse.
Better Control
Provides more finesse by combining sensors and
actuators in more intelligent ways
126
125 126
Open-loop Control and Closed-loop

Control
Open-Loop Control
– Simple control system which performs its function without
4. Open-Loop Control concerns for initial conditions or external inputs.
– Must be closely monitored.
Systems Closed-Loop (feedback) Control

– Uses the output of the process to modify the process to
produce the desired result.
– Continually adjusts the process.

128
128
Open vs. Closed Loop Control Open-Loop Control Systems
Those systems in which the output has no effect on
the control action are called open-loop control
Gc Gp Gc Gp
systems.
Open-loop Closed-loop In other words, in an open-loop control system, the
(without feedback) (with feedback)
output is neither measured nor fed back for
comparison with the input.
Simplicity: Open loop controllers are usually
simpler with fewer components R U C
129
Controller Plant
被控对象
129
Open-Loop Control Systems Open-Loop Control Systems
Open-loop control systems: those systems in which the An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating
output has no effect on the control action.
System Control System device to control the process directly without using
input CONTROLLER signal PLANT output
feedback.
The output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison
Desired Output Actuating Process Output
with the input. Response Device
For each reference input, there corresponds a fixed operating
condition; the accuracy of the system depends on calibration.
In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop system will not
perform the desired task. 132
132
Open-loop Control Systems Open-Loop Control Systems
Performs its action without regard to the output or any
The controller does not use measurement of system output
external input.
being controlled when computing the control action, i.e.
no feedback
Example 76: The controller on a washing machine.
control
output t will run the washer through the cycle without regard
command input action
controller process sensor
for the cleanliness of the clothes in the machine, if there
is soap in the machine, temperature of the water, how
A block diagram representation of an open loop control
133 much clothes are in the machine, etc. 134
133 134
Example 77: Room Temperature Open Loop Control Example 78: Open Loop Control
Open-loop room temperature control scheme:
inlet vent
heat
Switch temperature
(on/off) furnace room
–no measurement for feedback

–fixed control action
–can’t adjust to unexpected changes from the system
environment 135
135
Example 79: Open Loop Control Example 80: Control of Traffic Lights. An open-loop
– Washing machine control system: The traffic lights turn on (off) on a time basis.
– Traffic Signals
Note that any control systems that

operates on a time basis are open-
loop.
Command
Output
Example 81: Furnace temperature control: Open-
input loop control method
Computer Switch Lights
被控对象
Switch Furnace
Controller Plant
Heater
Controlled plant: Traffic lights
Power
Controlled variable: The time interval on which the red,

yellow and green lights turn on or turn off Command input Output
Switch & Heater Furnace
被控对象
Reference signal: Desired timing sequence generated by a
computer in advance Controller Plant
Controlled plant: Furnace Example 82: Open Loop Control
Controlled variable: Temperature of the furnace The motor rotates at a reliable speed, such as 5 degrees/second.
Based on that, reliable positioning can be performed.
Reference signal: Timing sequence for the switch
given in advance.
Command input Output

Switch & Heater Furnace
被控对象
Controller Plant
Tr
o t 141 142
Example 83:
Adjustable Turntable
Speed Open-Loop Control Systems
Battery
Some comments on open-loop control systems
Amplifier DC motor
Speed setting – Simple construction and ease of
maintenance.
(a)
– Less expensive than a closed-loop system. Good
Control Device Actuator Process – No stability problem.

Actual speed
Amplifier DC motor Turntable – Recalibration is necessary from

time to time. Bad
Desired speed (b)
(voltage) – Sensitive to disturbances, so less accurate.
Turntable speed control: open-loop
Open-Loop Control Systems Pros & Cons of Open-loop Control
When should we apply open-loop control? Open-loop control is generally simpler than closed-loop control,
– The relationship between the input and output is Open-loop control does not require a sensor to measure the
exactly known. output,
– There are neither internal nor external disturbances. Open-loop control does not, by itself, introduce stability
problems;
– Measuring the output precisely is very hard or
economically infeasible. BUT
Open-loop control has lower performance than closed-loop to

match the desired output well. 146
Closed-Loop Control
A closed-loop feedback control system uses a
measurement of the output and feedback of the output
5. Closed Loop Control signal to compare it with the desired output or reference.
Systems Desired
Output
Response
Comparison Controller Process Output
Measurement
Single Input Single Output (SISO) System 148
Closed-loop Control
Closed-Loop Control
Also called feedback control, the controlled system
output is measured and being used for computing the - Senses the output of the controller or process.
control action. - Uses this output to change the process to meet the desired
result.
command control
input error action output - Controller can determine how accurate the output is or if it
controller actuator process
- producing the desired result.
- Control action depends on the output of the system.
sensor
A block diagram representation of a closed-loop control 149 150
Closed-Loop Control Systems Closed-Loop Control Systems

