GENERAL PHYSICS 2, WEEK 3 AND 4, QUARTER 4

Kirchhoff’s rules and R-C circuits

As we saw in the preceding section, combinations of resistors can be simplified and analyzed using the expression ∆V=IR and the
rules for series and parallel combinations of resistors. Very often, however it is not possible to reduce a circuit to a single to a single
loop. The procedure for analyzing more complex circuit is made possible by using the two following principles, called Kirchhoff’s
rules.

1. Junction rule– At any junction, the sum of the current must equal to zero:

Σ I= 0
junction

2. Loop rule– The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero:

∆V 0
closed loop Σ =
Kirchhoff’s first rule– is a statement of conservation of electric charge. All charges that enter a given point in a circuit must leave
that point because charge cannot build up at a point. Currents directed into the junction are entered into the junction rule as +I,
whereas currents directed out of a junction are entered as –I. Applying this rule to the junction gives:

I1 - I2 - I3=0

Figure 1 represent a Figure 1: mechanical analog of this situation, in

which current flowing out of the branches must be equal to the
current flowing into the single branch.
I2
I1
Flow in Flow out

I3

Kirchhoff’s second rule– follows from the law of conservation of energy. Let’s imagine moving a charge around the a closed loop of
a circuit. When the charge returns to the starting point, the charge- circuit system must have the same total energy as it had before
the charge was moved. The sum of the increased in energy as the charge passes through some circuit element must equal the sum
of decreases in energy as it passes through other elements. The potential energy decreases whenever the charge moves through a
potential drop– IR a across a resistor or whenever it moves in the reverse direction through a source emf. The potential energy
increases whenever the charge passes through a battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.

When applying Kirchhoff’s second rule, imagine traveling around the loop and consider changes in electric potential rather
than the changes in potential energy. Imagine traveling through the circuit elements in figure 2-a,b,c,d towards the right. The
following sign conventions apply when using the second rule:

• Charge move from the high-potential end of a resistor towards the low-potential end, so if a resistor is traversed in the direction
of the current, the potential difference ∆V across the resistor is –IR (Figure 2-a).
 Figure 2-a I

b a
∆V= -IR

• If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the potential difference ∆V across the resistor is +IR (Figure 2-b).

Figure 2-b I

b
a
∆V= +IR

• If the source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is traversed in the direction of emf (from negative to positive), the
potential difference ∆V is +E (Figure 2-c).

Figure 2-c
E
- +
a b
∆V= +E

• If a source emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from negative to
positive), the potential difference V is -E (Figure 2-d).

Figure 2-d
E
+ _
a b
∆V= -E

The following procedure is recommended for solving problems that involves that cannot be reduced by the rules for combining
resistors in series and parallel.
1. Conceptualize– study the circuit diagram and make sure you recognize all elements in the circuit. Identify the polarity of
each battery and try to imagine the directions in which the current would exist in the batteries.
2. Categorize– Determine whether the circuit can be reduced by means of combining series and parallel resistors. If so, use
the techniques involving series and parallel connection.

3. Analyze– Assign labels to all known quantities and symbols to all unknown quantities. You must assign directions to the
currents in each part of circuit. Although the assignments of current directions is arbitrary, you must adhere rigorously to the
directions you assign when you apply Kirchhoff’s rules.

Apply the junction rule (Kirchhoff’s first rule) to all junctions in the circuit except one. Now apply the loop rule (Kirchhoff’s second
rule) to as many loops in the circuit as are needed to obtain, in combination with the equations from the junction rule, as many
equations as there are unknowns. To apply this rule, you must choose a direction in which to travel around the loop (either
clockwise or counterclockwise) and correctly identify the change in potential as you cross each element. Be careful with the signs.
4. Finalize– check your numerical answer for consistency. Do not be alarmed if any of the resulting currents have negative
value. That only means you have guessed the direction of that current incorrectly, but magnitude will be corrected.

Example 1: For a Single– Loop Circuit

A single– loop circuit contains two resistors and two batteries as shown in the figure. Find the current in the circuit (assuming there
are no internal resistances in the batteries).