In practice, feedback control system and closed-loop Closed-loop control systems are often referred to as feedback
control systems.
control system are used interchangeably The idea of feedback:
– Compare the actual output with the expected value.
A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between
– Take actions based on the difference (error).
the output and the reference input by comparing them and Desired Control System
value Error signal output
using the difference as a means of control is called CONTROLLER PLANT
feedback control system.
Closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback

– This seemingly simple idea is tremendously powerful.
control action in order to reduce system error – Feedback is a key idea in the discipline of control.
Open versus Closed Loop Control Feedback Control
Definition: Feedback control is the process of using the difference
between the desired and actual values of the controlled variables in
order to reduce that difference.
Open-Loop Control System
– Feedback makes a system behave as desired
– Feedback stabilizes unstable system
– Feedback reduces effects of disturbances
and component variations
– Feedback gives new freedom for designers
153
Closed -Loop Control System

EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi 154
Why Feedback ? Why Feedback ?

Using feedback, we have the ability to achieve the following
objectives: objectives:
– Improve System Performance to meet stringent performance

– Stabilize Unstable Systems
requirements
For example, unstable plants such as inverted pendulum and
• Steady State Performance -- for example, reduce steady state
the position control of DC motor can be stabilized using
error due to disturbances ...
feedback.
• Transient Performance -- for example, reduce rise time and
settling time to speed up system response , …
155
Why Feedback ? Why Feedback ?
One of the advantage of the closed-loop systems is their
ability to recover from external, unwanted disturbances.
d
objective:
R C
– Reduce (Attenuate) the effect of modeling uncertainties Controller Plant
(error) and various disturbances through High-Gain —
Feedback Feedback element

• One of the key elements in all feedback control is to figure out
how one can employ high gain feedback to have better
disturbance and modeling error attenuation capability while Tr
without causing instability of closed-loop system in the
presence of various physical constraints such as control input o
saturation and neglected high frequency dynamics. t
158
Feedback Control Systems Emerged

Rather Recently 1940s Norbert Wiener leads gun positioning effort; feedback control
1600 Drebbel Temperature regulator engineering becomes an engineering discipline
1681 Pressure regulator for steam boilers 1950s Increased use of Laplace transform, s-plane, root locus
1765 Polzunov water level float regulator 1960s Sputnik, highly accurate control systems for space vehicles,
1769 James Watt’s Steam Engine and Governor robotics, and missiles
1868 James Clerk Maxwell formulates a mathematical model for 1980s Routine use of digital computers as control elements
governor control of a steam engine 1990s Feedback control in automobiles, automation, planetary
1927 Harold Black discovers and patents the feedback amplifier exploration
1927 Hendrik Bode analyzes feedback amplifiers
1932 Nyquist develops methods for analyzing feedback amplifier stability

159 160
Feedback Control: Benefits And Cost Benefits of Feedback Control
Main advantages of feedback:
• reduce disturbance effects
• make system insensitive to variations
• stabilize an unstable system
• create well-defined relationship between output and reference
• Improved control is a key enabling technology to:
Benefits: • Reduction of sensitivity to process parameters • enhanced product quality
• Disturbance rejection
• waste minimization
• More precise control of process at lower cost
• Performance and robustness not otherwise achievable • environmental protection
• greater throughput for a given installed capacity
Cost: • More mathematical sophistication • greater yield, and
• Large loop gain to provide substantial closed loop gain • higher safety margins
• Stabilizing closed loop system 162
• Achieving proper transient and steady-state response
161 162
Problems with Feedback Control Open-loop Control and Closed-loop

Control
• More complex than open-loop control (feedback increases The structures of open loop control and closed loop control
the overall complexity of a system) are fundamentally different:
• May have steady state error