E 1= 6.0 V
_ + I b
a

R = 10 R1= 8 ohms
ohms
2

__ +
d c
E 2= 12 V

Given:
R1= 8 ohms
R2= 10 ohms
E2= 12 V
E1= 6.0 V

Solve for I

Solution:
Conceptualize: shows the polarities of the batteries and a guess at the direction of the current.
Categorize: There no junctions in this simple circuit or single loop circuit; therefore the current is equal to all elements.
Analyze: Let’s assume the current is clockwise as shown in the figure. Traversing the circuit in the clockwise direction, starting at a,
we see that a b represent a potential difference of +E1 , b c represents a potential difference of –IR1, c
d represents a potential difference of —E2 , d and a represent potential difference of –IR2.

Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the single loop in the circuit:

Σ ∆ V= 0 E1— IR1— E2— IR2 = 0

Closed Loop

Note that I is equal all through out the circuit:

Σ ∆V= 0 E1— E2= IR1 + IR2 Σ ∆V= 0 I= E1

— E2
=
6 V — 12 V

R1 + R2 8 ohms + 10 ohms

E1— E2
 Σ ∆V= 0 I= 1 2 Σ ∆V= 0 I= -0.33 Amperes
R+R

Finalize: The negative sign for I indicates that the direction of the current is opposite the assumed direction. The emfs in the
numerator subtract because the batteries in the figure have opposite polarities. The resistance in the dominator adds because the
two resistors are in series. (Loop rule is commonly applicable in series connection, since series connection is considered to be a
connections in one loop).

Example 2: Multiloop Circuit E1= 14 V

e +_
Find the currentsI1, I2 and I3 shown in the figure. f

Loop 3 R1= 4 ohms I2

Loop 3 R2= 6 ohms I1

_ +
b c
E 2= 10 V
Loop 2 I3
R3= 2 ohms
a d
Solutions:
_

Conceptualize: We cannot simplify the circuit by the rules associated with combining resistances in series and in parallel. (if 10
volts were not present, we could reduce the remaining circuit with series and parallel combinations.)
Categorize: Because the circuit is not a simple series and parallel combination of resistance, this problem is one in which we must
use Kirchhoff’s rules.
_
Analyze: We arbitrarily choose the directions of the currents
as labeled in the figure.

Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junction c.

(1) I1 + I2 - I3= 0
We now have one equation with three unknowns:
I1 , I2 , I3 . There are three loops in the circuit: abcda, befcb abcda: (2) 10 v - (6Ω)I1 - (2Ω)I3= 0
- 14 v + (6Ω)I1 - 10 v= 0
befcb: -(4Ω)I2
and aefda. We need only two loops equations to determine the
unknown currents. (The third loop equation would give no (3) -24 v + (6Ω)I1 - (4Ω)I2= 0
new information.) Let’s choose to traverse these loops in the
clockwise direction. Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to loops abcda
and befcd:

Solve equation (1) for I3 and substitute into Equation (2): 10 v - (6 Ω)I1 - (2 Ω)(I1 + I2)= 0
Take note that I1 + I2 = I3 (4) 10 v - (8 Ω)I1 - (2 Ω)I2= 0

Multiply each term in equation (3) by 4 and each term in Equa- (5) -96 v + (24 Ω)I1 - (16Ω)I 2= 0 tion
(4) by 3: (this is done so that I1 can be eliminated, think (6) 30 v - (24 Ω)I1- (6 Ω)I2=0
two number that will be multiplied to the term of the two
equation which will give the same product of I1.

Add equation (6) to equation (5) to eliminate I1 and find

I2. -66 v - (22 Ω)I2= 0 , I2= -3 Amperes
Use this value of I2 in equation (3) to find I1:

Use equation (1) to find I3: -24 v + (6 Ω)I1 - (4 Ω)(-3 A)= 0

-24 v + (6 Ω)I1 + 12 v= 0 , I1= 2 Amperes

I3= I1 + I2= 2 amps - 3 amps= -1 Amperes

Finalize: Because our values I2 and I3 are negative, the directions of these currents are opposite those indicated in the figure. The
numerical values for the currents are correct. Despite the incorrect direction, we must continue to use the negative values in
subsequent calculations because our equations were established with our original choice. What would have happened had we left
the current direction as labeled in the figure but traversed the loops in the opposite direction.

RC Circuits
In DC circuits containing capacitors, the current is always in the same direction but may vary in time. A circuit containing a series
combination a series combination of a resistor and capacitor is called an RC circuit.