In an open-loop control, the system does NOT measure the
• Depends on accuracy with which you can measure the output
actual output and there is no correction to make so that the
• May cause stability problems output conforms to the desired output.
• May cause instability if not used properly
In a closed loop control the system includes a sensor to
• May couple noise from sensors into the dynamics of a
measure the output and uses feedback of the sensed value to
system influence the control input variable.
164
163 164
Closed-loop versus Open-loop • For systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in
Control Systems which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop

control. The open-loop control system is simpler than a closed-
• An advantage of the closed-loop control system is the fact that loop system.
the use of feedback makes the system response relatively

• The main disadvantage of open-loop systems is the lack of ability
insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in
to external disturbances and variations in system parameters.
system parameters.
• It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive
• A proper combination of open-loop and closed-loop controls is
components to obtain the accurate control of a given plant,
usually less expensive and will give satisfactory overall system
whereas doing so is impossible in the open-loop case.
performance.
165
166
Open vs. Closed Loop Control Open vs. Closed Loop Control
Type of Advantages Disadvantages Type of Advantages Disadvantages
system system
1. Open- 1. Simple construction and ease of 1. The system response 2 Closed- 1. Makes the system response 1.Risk instability
loop maintenance. very sensitive to external . loop relatively insensitive to external
control 2. Less expensive than a disturbance and internal control disturbance and internal 2. Complexity in analysis
system corresponding closed-loop control variations in system system variations in system parameters and implementation and
system parameters. 2. Possible to use relatively expensive
3. There is no stability problem 2. Recalibration is inaccurate and inexpensive
4.Convenient when output is hard necessary from time to components to obtain the
to measure or measuring the time in order to maintain accurate control of a given plant.
output precisely is economically the required quality in 3. Better control of transient &
not feasible. the output steady-state response
4. Increased accuracy
-Increased ability to
reproduce output with
varied input.
167 167 168 168

Open-loop vs. Closed-loop Combined Feed-forward plus
Feedback Control Systems
Open-loop control Closed-loop control
• Combined feed-forward plus feedback control systems
Simple structure, Ability to correct error
low cost
High accuracy and Measured

Easy to regulate resistance of disturbance disturbance
F. controller
Complex structure,
Low accuracy and high cost
R C
resistance to disturbance Controller Plant
Selecting parameter is critical
(may cause stability problem) —
Feedback
Open-loop＋Closed-loop＝Composite control system 169 element 170
Combined Feed-forward plus Feedback Combined Feed-forward plus Feedback

Control Systems Control Systems
171
Example 84:
• Combined feed-forward plus feedback control can An Electric toaster is an open-loop control. Since:
significantly improve performance over simple 1. The controller is based on the knowledge.
feedback control whenever there is a major 2. The output is not used in control computation
disturbance that can be measured before it affects the

Example 85:
plant output.
A water tank of an ordinary flush toilet is a (basic)
feedback control Since:
1. The output is fed back for control computation

174
173
Open Loop
Closed Loop
Vehicle Control System
175
Temperature Control System ( Heater or Air Condition)

Autopilot Control System
177
178
Example 90: Closed loop Room Temperature Control

Closed-loop room temperature control scheme
heat variation
inlet room temp.

desired temp. heat
thermostat furnace room
– thermostat: sensing plus control device
– automatically adjust room temperature

Response of closed-loop room temp. control
179 180
– can easily change room temp. as desired
Example 91: Open Loop Control Example 92: Closed Loop Control
Missile Launcher System Missile Launcher System
Open-Loop Control System

Closed-Loop Feedback Control System
The reference input is the desired angular position of the missile
Should an error exists, it is amplified and applied to a motor
launcher, and the control system consists of potentiometer, power
drive which adjusts the output-shaft position until it agrees
amplifier, motor, gearing between the motor and missile launcher,181and with the input-shaft position, and the error is zero. 182
missile launcher.
Example 93:
Continuously Measure Stabilize Measured Compute Relative

Present Target Position Quantities Target Velocity
Line of Sight
Environmental Inputs
Weapons Positioning orders
Ballistic
Unstabilized Calculations
Target Future Time of
Launch Launch Angles Flight
Elevation Angles (Stabilized)
Target
Gun Position Relative
Elevation Horizontal Reference Plane Motion
183 Calculations 184
Prediction Procedure 184