Charging a Capacitor C
a
Figure 3– a, b, c shows a simple series RC circuit. Let’s assume the
capacitor in this circuit is initially uncharged. There is no current while
the switch is open (figure 3-a). b

If the switch is thrown to position a at t=0 (figure 3-b), however,

charge begins to flow, setting up a current in the circuit, and the R
capacitor begins to charge. Notice that during charging, charges do not
jump across the capacitor plates because the gap between the plates
represent an open circuit. Instead, charge is transferred between each
plate and its
connecting wires due to the electric field established in the E wires by (a)
the battery until the capacitor is fully charged. The value of the
a C
maximum charge on the plates depends on the voltage of the battery.
Once the maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero
because the potential difference across the capacitor matches that b
supplied by the battery.

To analyze this circuit quantitatively, let’s apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to I

R
the circuit after the switch is thrown to position a. Traversing the loop in
clock wise gives an equation:

E
q (b)
C
E- C - IR = 0 a

Where q/C is the potential difference across the capacitor and IR is the b
potential difference across the resistor. We have used the sign
convention discussed earlier for the signs on E and IR. The capacitor is
traversed in the direction from the positive plate to the negative plate, I
R
which represent a decrease in potential difference. Note that q and I
are instantaneous values that depends on the time (as opposed to steady
state values) as capacitor is being charged.
 E
(c)
To find the initial current in the circuit and the maximum charge
on the capacitor. At the instant the switch is thrown to position
a (t=0), the charge on the capacitor is zero.

E
Iinitial = (current at t=0)
R

At this time, the potential difference from the battery terminals

appears entirely across the resistor. Later, when the capacitor is
charged to its maximum value Q, charges cease to flow, the
current in the circuit is zero, and the potential difference from
the battery terminals appears entirely across the capacitor.
Substituting I=0 . Maximum charge on the capacitor is.

Q= CE (maximum charge)
To determine the analytical expressions for the time dependence of the charge and current, we must solve
, a single equation containing two variables q and I. The current in all parts of the series circuit
q
E- C - IR = 0

must be the same. Therefore the current in the resistance R must be the same as the current between each capacitors plate and
the wire connected to it. This current id equal to the time rate of change of charge on the capacitor plates. Therefore, we must
substitute I= dq/dt into and rearranged the equation: q

E- C - IR = 0

dq E q
= -
dt R RC

From the definition of the natural logarithm, we can write an expression as:

q(t)= CE(1— e –t/RC) = Q(1— e-t/RC) Charge as a function of time for a capacitor being
charged

Where e is the base of the natural logarithm and we have made the substitute from Q= CE (maximum charge)

We can find an expression for charging current by differentiating q(t)= CE(1— e –t/RC) = Q(1— e-t/RC)
Exponential constant, 2.718

Current as a function a function of time E for a capacitor

being charged I(t)= e—t/RC
R
The time constant represent the time interval during which the current decreases to 1/e of its initial value; that is, after a time
interval Ƭ, the current decreases to I=e-1 Ii=0.368Ii . After the time interval 2Ƭ, the current decreases to I=e-2Ii=0.135Ii, and so
forth. Likewise, in a time interval , the charge increases from zero to CE[1-e-1]=0.632CE .

The following dimensional analysis shows that Ƭ has unit of time:

Because Ƭ= RC has units of time the combination t/RC is dimensionless, as it must be to be an exponent of e in equation
q(t)= CE(1— e –t/RC
) = Q(1— e-t/RC). The energy output of the battery as the capacitor is fully charged is QE=CE2. After the
capacitor is fully charged, the energy stored in the capacitor 1/2QE= 1/2QE2 , which is only half of the energy supplied by the
battery appears as internal energy in the resistor.

Discharging a Capacitor
Imagine that the capacitor is active (figure 3-b) is completely charged. A potential difference Q/C exists across the capacitor and
there is zero potential difference across the resistor because I=0. If the switch is now thrown to position b at t=0 (figure 3-c), the
capacitor begins to discharge through the resistor.

At some time t during the discharge, the current in the circuit is I and the charge on the capacitor is q . The circuit in figure 3-c is the
same as the circuit in figure 3-b except for the absence of the battery. Therefore we eliminate the emf E from equation E-q/C-IR=0
to obtain the appropriate loop equation for the circuit in figure 3-c is.