Example 94: Control Systems In Humans Example 95: Thermoregulation
Pancreas Desired body core temperature is 37°C
• Regulates blood glucose level
During exercise we do work
Adrenaline
– Running, lifting, jumping
• Automatically generated to increase the heart rate and
– This generates heat that must be dissipated.
oxygen in times of flight
Eye Body’s solution is: sweating.
• Follow moving object – Increases rate of heat transfer via convection &
Hand evaporation.
– Sweat evaporation carries more thermal energy than just
• Pick up an object and place it at a predetermined
location radiating the heat or relying on air/skin interaction.
Temperature
186
• Regulated temperature of 36°C to 37°C 185 186
Example 96: Heart-rate Control
Disturbances
•Ambient temp
•Activity level
Desired temp.= 37°C body temp

sweat
glands
body
core body temp nerve cells
• Classic example of a Feedback Control System 188

187
187 188
Example 98:
Example 97:
Inverted pendulum on a cart system
Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE370 Spring 2016

States of the system:
Inverted pendulum • Cart position
• Cart velocity
Free joint
Force • Angle of the
Cart pendulum
Wheel
• Angular velocity of
the pendulum
189 190
189 190
Example 99: Human Balance System
perturbation
Analogy of human balance control: position
– ankle, hip strategy: similar to inverted pendulum brain
ankle,
body
(com)
hip, foot
– step strategy: similar to inverted pendulum on a
cart Sensors:
eye, inner ear balance sys. &
legs (pressure)
Block diagram of human balance control

191 192
191 192
Example 100: A Large Optical Telescope with Deformable Example 101: Antenna azimuth position control system:
Mirrors for Atmosphere Compensation.
a) system concept
193 194
193 194
EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE472 b) Theory

Control detailed
II layout;
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Example 102: Important Components of the Sun-tracking

Control System
c) schematic
195 196
195 196
d) functional block diagram
Example 103: A Feedback Control System Model Of The Example 104: Other examples of closed-loop systems
National Income
• The human body is highly advanced feedback control system.
• Body temperature and blood pressure are kept constant by

means of physiological feedback.
• Feedback makes the human body relatively insensitive to

external disturbance. Thus we can survive in a changing
environment.
197
197
198
Classification of Control Systems
1. According to
6. Classification of structure
Control Systems Open-loop

control
Closed-loop
control
Composition
control
199 200
Classification of Control Systems Remark:
2. According to
reference input a) If the aim is to maintain a physical variable at some fixed value
when there are disturbances, this is a regulator.
Constant-value Servo/tracking Programming For example: speed-control system on the ac generators of power
control control control utility companies.
• the reference input (expected
• the reference input may
• the input changes
value) is a constant value be unknown or varying b) The second class is the servomechanism. This is a control system
according to a program
• the controller works to keep the • the controller works to
• the controller works in which a physical variable is required to follow (track) some desired
output around the constant value make the output track the
according to predefined time function.
e.g. constant-temperature varying reference
command
control, liquid level control and e.g. automatic navigation For example: an automatic aircraft landing system, or a robot arm
constant-pressure control. e.g. numerical control
systems on boats and designed to follow a required path in space.
machine 202
planes, satellite-tracking 202
antennas 201
Classification of Control Systems Classification of Control Systems

3. According to
4. According to
system
signal form
characteristics
• superposition principle applies

Linear control • described by linear differential Continuous All the signals are functions of
system equation control system continuous time variable t
Signals are in the form of either a

Nonlinear • described by nonlinear differential Discrete pulse train or a digital code
control system equation control system
e.g. digital control system
Remark:
A digital control system refers to the use of a digital computer
5. According to
or controller in the system, so that the signals are digitally parameters
coded, such as in binary code.
Digital computers provide many advantages in size and The parameters of a control
Time-invariant system are stationary with respect
flexibility. system
to time
– The expensive equipment used in a system may be shared
System contain elements that drift
simultaneously among several control channels. Time-varying or vary with time
system e.g. Guided-missile control system, time-
– Digital control systems are usually less sensitive to noise.
varying mass results in time-varying
parameters of the control system

Example 105: A SISO Control System
According to Number of Inputs and Number of Outputs
Single Input Single Output Systems (SISO),

+
+ +
Single Input Multi Output Systems (SIMO), CONTROLLER System
-
Multi Input single Output Systems (MISO),
Multi Input Multi Output Systems (MIMO).
207 Sensor 208

207 208
Single Input Single Output (SISO) System
Example 106: A MIMO Control System Example 107: A SISO Control System
This example only considers the problem of keeping the
aircraft on the centerline of the runway (controlling the
lateral position).
209 210
209
210
Example 108: A SISO Control System Example 109: A MIMO Control System
Road grade
desired speed Control speed

Car
unit Engine body
Coordinated
speedometer control
system for a
boiler-
A SISO Control System: closed-loop car speed control
generator.
212
212
211
Objectives of a Control System
Before choosing/designing sensors, actuators or control

architectures, it is important to know the goal, that is, to
7. Objectives of Control formulate the control objectives.
Systems This includes what does one want to achieve (energy reduction,
yield increase,...) what variables need to be controlled to achieve
these objectives what level of performance is necessary
(accuracy, speed,...) 214
214
Control System Design Objectives Basic Requirements of Control Systems

Primary Objectives: Stability: refer to the ability of a system to recover
equilibrium
1. Stability
Quickness: refer to the duration of transient process before
2. Transient Performance (Speed of response) the control system to reach its equilibrium (Transient
3. Steady state Performance (Accuracy) response)
4. Robustness (insensitivity to parameter variation) Accuracy: refer to the size of steady-state error when the
transient process ends
(Steady-state error=desired output – actual output)
Addition Considerations:
Robustness: refer to the reaction of the system when the
1. Cost of control
parameters of the system changes or when disturbances act
2. System reliability on the system.
215
215
Summary of Performance Specifications Remark:
• A desired control system should be stable with For a control system, the above first three
sufficiently fast transient response and sufficiently performance indices (stability, quickness, accuracy)
small steady-state error. are sometimes contradictory.
• Also the system should be robust to changes in

the parameters of the system as well to In design of a practical control system, we always
disturbances acting on the system. need to make compromises.
Detailed Performance Specifications

1) Stability
A control system must be stable. A stable system is a
dynamic system with a bounded response to a bounded
input.
u System y t
t The famous Tacoma Narrows Bridge before it collapsed.
The bridge was found to oscillate whenever the wind blew.
An unstable system
u System y
u: Wind energy
y: Amplitude of the bridge
t t
On November 7, 1940, a wind produced an oscillation that

grew in amplitude until the bridge broke apart. The above An unstable system
picture shows the catastrophic failure.
u y
u System y
t u System y
t
t t t t
A stable system R-C network is a stable system

2) Transient Response
u y
System
u y
Mp
The robot is a six-legged micro robot system using highly
0 0
flexible legs with high-gain controllers that may become t
ts t
unstable and oscillate. Therefore, more control effort is needed The transient response of a practical control
for the robot to work well. system often exhibits damped oscillations before
reaching steady state.
Requirements of the transient response: u System I y

u y
u
It is desirable that the transient response be 0 0

t t
sufficiently fast and be sufficiently damped.
y
u System II y
0 t
u System III y
0 t
3) Steady state error
The steady state response is an approximation of the
desired response
Steady state errors in a control system can be attributed to

many factors
Steady state
u System y error
u y
0 0
t ts t
Steady state Example 110: Consider an elevator rising from ground to the 4th floor.
u System y error
u y
0 0
t ts t
u
u
0 0
Requirement of steady state error:t It is desirable that the steady state error tbe
sufficiently small. 232
232
General Controller Structure
In general, a controller is nothing but a strategy to determine a
control action based on all available information; information not
8. Control Design only come from the measured output but also from the measured
internal state variables, measured disturbance, reference
trajectory, and plant model structure.
It can have any form and is illustrated below
So use your own imagination to come out new control schemes!234

233 234
General Controller Structure Control System Design Process

1. Establish control goals
d (t )
dˆ (t )
Sensor
Disturbances 2. Identify the variables to control
3. Write the specifications for the variables

Measured Disturbance
Reference Trajectory r(t) Information u (t ) y(t ) 4. Establish the system configuration and identify the actuator
Other Available Information Synthesis Plant Dynamics
5. Obtain a model of the process, the actuator and the sensor
Control Strategy
6. Describe a controller and select key parameters to be adjusted
Measured State Variables
Sensors
Measured Output
7. Optimize the parameters and analyze the performance
236
So use your own imagination to come out new control schemes! 236
235
How to Design a Feedback Control System?
If the performance meet the specifications, then
Modeling. Obtain mathematical description of the systems.
finalize design
Analysis. Analyze the properties of the system.
Design. Given a plant, design a controller based on If the performance does not meet specifications,
performance specifications.
then iterate the configuration and actuator
Implementation: analog filters, digital controllers, micro-
controllers, PLC, DCS, etc.
237 238
237 238
Modeling Control Implementation

Design Procedure • Development of algorithms;
• Testing the algorithms via simulation;

System analysis
• Testing the algorithms on the plant using a rapid
prototyping system;
• Collecting preliminary performance data for comparison

System Design
with the base case;
• Final implementation;
• Collection of final performance data;

Implementation 240
• Final reporting on project. 240
System Integration Example 111: Disk Drive Read System
Success in control engineering depends on some of the issues:

plant, i.e. the process to be controlled
• objectives
• sensors
• actuators
• communications
• computing
• architectures and interfacing
• algorithms Goal of the system: Position the reader head in order to read data
stored on a track.
• accounting for disturbances and uncertainties
Variables to control: Position of the reader head
242
241 242
Specification:
i. Speed of disk: 1800 rpm to 7200 rpm Step 1. Control goal
Design a system that will held the position the reader head to
ii. Distance head-disk: Less than 100nm
read the data stored on a track on the disk.
iii. Position accuracy: 1 µm
iv. Move the head from track ‘a’ to track ‘b’ within 50ms Step 2. Variable to be controlled
Position of the reader head
System Configuration:
Step 3. Control design specification
Design a system that will ensure that the head :
- “flies” above the disk at a distance of less than 100 nm,
- with the position accuracy is 1 m,
- with speed from track to track 50 ms 244
244
Step 4 Preliminary system configuration
Example 112: Rotating disk speed control
Step 1: Control goal

Design a system that will hold a rotating disk at a constant speed.
Ensure that the actual speed of rotation is within a specified

percentage of desired speed.
Closed Loop System
245 246
245
Step 2. Variable to be controlled Step 4. Preliminary system configuration
Speed of rotation disc
Design a system that will ensure that the actual speed of
rotation is within a specified percentage of desired speed.
247 Open Loop System 248
The feedback control system uses a tachometer as a sensor that
provides an output voltage proportional to the speed of its
shaft.
The error voltage is generated by the difference between the

input voltage and the tachometer voltage as shown in the figure
We expect the feedback system to be superior to the open-loop

system because the feedback system will respond to errors and
act to reduce them.
With precision components, we could expect to reduce the

error of the feedback system to one-hundredth of error of the
Closed Loop System
249 open-loop system
Example 113: Insulin delivery system

Step 1. Control goal
Design a system to regulate the blood sugar concentration of a
diabetic by controlled dispensing of insulin.
Step 2. Variable to be controlled

Blood glucose concentration

Provide a blood glucose level for the diabetic that closely
Dr.
Time → approximates the glucose level of a healthy person. Moha
med
Zribi
The blood glucose and insulin concentrations for a healthy person. 251 252
EE37
251 0
252
Sprin
EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi g
2016
Step 4. Preliminary system configurations
Example 114: Car And Driver
Objective: To control direction and speed of car

Outputs: Actual direction and speed of car
Control inputs: Road markings and speed signs
Disturbances: Road surface and grade, wind, obstacles
Possible subsystems: The car alone, power steering system,
A drug-delivery system implanted in the body uses an open-loop
253 breaking system 254
system, since miniaturized glucose sensors are not yet available.253 254
Functional block diagram:

Desired Actual
course course
of travel + Error Steering of travel
Driver Automobile
Mechanism
-
Measurement, visual and tactile
255
Time response:
256
255 256
Example 115: Cruise control
Actuate Sense
Gas Pedal Vehicle Speed
Compute
Control “Law”
257 CONTROL = SENSING + COMPUTATION +