Integrating this equation gives as:

q(t)= Qe
Charge
-t/RC
as a function of time for a discharging capacitor

Differentiating the equation with respect to time gives the instantaneous current as a function of time:

Q
I(t)= - e-t/RC Current as a function of time for a discharging capacitor
RC

Where Q/RC= Ii, is the initial current. The negative sign indicates that as the capacitor discharges, the current direction is opposite
its direction when the capacitor was being charge. Both the charge on the capacitor and the current decay exponentially at rate
characterized by the time constant Ƭ= RC.

Example 3: Charging capacitors in RC circuit

An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to a battery as shown in the figure, where E=12 v, C= 5 uf and R=
8 x 105 ohms. The switch is thrown to a position a . Find the time constant of the circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor, the
maximum charge on the current in the circuit, and the charge and current as function of time.

C
Solution: a
Conceptualize: Study the figure and imagine throwing the switch position a
as shown. Upon doing so, the capacitor begins to charge. b

I
Categorize: We evaluate our results using the equations developed in this section, so we categorize this example as substitution
problem.
R
Evaluate the time constant of the circuit from equation:

Ƭ= RC = (8 x 105 ohms)(5 x 10-6F)= 4 sec.

E
Evaluate the maximum charge on the capacitor:

Q=CE= (5 x 10-6 f)(12 v)= 60 x 10-6 C or 60 uf

Evaluate the maximum current in the circuit:

Ii= = = 15 uf

Use these values in to find the charge and current as function of time:

q(t)= (60 uC)(1– e-t/4sec.)

I(t)= (15 uA)(1– e-t/4sec.)

Example 4: Discharging Capacitor in RC circuit

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C that is being discharged through a resistor of resistance R as shown in the figure.

C
(A) After how many time constants is the charge on the capacitor a
One-fourth its initial value?
b
Solution:
Conceptualize: Study the figure in example number 1 and imagine
I
throwing the switch to position b as shown in the figure. Upon doing
R
So, the capacitor begins to discharge.

Categorize: We categorize the example as one involving a discharging

Capacitor and use the appropriate equations.

E
Analyze: Substitute q(t) = Q/4 into q(t)= Qe-t/RC

Q = Qe –t/RC

1 = e –t/RC
 4

t
Take the logarithm of both sides of the equation and solve for t: -In 4= -
RC

t= RC In4=1.39RC= 1.39 Ƭ
(B) The energy stored in the capacitor decreases with time as the capacitor discharges. After how many time constant is this stored
energy one-fourth its initial value?
Solution:
Use equation of energy stored in a charge capacitors and equation for discharging capacitor at a function of time, to express the
energy stored in the capacitor at any time t:

2 2
q Q -2t/RC
(1) U(t)= = e
2C 2C
1 Q
2
2 Q2 -2t/RC

Substitute U(t)= 1/4(Q /2C) into equation (1): = e

4 2C 2C

1 -2t/RC
=e
4

2t
Take the logarithm of both sides of the equation and solve for t: -In 4= -
RC

t= 1/2RC In 4= 0.693RC= 0.693Ƭ

Finalize: Notice that because the energy depends on the square of the charge, the energy in the capacitor drops more rapidly than
the charge on the capacitor.
Example 5: Energy Delivered to a Resistor
A 5uf capacitor is charged to have a potential difference of 800 volts and then discharged through a resistor. How much energy is
delivered to the resistor in the time interval required to fully discharge the capacitor?

Solution:
Conceptualize: In example 4, we considered the energy decreases in a discharging capacitor to a value of one fourth of the initial
energy. In this example the capacitor fully discharges.

Categorize: To model the circuit as an isolated system. Because energy in an isolated system is conserved, the initial electric
potential energy Uc stored in the capacitor is transformed into internal energy Eint= ER in the resistor.

Analyze: We begin with the isolated system approach.

Write the appropriate reduction of the conservation of energy equation (Review physics 1).
K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 (conservation of energy equation)

∆U + ∆Eint= 0

Substitute the initial and final values of the energies: (0– UC)+(Eint –0) = 0 ER= UC
Use equation for electric potential energy in capacitors: ER= 1/2(CE 2)

Substitute numerical values: ER= 1/2(5 x 10-6F)(800)2= 1.60 J

Example 5:
A single loop circuit contains two resistors and two batteries as shown in the figure. Solve for R1 if I is unknown.