Block diagram of Car and Driver System
ACTUATION
258
257 In Feedback “Loop” 258
Goals of the Control System
Stability: system maintains desired operating point (hold mv bv ueng uhill

steady speed) ueng k (vdes v) Disturbance
Road grade uhill
Desired Control
Actual
Performance: system responds rapidly to changes
velocityvdes Calculation signal Auto velocity v
Engine
(accelerate to 80 km per hour) Reference Error
element ueng body
Controlled
input variable
Sensor
Robustness: system tolerates perturbations in dynamics
Speedometer
(mass, drag, etc) Measured
259
velocity
259 Sensor noise
Disturbance 260
disturbance
reference + Control + System

-
Model Stability/performance
– Steady state velocity approaches
desired velocity as k mv bv uengine uhill
Smooth response; no overshoot or
–
oscillations uengine k (vdes v)

mv bv uengine uhill Disturbance rejection Stability/performance vss vdes as k
uengine k ( vdes v ) – Effect of disturbances (hills) Steady state velocity approaches desired velocity as k → ∞;
approaches zero as k Smooth response: no overshoot or oscillations
Robustness Disturbance rejection
– Results don’t depend on the specific Effect of disturbances (eg, hills) approaches zero as k → ∞
values of b, m, or k for k sufficiently Robustness
large 261
Results don’t depend on the specific values of b, m or k, for k sufficiently large
261
262
What is Studied in Control?
Control Theory
• Linear, nonlinear control • Intelligent control
• Robust control • Stochastic control
• Adaptive control • Sliding mode control
• Optimal control • Networked control
• Hybrid systems
Control Applications
• Power/energy system control • Building control
• Hybrid electrical vehicles • Smart grids
• Intelligent transportation sys. • VLSI design optimization
• Control of communication and • Biological systems
network systems • And more…
Robotics
• Humanoid robots • Healthcare robots
• Mobile robot sensor network • Learning algorithms
• Multi-robot interaction • Image processing
• Human-robot interaction • Cognitive robots
• Fault tolerant robotics
EE472 Control Theory II Dr. Mohamed Zribi 263

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EE 472: Control Theory II Outline

Handout #2 3. Elements of Control Systems?

4. Open-Loop Control Systems

Engineering 6. Classification of Control Systems

7. Objectives for Control Systems

1. Introduction • In addition to its extreme importance in space-vehicle

Control is Everywhere, You just have to look for it Applications of Control

– Aerospace (Space shuttles, air planes)

– Manufacturing (Machine tools)

– Robotics (Assembly robots)

– Medical Equipment (Surgical robots)

– Chemical processing industry (Oil refineries)

– Body temperature regulation (Monetary policies)

A craft capable of traveling in outer space

Control panel of an autopilot system

Example 9: Example 10:

A Computerized Numerical Control Turning Center

A. Video laser disc player;

positioned on the pits. 22

Example 14: Elevators

Even window, doors, and lights

The trend is towards more and

29 Each one adds functionality.

desired speed Control speed

Bock diagram of closed-loop car speed control

Control mechanism: compute the difference between the set

The flight deck of the Boeing 757 features digital control

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Generally the UAV is

Servomechanism: Traditional term to a closed-loop

Example 34: Manufacturing. Industry

A three-axis control system for

Example 37: Example 38:

PA-10: Mitsubishi heavy industries

Example 46: A Robotic Hand

Example 49: Example 50: Micro-rover Designed to Explore an Asteroid

Rover was built to

Solar-powered Mars rover Spirit. The vehicle can be controlled

Example 53: High-speed Proportional Solenoid Valve

Ethernet 802.11 Power lines ATM Optical Satellite Bluetooth

2. What is a Control System?

– Automatic Control (air conditioning)

Goal: Regulate the level of fluid by adjusting the output valve.

•The input is a reference level of fluid and is memorized by the

• If the operator above is replaced by a computer or a device that

• Roughly speaking, an automatic control system is a closed-

loop control system that requires no operator action.

Automatic Control System 78

Example 62: thermometer

actual value of the output and comparing it with the air

Example 66: Disk Drive Read System

A system is a collection of components which are co-ordinated function of the system.

The system’s operation is also affected in an uncontrolled

Main Elements of a Typical (Feedback)

Sensors - devices that measure the output of the system

Detailed Descriptions of the Elements

A typical industrial control problem will usually involve

101 A Modern Rolling Mill 102

5. Disturbances and Uncertainties Disturbances

controlled variable based on the specifications. sensors

8. The Controlled Variable 9. Input

maintainability, reliability, etc. 109 110

14. Computing 15. Algorithms