Given: R1= ?
R2= 8ohms
E1= 10 volts a b
E2= 12 volts
I

_
+
Solve for R1=? E 2= 12 V
E1= 10

+
_
V Solution:

Conceptualized: Review the polarities and what is the possible

current flow. d c
R2= 8 ohms

Categorize: The resistors are connected in series therefore apply loop rule on the circuit.
Analyze: Assume that the current flow is clock wise. Start from d.
See that: d a, +E 1 b c, -E2
a b, -IR c a, +IR

Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

Σ ∆V= 0 E1— IR1— E2 + IR2 = 0 since I is equal all thru out the circuit
E1— E2

Σ ∆V= 0 I=

R1 + R2
Substitute values
10 v— 12 v

Σ ∆V= 0 I=
R1 + 8ohms

—2 v

Σ ∆V= 0 I=
R1 + 8ohms

Σ ∆V= 0 IR1= -I8ohms-2v

-I8ohms-2v Ans.
Σ ∆V= 0 R= I

Finalize: the value of R is negative there assumption of the current direction is wrong.

Other related facts about series circuit and parallel circuit.

1. Series Circuit– this circuit is the simpler type of circuit, the loads are connected along the path of the current. Voltage in
series circuits are being divided by the loads (it is not necessary equally divided the division depends on the wattage of the loads)
but amount of current is equal all thru out the circuit. That is why you can notice that lamps connected in series emits dimmer
lights or sometimes some of the lamps will not emit light at all. Since the loads are connected along the flow of current or
connected in a single loop if one lamp is removed or busted the remaining lamps will not function because the flow of current is
being cut off. The advantage of series circuit is, it is more likely to overheat, because the circuit only consist of single loop
therefore there will be lesser path for the current to travel.

2. Parallel Circuit– This circuit is a complex circuit commonly used in house hold wiring. In this circuit lamps or loads are
connected in different loops. The voltage in parallel circuit is equal all thru out the circuit but current is being divided to the lamps.
Lamps in parallel circuit emits equal amount of light (if lamps have equal wattage), and if one lamps if removed or busted the other
remaining lamps will function this is because lamps are connected in different separate loops. Since the parallel is connected thru
loops there will be more path of the current this will result to accumulation of heat.

Note: You can visit the EIM Shop to actually observe this facts. If you do so ask for filament type lamps not the LED’s.
Activity sheet, Week 3-4, quarter 4:

Name:_____________________________________________ Date:______________

Instruction: Do this activity in a short or A4 bond paper.

Self Check: Identify what is being asked.

1. What would be the sum of current in Kirchhoff’s rule if we apply it in multiple circuits?

2. What would be the sum of the potential difference in Kirchhoff’s rule if we apply it in simple circuit?

3. What rule states that, all charges that enter a given point in a circuit must leave that point because charge cannot build up at a
point?

4. What rule states that, the sum of the increased in energy as the charge passes through some circuit element must equal the sum
of decreases in energy as it passes through other elements?

5. Why is it that RC circuit is called “RC circuits”?

Problem Solving: Solve the following problems involving Kirchhoff’s rule and RC circuits.

1. 3 resistor and 2 batteries are connected as shown in the figure. Solve for (a) current (b) What if the R3 is unknow. Solve for the
resistance of R3 using the computed value of I.

R1= 2ohms
 a b

_
E 1= 15 V

+
R2= 5 ohms
I

R2= 3 ohms
_
c +
d
E 2= 12 V

Figure for problem 1:

2. Find I1 and I2 if R1=3 ohms and R2=2 ohms, E1=5v and E2=8v. They are arranged as shown in the figure.

E_2= 8 V f
e +

I2
R2= 2 ohms R1= 3ohms

b c

I1

_ +
a d
E1= 5 V
Figure for problem 2:

3. Consider a capacitor of capacitance C that is being discharge through a resistor of resistance R as shown in the figure.

Solve for:
a C
(a) After how many time constant is the current in the capacitor
reaches 1/6 of its initial value.
b
(b) What would be the real value of time (t) if
R= 2 ohms and C= 1.5 x 10-6 Fs I
R

E
Figure for problem 3: