B.Se. Sem-IPhysicsl B.Se.

Sem-IPhysies
1.3 Addition ofvectors:
Vector Algebra and Calculus Comsider bwo vectors OP and o acting on

1.1 INTRODUCTION a point Oas abown in fig. 2.Set the vector 0Q at

The physical the end of oP and drawing the OR joining the
and vector quantities.
qunatities are mainly
divided into two class: scalar
quantities
The scalar quantities have
only magnitude and not the direction. Vector begining of oP to the end of PR
quantities have both magnitude and direction. Length of a bridge, area of aplay So, oR-0P+PR
ground, volume of abody, density, speed, mass, potential etc. are
scalar quantities.
Displaçement, velocity, acoeleration, force, momentum etc are vector
In present chapter we will discuss some basic quantities.
vector and scalers. concepts and operations of Adimilar result is obtained by setting the vector OP at the end of oQ and
1.2 Scalars and Vectors:
drawing the oR joining the beginíng of oq to the end of QR
There are many physical quantities which can be
giving their magnitudes alone. For example 5 sq m area,completely specified by
2 kg of mass etc. The So, OR= 00+QR
additions of these quantities are simply artithmatic süm. 10 gm +6 gm = 16 gm
ike that. 00+0P
A vector quantitiy may be represented graphically by a line PQ pointing Thus the sum of two vectors is the diagonal of the parallelogram with the
in the direction from P to Qas in vectors as its sides.
figure 1
To ind the sum of three vectors, we frst obtain the sum of gp and 00 as

above. Let this sum is OR (Figure-3)

P
Fig.!
Then we obtain the sum ofthe vectors OR and OS aa shown in ig.3.
The
magnitude of the vectors quantity is given by the Hence,
while the direction in space is indicated by an arrowhead marklength
of the line,
on the line. Thus
OR-OP+PR
the vector PQ is denoted by v and its scalar OP+0Q and
magnitude or modulus is stated by
v.Two vectors are said to be equal when
they have the same length and direction. or-OR+RT
Thus a vector
v=PQ equal to all vectors obtained from PQ by a parallel
is
OR+OS
displacement or translation. The parallel vectors are called colinear vectors. A
vector having the same magnitude as that of the given vector but directed in the
opposite sense is called a negative of the given vector. The position of a point with
OP+00+08
of assoeiation.
respect to an arbitrary origin can be represented by a The sum of any number of vectors, therebre, follows the law
vector. The vectors are said to be vector called the position adding its
co-initial if they have à common initial The subtraction of a vector 0Q from vector OP is same as
The vectors which are confined to the same plane are called point.
the initial and terminal points of a vector are coplanar vectors. If Degative i.e.
null vector and has a zero magnitude and no coincident,
the vector is called u
magnitude is defined as unit vector.
direction. A vector baving unit -00-0P-00
TEka Yrakashan &Co
Ekta Prakashan &Co
 BSc Sem-I Physier B.Se. Sem -1 Paysies B.Se. Sem-l Pbysies
From
A-A,+A, to the p figure -5, it is clear that the scelar product of two vector (v)LatA
B -ABcos
vectorin the directionof the for one vector and the conponent of theaEe Angiebetween the two vectpES
14 Resolutionof vectors AiAA Following are the important results ot scalar ABASA
Thus When two vectors are perpendicular to each product of two vectors:
other, i.e. G 90, then
cas- BTA.AB-B -B
AB ABcos 0 AB cos 90 =0
L. Vector product of two vectors:
can be found by dividing
the vector Thus, and i,j and kare unit veciors
direction ofA perpendicular to each other, therefore, Thevector product or cross product of two vectors dengted
The unit vectar A in the and BIs
A as

ij=j k- ki =0
by its magaitude A () The two vectors are AxB and isread as Across B. The ross product AxB gives a vector result.
llel.
aptiparall colinear, 1.e. 0 =0 means paralel or The direction of the resultant vector is perpendicular to the plane coataining
8=180° means
If60 then Aaad B.Itispositioveifthe rotationfrom Á toBisanti-cdockwiseaud aegative
AAA
Scalar product of two vectors: AB ABcos ABcos 0- AB iftherotation from åto Bisclockwie (Figure-.
and denoted if g=180°, then
dot product of two vectors
A B is as

The scalar prod act or

Thevectos cas be resolved into oOmponent vectors along the thre B givesa cealar rusule.
orthonaaaxes ot the cartesian Dardinate eystem in whuch the three axes 02, nd iread as A dot B. Thedot produet A A-B- ABcos 8- AB cos180 -AB
OYand 0Zare mutually perpendacuiar toeach otaer. he unuEectarsaiongt Bisdeñned vectors scalar
quantity G)
Aand of A-Band 9-0, then
as a

x, y and axes are represented by krespectivcly. The rectanguliar The scaierproduet oftwo vectorsgnitudes the given two and the
ysten such a ebown n tigure 4andi.) andnght
z

is caled tbe bended -ariai syim 7hichis equal to the proauce o directiona, ifg bethe angle between the directions
when rotated from Xto Yzsthrougha smallanpiewilmovethe screwinthe ineof the zngle between their AB-AA- AA cos6- AAcosQ- A
ESCEN
positive direction of2axis
thetwo vectors A and B, asinfigure 5, then Hence for vectors i,j and k
Letthe vector A=OP in a rectangiarco-ordinate systembe reaoived AB ABcos ii-j-k£-
into itscomponent vectorsin the direction of, Yand Zaxis.Lettheinitinlpoint = A(Boos6) iv) The vector A and Bin terms of
ofthe vector Abe at the originOofthe co-ordinate system.Druw arectangular thoir componeuts can be written as Fig.6
5uch dha D E aiong the throe cartesian axes A(OM)

sucnaat tne vecor Abecomesthe diago A-A,i+A,A,k and T'he vector product of two vectors A and Bis defined as avector quantity.
Iet Az, Ay and A, bethe vectors interoepts alozng X, Yand Zezie which is equal tothe productofthemagnitude of thegventwovectors and the
respectively and A, A and A, betheir magnitudes regpecively. aineof the angle between their directions. If8 be the angle between tho directions
Honce AA, : ÄB -(a,i+ A,j+A,8}
(B,i-8,+ ) ofthe two vectors AandB, then

Pig6
A,B,ii)-A,B,6 )-A,3, . ÁxB= ABsin9-
Eta Prakashan &Co A,B+A,B,+A,8,
Ekta Prakashan &Co Ekta Praleashan &Co"E Ekta Pralkashan&Co.
 B.Se. Sem-1 Paysies
-AzBy)-i{AxBz -AzBx)+ k{AxBy- Bx) B.Se. Seo-I Physics B.Se. Sem-1 Physies
i(AyBz
ABeinfn
=

(o Let 18 Vector triple product:

Se +{AxBy -AyBx}, and

and Assin e- (AyBs AzByj

- -{AzBz -AzBx The sealar
prodoct of and
B-C is a product ofthis area and he The vector product of two vectors B and C is a vector, which give vector
isa unit weetor perpendicular to the ector A
Follewing are the importat resuls af vector produrt f two c A-Ax+A+A
quantity ifwe taken cross product of it with a third vector A. ie.
The changs in the arder afvectors in s cros-poduct reverses tbe direca -BrBB projection of A along the vector xCwhich is equal to Acos
f the produt ie
BA-AB sint(AyB-AaByf+[AxBz-AaBx +[AxBy-AyBx) ABxC area of base xhoight
r t h e two vectos a e enllinear, ie b=0° ar 6=180", the sine- Ar+AA(Bx+ By"+Br") This is known as vector triple product

AxB- ABeiz en-AB sinD a -0 This is the volume

of tbe parallelopiped enclosed by thoe vectors A, B and erahuateA Bwo ahall frst find B.
:
h e two vectors are equal then
L7 Scalar triple product as its edges.
AB-Ar- AAsini-AAsinoá-0 vectors B and C is a vector, which give scalar As any face of the parallelopiped can be
af two
The vecior produrt taken as its base, three equivalent
expressions for volume are
Sence for unit vectors i j and third vector A. ie.
take dot product ofit with a
C
ii- jxj-kxi-0 quantity ifwe
Gv) fthe two vectors ae perpendicuiar to each otber, ie. 6-90", then -(ByCa-BeC)i +(B«Cx-B«Cz)i-(B«Cy-ByCxy&
In
AxB-ABsinen - ABsin 90ã -AB Thus it
scalar triple product the position of dot and cross may be
can be also interchanged.
written as,
It is cleared that BxC is a vector
This is known as scalar triple product. Ay Az
Hence for unit vectors and ij and k.
plane of B and C and
its magnitude is equal to the area of a (ByCz-Bz0y) (BaCx-BxCa) (BxCy-ByCx)|
inj.ji-iamd Exioj and Dormel to tbe
The first term of the above expression is,
B and C shown in figure 7.
ii-i, Esj--i andivi-i parallelogram having the sides represented by
We can also written the scalar triple
product as
AB
=
[Av(BxCy-ByCx)-Az(BzCx-BxCa)]i
()The vectors A and B in terms
ef their eomponenta; If the three vectors umay be
co-planar, then [AyBxCy-AyByCx- AtB:Cx+AzBxCa]i
A cos Add and subtract AxBxCx and rearranging the terms,
First term
[(AvhxOy+ A~adz+ Ax~«x)-4AyByCx +AaB&tx +Ax««)] i
Thescalar triple product in terus of rectangular components of vectors
may be written as
B(AyCy+AxCa+AxCa)-Cx(AyBy+AaBz+AxBx]i

-AxA
Bx
As
Ba By Ax Az
Bz
Similarly
i(AvB-ABy)-i(ArBe-Azhr)-k{Azy- Ay) CxOy Ca
JEkt Prakashan & Ca" Ekta Pralkashas & Co BeondTermi-Bdj-o{A®}
AEkta Prakashan & Ca
 B.Se Sem-I Physics
(x+ Ax,y
tCbe the point
(, )
and A De Lne point
Ax,y+ay) the rate BSc. Sem -1 Physles
B.Se. Sem- I Physics

line AC.
SSe-I Phyaior the slope ofthe Assume a
curve as shown in
uguretio). Ftere y depends on x. y becomes
1.11 Integral Calculus:
equais (11).
2aximun at, ana nm un a at A t thesa
ponts the tangent tw the curve is Consider the curve between two quantities x
and y
as shown in igure
Thaurd Term B 4C-a AB tan Let OA= a OB =b.
and
BC
the rate.
paraler toa*axS, U s ope u t a n G = 0 . But siope is equaia to the rate of
Draw perpendiculars from point P and Qon the X-axis. the
can not be a partieular deinitiorn of -f(). Now we want to fnd the area APQB
ofrate at each point. We shall see that as Decaus Lhe change Hence at a maxim um or at a minimurn, Now denote the value of y at z by y
Ading ail then iers Howover, thise mad divisiona. "The length of
urve have not Saneva the slope of t
aller
tbe s ope of the
line AC approaches
with
ofy tangent Suppose we
langth AB into N equal
divide the
smaller and rate o change respoct to x at C.
C thus gives the Now draw the lines from the ends of each swall length
at C. This slope at each division is Ax
he curve. Now druw the short lines
denotod as a
Just before the maximum the slope is positive and just after the
maximu parailel to y-axis. Those lines are cut given
parailel to these line cut the curve. Thus the rectangular oae are

the slope is negative and at the maximum it as zero

Thus,
paralel to as shown
osn in ngure (11).
and C. positivei nega tive
decreases at a constructed fgure
(11).
the piaae costainig Thusn
A the vectar
B.C perpendinuiar to

write, maximum and hence the rate ot change of 1s negative at a maximum, ie.
dx we can
Por small changes
d
the vrecter
AB. C) wl perpesdiciar thn piane mtainingto
as d at a maxim uan
Pig.9
B.La it i l be in the
piae ef ßead .
increases witn an
inerease n x at a point, The quantity ds the rate of change of the slope. It is written
fthe function y
Aie ofB.-6. ).i. beca use dy apd dx
both are posituve.
if funetion y decrenses with an increase nx,

when dx is positive.
1.9 Differential calculus, as rate measure : because dy 18 negative
is Degative, Thua the condition of maximum is,
Pigure (8) presents a graph afy aguinst x. Here for each velue ofz there
s One and oDe value caleulus, as Maxima and Minima :
ofy. Suppose xs changed by a amal amount r and the L.10 Differential
corresponding change in y is 4y. Thus Fig. 11
maxima Now the total area under the curve PQ is approximately equal to the sum
and a
dx ofthe areas ofthese Nrectangularbara,ie.
Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from
negative to posifive.
a f(ajax+f(a+Ax)ax +fi(a+ 24x)ax +.+f[a+(N-1)ax Jdax.1)
The slope increases at minimum. Therefore, d>0.
Thus the condition of minin um 1s

Where x =a, a+ x , a+2x,.b-x

Pirure
When x changes by Ax. y changes by 4y, that the rate Tfwe take fia) =a, then equation (1) becomes.
so
of change dfy 10 minima
wità respect to xis equal to a- adx+(a+ dx) ax+ (a+ 2ax)Ax+a+(N-1)Ax dx
Lnd ..(2)
Ekta Prakashan & Co.ERE
Ekta Prakashan & Co
E l t a Pralcashan &Co. Elta Praltashan & Co:
 B.Se. Sem-IPhysias
B.Se. Sem- I Plysics B.Sc. Sem -[ Physies
b)
B.Se Sem-I Phyvies Thus the unit vector parallel toR is
.aja(a-as) (a-2as)--N-1)ax)]az
aee
faumber af intervals Nincrease, the more acrurate value of tae ana or
Promequation (4)and
(6) Si-2
total aroa of the bars beaomes Lhe
ne cure 8 obiained. Le. ss Ax0, the
B. the APQB.
Hence (8) Show that the vectors A-2-3)-k and B--6i+9j+sk are parallel. 90
area Sol. The two vecotors will be parallel if their vector
Numerical Examples: product is zero i.e. AxB-0 Itmeans it is right angle triangle
as
C)xA+(CxA)» B -0 Let Cbe the third side of the triangle, then
re

Prove that(A*B)«C+(Bx AxB=| 2-3-10

equatuoD (3). 1n wnich the terns in tne
Sol (AB)xC C«(AxB) 3| ACuB
Now the serics given n
Honce two vectors are
bracket are in anthmetic progression, hence t may be summed uP uEing -(0B)A -(C-A)B parallel
form ula
(BxC)A -Ax(B«C) ()1f vector A-i+2j-2k, B=2i+j+k and C-i-sj-2k. ind the
: B-
S-la-9 {A CB-(4 BC and
angnitude and uaitvector ofthe vector ABc (a-ia-(si +-2)
(CxA)xB -3(CxA)
Therefore equation(3) becomss,
= -B A)C+(B-C)A and

e-N-1)a)]ax Now angle between A and Cis

Na -Ax]
Ading altogether
AxB)xC+(BxC)xA+ (Cx A)x B- 0 -)-(å+j-£)-(i-si-2
4i-3
() Find aunit vector parallel to the resultant ov e c t o r s A=2+4j-5k and
2aNax-ar] R-1RI=la+d-5 T +AyOy+AzCz
Bi+2+sk
Since Nax =b-a
Resultant vector R A* nit
Ax+Ay A Cx+Cy* +C
- 4-sk)fi+2+3k)
Two sides of
V49-75 0.8083
6) atriangle are formed by the vectors A-Si+6-2k and
Thus the arca APQB is
=s6j-2 B-41-j+3k. Determine al the angles of the triange : bg cos (0.8083) =364'

RRI-ce-(-}-7 Hencea =80-384'=58-56

a+b-a) Ekta Prakashan &Coe. Sol Angle between å and Bis
Ekta Pralashan &Ca Ekta Pralkashan &Co. Eta Pralashan 6 Co.
 B.Se.Sen-I Physics

u
I .Se. Sen-I Physis[ B.Se. Sem-I Pbysics

B.Sc. Sem-I Physics

itvetoralong 9) The
ed ges of parallelopiped are gven by the vetors i+2)+3k ;6j und
a
QUESTION BANK
and C»z.j-á
irna
41+ mk. What should be the value of order that the volume of the
m in Answer the following questions in short: 1 Markl
Show that vectors Å=ai-j.k,B=i-sj+sk parallelopiped in 20 unit? ?
)
0) What will be the x, y and z components of j-k
right angled triangle.
)What will be the magnitude of 4j-j
vecur 6ol Here, A BC-20
The A,B and wil form a triangle if oneofthe Maguitude vector of ?
3) What will be the i+j
rectors unit
two vector8.
vector sum af the rematining
equal to the
Now,CAwB-ABsin (4) What wil be the x, y and z compongnts of /

Here B (i-sj,si)-(8-j- 5 () In which direction a particle js moving. whose r

=(4+3t)i ? 10)

o 4m 69 In whieh plane a particle is moving, if r=Vgti-8,k. 11)

ABT
(bm-0)+ (0)4 () What is the angle between A and B,
if A-B=1? 12)
=0, then what will be the angle between A and B?
B+B A
() If A
what
Alan . --)i-sj-st}-14 tho plane containing
()fanzle Aand B rotates aboutA through 20, by
(10) Show that the three vectops
doos AB rotate ?
A, B and C are
repceconted by three sides of a
--54al-i-4t)-0 (10) What is A B, f A=2i md B-3j7
triangle in cyelic -2j+3j+7k and B-6i+9+21k?
order, then, A+ B+ #0 (1) What is the ungle betwen tdhe vectors, A

(12) Which type of te quantity dersity is ?

Soal Let PQ. B-gk and -2P
As AC-0, the vectors Aand are
orthogonaland triazge
farmed
G)Fra vecder P. M-QP?
is a right angled triangle.
We have PQR -PR-2 6

and B wbere
( What is the unit vector perpendicular to both A
FQQR PR-?-PR
A-i-j+k and B-si+4j-£? (ds-4)[f-s) : ANSWERS:
(4) 1, 0, 0 6) x-axis
Calculate the sine of the angle betwen thom. = 9+12 ) 0,11,-1 (2)3
(11) A vector
lying in
the xy-plane has magnitude of 6 units and is equally
a
14
C perpendicular te both A
and B ia, the and y
x
Sxpresa tbe vector
axis. in teros of (6 -plane () 0 8) 90* (1) 6k
Sa. A vector its cOmponenta. (14) 0
(12) scalar (13) No
Sol. Since the veçtor A is equally inclined to
(11)
CAxB-(-j-kj-(å4i-£) the angle made by A with either axis is 46".
the two perpendicular axis,
Answer the following questions: Marks)
.
Ax=Aca 45 -32 and Ay- Asin 45*-3/ 0) Deine scalar and vector.

ig-0)--6 (0-3) 2) Define BCalar and gve its exanple

lustration.
Deine veetor and give ita
-- A-bfi-3/7 3)

How a unit vectot A obtained of a given vector A ?

.ICI-8+5+1"-35 Elta Pralashan & CoB Elkta Praláshan & Co:|
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E k t a Prakashan & Ca
 B.Se. Seu -1 Physics
B.Sc. Sem- I Physics
Physies
and Linear Circuits
Basic Electronics www
call

fixed resis tance

w Moulded composition resistor
2 1 INTRODUCTION variable resi stance
role aGS Evey
sphere of our life. T
The
Fig 2 Fig 22
The alectronics plays majar
a
defence, medical. 2e

communica tiOn
and entertaunment,
ust In electronic circuits, resistors of Film resistors have ffve stripes, fourth stripe is multiplier and fifth is
ewexamples ure: 15 the
alectron mehanics which
Most resostors are fixed resistances are generally required.
instrumentetion
etc. Tne
electronic

dittereDt conditions ofovho ith are toq small in

marked
to
with the nornial value of their
resistance. Some resistors tolerance.
behaviour ot an
eiecETO
under ly si2e have nuinbers printed on them, while others The resistor having a colour band sequençe green, orange, red. gold has a
the study af the In au electronic circuits, enough in size to have their are
large
applied felds.
We can be a httle surprised that
ot oOmponents. An integratod er moulded composilion resistor, rasistances
tour colour
printed on their body, For the fixed, resistance 6.3x10* and tolerance 5%. Thus the eifective resistance is
witl.
only
there are
nve basiC ypes
ed th the body, which be transla ted into a bands are printed
at one end
around
camplicated,
thousands ot compononts, yet
each component will be oneof can number by using the standard
colour 5.3x100.05x6.3x10* - 5.3x10 +0.265 10fa
e i coue, 8ven in table-1.
may contain
Eve types. In this chapter
we
wall stuay about active and passive onents, S, In the wire wound resistors the special alloys such as constantan, manganin
KC analysis
Carcuit
and nichrom are used. This wire is wound onto a round hoilow poreelan core
voltage and
current s o u r o e and Colour | Digit |Multipl ier| Toierance
As the wire wound resistors are expensive, not suitable to use at very hgh thr
Black 0
22 Typesofelectronic
components:
10* =1 frequencies cad can not be obtained n smal s:ze if are of high resIstance values
be meinly devided into two parts. Brown 1
The electronic components may 10 =10 the best aiternatives are deposited carbon, carbon composition rod and

@Passive components
and ()active components Red 2 carbon-couposition ilm resistors. These resistors are much cheaper, nearly stabla,
(a) resistors, (b) capacitors and (c) inductors. coet+icient of resistivity of the order of 200 to 500 parts per
The passive components are, Orange having temperature
tube devices and (D) semiconductor devices milion per degree.
The active components are, (a) Yellow 0. the carbon-composition rod type resistor consists of a solid conducting rod
components: forued of a mixture of fine carbon particles and an insulating binding medium.
2.3 Basieidea of passive Green
10
Resistors, capacitors and in uctors
are aled passive compononts, as these Although these resistors are widely used in elcctronic equpments, but are not
Blue 10 for precision work because of their poor stability, and poor performance
are not capabie to amplitying or procesSing
an
elecErical signal by themselves. . suitable
cireuit, The active components are so Violet 10 at high irequencies.
There are very inportant in any electronie 0
The carban-composition ilm type resistor consists of an insulating support
ean be broudly classiied into two categorzes:
tube type and
but all of them Gray 0 film of
such as a ceraniic or giass rod or tube at the surface ofwhich conducting
many, a
semiconductor type. medium is provided. They
White a mixture of carbon particles and insulating binding

23.1 Resistors
10 are also called metalized resistors.
Gold
or current 100.1 6% The resistance of a pure motal increases with temperature, while for carbou,
A resistance is opposing force of the whon a
material, oharge Silver
flows through it. It is defíned as the ability to resist the low of electricity through |10 0.01 10 % the resistance decreases with temperature.

any material. t is measured in ohms (0). Tbe device or component which No colour
20% Ifthe resistors with resistances R, R, R, ,
R, are connected in sereis,
their equipment resistance R is given by
introduces resistance onlyin the electronic circuit is called resistor. The resistors Table 2.1
The body colour is not used for colour coded value. The R=R, +R, +R, *.+R 2.1)
Sed generally are with resistances from few ohns to millions ofohms. Some are
irst band represents
wire wound, while others are made from carbon or graphite and called compound the tirst digit and the second band the second If the resistors are connected in parallel, then .
digit and the third band the number
resistors. They are supplied with either wire ends or terminals for connection ofzeros to add the first two digit to get the total The

purposes. Both are divided into fixed and variable types. The schematic sym bols
also
oallod tolerance is indicaved by the colour of resistance. The limit of aceuracy
the fourth band. The
colour eode
2.2) are
ofá reaistardce is shown in figure-2.
for resistance Rare shown in figure L Ekta Pralkashan & Co.
E t a Pralashan &
Co|
Elta Prakashan & Co
 6.36.Em -i Tysies

B.Sc. Seul -I Physics C

BS. Sea-1 Physie t consist of two plates of aluninium as eloctrodes And the extremely ch the capacitor is gven by
Thusthe instantaneous voltage across
nsulator (called
dialectric) fin ofaluuinium oxide as dielectric.The iimot aluminiuan oxuide is uear t.a1
Capac n t c n g an
bye baaically means to storeelectric told or posited on one of the electrode and is separa ted by cotioi or paper tum se
hecapacitors areforme
be capacitors are
ormedi
epos idt yibo
8.Se. Sem-I Physics The wattae ang, aiso etween twe conductors. dharge. The capacitor is sa1d ther piae.
ed for diareat watagrs.
ough de film on aluminiun has a low resistance to currentflow inon: úe f an alternating potentinl diference
use
dieepated bya resistance Rdue to the curre electncea he potential soure. it nacitor's ability to store charge. andbigh resistance in other direction. hus electroiytie capacitors car only be
gavea by d The capacitauce 1s However this isa very large uni. n used in uni-directional suppliesRuch that che polentialofhe Oxide plnte 1s always instantaneous vaiue of current
is
itance af the order of mieroiarads ( ) and pico positive rela tive to the otner piute. nese are widely usud n radio-80t8 as 13 appliea to a pure capacitance, the
Theunit efcapacuan
PV7-P practace the capaciors
ave

are shown in figure4 .

CO smootning Capncitor ven by
acrs t This reiaion gves sym bois tor capacitors
Wbere Vbe the potential dhfferena farads (p). The schematie The variablecapacitOrs consistottwo sets ot plates ustially sem cireule
O1 inimum or bras generally. When the movable part is rotated. iis
appied acrussany resistar
V.
thai can be CVamcsot mins .
whc ow the saxim un reitage
without breakdown,
ariable plates movein the gaps between the phates ofthe fixed part and the overlapying The lar
falteraating potential differenoe Fig24 area between thu two sets changes and tnus changos the capacitance of the
or variable. The
capacitor. The variable air capacitor ofthis type is used in a.c bridges und in
the capacitorscan ether be fnxed
variable
current Like the resIstars, itors are the fixed value large radio sets. Itiscalled air gangcapacitor and is used whenacoutinuous variation
reststor, the instantaneous valae df
pasing
ofcapacitance 1s required. ..(2.8)
18 4pplied toa pure
through it #pVe y|
din tuning iue e
apacitors are ueed
pacitors.Sucb capacit
The most commonly
used nxed
ceramicand electrolytic. The variable capacitors are
ed
The capacitanceof acondenser is defined as the ratio of its chai ge w
-
4 sin ot
es. capacitors are mica, paper, curan potential, L.
isinetip sin ot
mostly air-Eang a layers of miea ar ther pinte of the capaci
where 4
a capacors consiats ora pue otalternate paraleithe same potential. Capacitance Ca potentinl diftarence
Dapacitance
The alternating sheets are connected togenerauy Vacross the plates
are used in a.c.
nica absorbs little power, hence mica capacitors working voltage depends
The quantity i s called capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xe colls hi
ircults. eg. in radio
ircults. raaio and olectronic sets. The apacator 1fthe capacitoruareconnactedinserics, theequivalenicapacitanceis, Above equnation shows that the euTent in a pure capacitor leads its voltage
nth ofofthe
dielectnic strength dielectric. Muca enaving
On Lhe thickzness and voltage up to b00 volts. g by 90
Ce Capacitance range trom 10-600 pI at working 2.4) .

Thepaper capacitors consists of two strps of metal foil

(tin) separated by by If the capacitors are connected in parallel, then the equivalent The cireuit, wave ahapes of
stripsof paper or polyester filn. The paper capactors have capaeita nees
rangn current 1and vojcage a powert
capacitance 18,
everal thousand volts. g
representationare gven mDeure-b.
from 0.001 pf to 1 jf at working voltages irom 200 volts to
of
Such capacitors are suitabe for use in audio frequency radio
receivers as bypass C-C+C+CatC .. (2.5) Capacitors are not only useful for provide
storingeBectrical energybut playa very are stil
andcouplingCapactors Whenacapac1tor13charged by connectingwithavotnge souroe, the energy importantrole in variouselectronic radio i
The ceramie capacitors are now available in many shapes and sizes. These isstored in the dielectric in the form of electrostatic ield. The energy stored is
3 volts to circuit, such as to reduce voltage
are either ot disc form or tubular type. The working voltage ranges from deined as
6000volts, the capacitanoe ranges from 5pf to about 0.1 ju. fluctuations in electronic power
U-cv Joule .(2.5) supplies,to transmit signalsand to
Thus thecurrent and voltage bothareinthesame phase atench instant, The electrolytic capacitors are used when high capacitance is detect electromagneticoBcillationa at
cvlinder, which is immersed mpeda
ie. the wave es ofcurment and voltage, and their vector pu
representata0
esSan required. In tune econtained ina metal The current through acapacitor is due to the change in the charge on its radio frequencies. the san
in the electrolyte elcan,
ean which works asas aa cathode.
cathode.In the dry
dry d
Fig, 2.5
ere stowninfigure-3. plates. 'The instantaneous value of the current is given by 18 ai ai
y
Ekta Prakashan &Co. e e E l t a Pralashan &Co.
Ekta Prakashan &co
Ekta Pralkashan&Ca
 SRSc. Sem-1 Påysics B.Sc.
e unductance Lota oul increð se8 with the number o B.Se. Sem -I Physics
BSSen-I Physio core. EuRa N,ae B.Sc. Sem-1 Physics 2.4 Active components:
2.3.3 Inductors: cwchtaurn and permeabilbty otthe
á rea Thetotal inductance of two catls connected a series and have mutn. Active oomponents are two types: tube
types and semiconductor types
The indaoed emf acruss an inducta nce Lproduced by achan nductance M 18 given by 2.4.1 Tube type active components
Te abity afa cundutor te produas induced ounf whes the currest vaes is
rrent =+La 2M evaculated tube of giass or en,metal
is Cailed inductano The unit of inductanoe is benry (E). gven by . (2 13; n ube ype actve component an th
All inductors may hroadiy be divided into toro categures fzed und varnabie
The sign is plus for the sertes-aiding and mintus lor the seriesorpa:ir: provided. In which if two electrodes known as ano thenit et
Symbais are shown in sgm 6 Diferent types of inductors are used for diierems iscalled diode valva. If three electrodes, anode, Ca 5
purposes Generaly iron-n, ferrite oore and air-eore indurtors (or chakes) are connections.

is called triode valve, it one more eiecrod. coDtrol gra, screed

thede resistançeofthe coll18cqualto the resistanoe ofthe wire usud in he called tetrode valve. if there are five electrodes, anode, catho0e,
be the magnetic fiux eut per seonud per turn, and Nbe the r coil winding. grid and suppressor grid, then it 1S
EnoWa aspenoae
Letan alternating potential ditferenoe symbols of such tube type components are
shown inf5gure-3.
00000 J0eOL ernE in the cuil, tben
er o The
d
F26
The irus-core becames bot due o eday curets beapplied across a pure inductor having salfinduetance L Ifi be the
minimie ioses, the core is made instantaneouscurrent at any instant t, then
26Rysn
of laminated sheets insulated from each ather Pentoge
Thelaminated iron cones are of tro types. Diode Iiode Tetrode
aSbellpe coastruction Sormed with agroup of laminated v=Vg sin ot =LE 28
is insulated by athin costing of iron onide sectins, eact or processing on eleçtrical signal, hence
and varnish These are
These able to amplify
area0e the signalthe
wever uses of these are out ot
b) E and I shaped lazinations Tbe (2.9)
ferrites are syatbetic oeramic
materials which are ferromagaetic. These disinetde known as in which such devices are
aae,
used.
are
value afi u density. Thas the ferrite coreinéulators, but provide Theinducd emfoppoes the current low throughthe coil.Thus tokem Byintegratuing present no any instrument available
can be used for the curent same, poswer F18 applied to the inductor.
treguences high 2.4.2 Sen1iconductor type active devices:
Air bas practicaly no losses froum
eddy currents or hysteresis. The air corn powor P-ti=i L 1= cOot Mast semi-conductor devices coasist of gne ar mcre junctãioas between solidg. These
oils low values of inductance (in aH or
have junctions may consists ofa metal toa semi-conducior or a semi-cçnductor toa semiconductor.
ge
mH rang Werkdonebythe battery, tr devicehasone juncion witin àcrysta,it usually serves 5ajunctons itis
hefilter choke has many turn of for more tan two
ysin ot- 2.14) has two junctions, within a crystal it isusualy atunsistor and
nd n
made of laminated sheets to avoid wire wound an an iron care. The
power looses. Such filler chokes are core is
smoothing the pulsating current produced kely to be an inlegated device.
usod in 210) uncito
power supplies are filter chokes of 5to 20 by rectifying ac into d.c. Most ofthe When P-ype semi-conductor
WhenaaP-type sc is
medintimately joined toa n-type semi conductor, ap-n
from one single piece of sem-condurtor o
H. The total inductanoe of coils connected in series is the sum of the individua Where L maximum
udio frequency chokes are nductanoe, ie. junction is fomeu. Aru
to other half-side. The plane
provide impedance to audio comparatively smaler insize and used to currentin the circuit. This showsthat diffasing p-ype material to one half side and n-type malerial
are still smaler in size and frequencies (60 Hz to 6KHz).
have lower indactance. TheseRadio frequency chokes theetfective a.c. resistance ofinductor dviding theDwO zo0S S kown s ap-n juncbon
radio frequencies. are used to block the L-l+la+L,tta .(2.1) of
The total inductance of coils connected in parallel is,
i.e. inductive reactance)1s, Apajuncton is ilustted in figure 9. As ap-pe materiai has high oncentationency
hence ther
Variable inductors are used in turaing cireuits (2.15) holes and n-Ype maternal has high oncentration of ree eiectrons and 1s kpown as difnusion. so
Atransformer ofsuitable for radio frequencies. XL o L
ofholes to ditfuse over to nside and electron lopside. The process where they combine wah (2) 2
impedanematching. The transformerturns-ratio is often used in electronic circuits for ts unitis ohm.igureshowsthat n-sice,
due to dithusion, some ot the holes troun p-side cross over tofrom n-side cross cross over to
(2.12)
the same core. Apractical application is basically consisted of two inductors having thecurrent in the inductor lags voltage elecros and become neutral. Sumilarl, some of the electron
neutral: Thus a region isformed which
is an autotransformer of varisble of variable inductance is the variac, which ove reiations arecorrect, when the inductances are arrangodso tha o rthe volkageacrossthemductor sude,where they combine with holes and become coninues u
tap for the primary.: thereare so interactions through mutual inductance. natlaads the current pa88ing throughit called depledon layer or space charge region The difision of holes and
difdon
Ekta Prakashan &Co 90. apotential is developed in space charge egion which presents further dinison
Elta Prakashan &Co: EtE Fig 2.1
E d Ekta Prakashan &Co KR JEkta Pralashan &Cor
 |B
B.Se. Sem-I Physies B.Se. Sem-I Physics

B.Sc Sem I Physies

SeSem- Paysico 2.5 Sources of Electrical Powers
expeD

Majaruy (4) Photo diode :

A- (12) n- Chaanel Deplelioa MOSFET
Major1ty D elf
leetrons dode : AoDoK
oles (5) Tunnel Darue
Load
finarity AoDoK
Sourçe
18 ity (0) Varactor diode a

it
-
electrons p-type oles Bcc
n9pe (7) Shockley diode p-aubotra te
n-channel
(8) PNP Transistor Channei Enbencement MOSFET chem
(13) n-
The basic purpose of a 5ouroe of electrical power is to supply power o a
diee

electrons
ngrae
hales
migete
hoad. Therefore acouroe isconnected
SOurce to load. There are two types
to the load. Hence energy 1s transtered from
namely;
of souce, d.c. source or a.c. source.

(9 d.c. source 2.7

depletion layer Si0, A device which produces direct output contingously is caled dc source cg cells, d.c.
(9) NPN Transistor
:

substrate geetors ete. t maintains the sume polarity of the ouput tetminals, ie. positve apd nogatbve
When load resisance is congsectod across such a source, aurent fows from posilive to negativ
induoed n channel teminad daroch load. This is unidirectional in nature.
(14) P- Chaanel Depletion MOSFET (4i) ac. 50urce
immobile immobilee
G A device wdich prodase abemating ostput çontimrusly caliod as souce eg
is alermators
electroas holes D
n-channel JFET : ascillators or signal geuerators edc. t reveiwés te polarity of the output teminals periodically.
(10)
ctoc
When Ioad is conuectod acous such a souce, cureat flows through the circút thst poriodicaly
wverses in dinection. ts mgnitude is ctenging in bot: the positive and oegaive direction with
When the depktion layer is toemed, thare are imoble clectans in pOpe semanducd
noe DO in Pype seoodcir as showm in tigre Now due d cage sepantion
, 5 developed
voliagevoltage.
ajunctioa acros the junction undor equiläbrium conditian. This is known as n-aubatrate
2.6Batteries:
This is of tbe order of 0.3 volt to 0.7 volt
The battery is the most common de. voliage source. A batery consists of s series or
The structure and symbols of various semiconductor devices a given in fgure-10
(15) P Channel Enhencement MOSFET: panalel conbinatian of tuo or more simibar cells A cel is the fundamentel source of eletia
(1) pehanacl JFET: energy.Cels can be divided into two typás :

of( P-N juoctlon diode: D?

Prumay o
Secondary cell
(2) Zener diode : Primary cells: eT
primary cellis one in which chemjeal energy is converted into electrical energy and an
6) ught emtting diode : A x
D-uosa emf is set up acrogs the teminals of te ceil. Wih use, dhe chetricals are used up and require
eplacemect. It mpens primary cells are not rochargeable. Cell produce clectrical power at the
E d Fig 2.10
Ekta Pralashan &Co Ekta PralkaAshn &Co.
E l t a Pralashan &Co.
Ekta Pralashan &Co.
 40
B.Se. Sem-1 Physics B.Sc. Sem -i Puyics
terminal votage of the sourte, ie. .5c. Sem-i Physres
B.Se. Sem - ysi hercdore volage RcrESS load R, which is the 2.9 Practical voltage source :
eperise f ciemical enag. Cel bas two ciectodes, one posib've und the other nogdive, in a 2.10 Concept of current source:
V1R An ideal voltage souroe docs tot cSt
are immersed in aneicctroye. i o r practie, Gecase there 15 n0 SUCe which ca SOCEh suppuesa consat carentto aload cven is mpedanoe varics isknown
e inside he maintain its tennuual volage constant for any load. 0urce is snown ,
deoormpose into pai kinds of grimay celis, eg voltaiccel, in figure-15. Figurealso shows the vicharucteristic of an ideal current souce
cell from one cez dos caimiurn claæk eell ete
Latinare clark
cacimiurn cel, Latimare ete
Darniell el Leclwache oell Dry oell, Westoc
9 Secondar els (2.16)
rechargesble batery, storage battery or
Secondary oels are the rechargeable celis. A
connected to the load they discharged
accumuir an bechargod. when hey æe
rochargeable eeiecinc cell trar converts
recargeabie CHemical eegy into elecrical bya reversible
berenewed by paesing a cumeni thrug
6ion opostetothaiof the tow ofcuret genensted by the oell,It has higharinitial cosor t is clear that if is smal oInpared to 1,the V-Vs
ies
t requires reguiar maintRinance. Photd ciecinc cel, photo voliaic ceu are uhe exanp 5.14
scoadary o ncr inus conaidon, tnc source behaves as good voltage source. Even if the load
a
A practical voiae soue consiuS Or n Eal . 1o
: called the intenal unpcdance of the source, as shownvoge sCe in scries wath an impedance,
2.7 Coacept of voltage source in 14. Supposealod impedance R,isconencted acrosthesource.If Rismade infinity the
in figure 12. A variable load R_ is connected with an 2.8 Idenl voltage source Let V, be the open circuit voltage and be its igre currert through the circuit isIg Rs «
Considera circuit as showm
ac
internal
coinecied toa load inpedance : he curetR,in the circuit is impedance. Let this source be mearis no conducting pat, extemal to the source.
having internal innpedance R, and w given by Honceit isaplysicalimpossibility for curenttofow betweenterminals Aand B.ifthe source
could maintain acument 1,through an infinitely lerge load impedancc, there would h
nfinitely large volage dropacross the lond.It would then haveconauned infinitepower from
e souCC.Buno practicalsoreoud even supby infinite power.
AprcticalcuTentsource suppliescurent 1, wihen R 9. Whenweincreas the load
mpedaunoe, the aurentfals below , wben R, ismadeinfinite,the load curentreduces tozero.
ge8oure acvoitagesoureo n IE Sd besome path drough which thecurent 1, canbetow.The ivside path
s ugeunce K,and Cailed the intemal impedance
whntever be the load conecterd to Ifthe ratio the terminal voltages anast same as the voltuge 2.11 Praetical current source:
f the terminal volage ofa source remins fixed i ,
Vsf the lotd
Here V, be is open circat vatagc he source is known as kdcal voitage sourcc. In other wordis, an idcal volnge source provide
uited. faedterminalvolage cventrough the curentdmain (loaui)may vay
Supow R,a infaie me t
Hence no aurent car iow PHs the emunal vouge
vol impecdianice ctanges proviad e aiuo R quie stal, the source ncts
as noary n tdeal
source. If the output temminals arc
rpBcross
a raching the value of R, the cumant inthe Sinc can produce infinite curent and thusshort circuited, R =0, and 1, " o. No practical sourcs
can be an ideal voltage soure
cim Now can Ko ewe dropgoacros R, ialso goes on increasing, As ares, tr *"R Substituting the aical values sthows it
terminal voltag V, goes an deoeasing onpedance that decides whether u SOurce s a thst is not the absolute value of tho internal
Forcortain vaiue ofR, thecurentintheciruit isgven by Therefore, itis positlc only wbenR,08 indernal mpedance ot source hus wesay good costant volg SOurce or not. Iie va,uc
atam idelvoliagesource must havezerointeml impodance in hg. 15 dc and ac. dea Risimportant. The lesser, the slio, the berter
D
a n n
volage V, 1sconstani at V, for 1s the source asa consant volag SOUO
2.16
Ekta Pralkashan &Ca Ekta Praltashan& Co. s i an e Ekta Pralushan a Co. Elta Prakashan &Co:
 R.Se. Sem-1 Physics
wiuna
soue pcunce R, and the curreni sotOE repreerin
cur

volage source V, in senies aource impedanc

par:iei wilh
BSt. Sem-I Physics arsists of an ldcal cuci,
n
BSe. Sem-1 Physies B.Se. Sem-I Physics
B s t
A practical cument soure is represenied by the symbal as show In case of volage
sourcc, tue
iehinais A and are
circuitet, the curent tich
2.13 RC Circuit :

throu
intemal impedanoe
ofthe
soure R is p ia paraliel with dre idai
cumentsmue A capacitor
Cmay be charged or drscharged though aresistor R. Chaging done by
R s counected across the teminals A and B, the sourae cuTent is divided ino e pr coeciting ay ES5tOr K in series. If'i is the instantare
is

value of curnul al an nsultugougn

:q-Cal
-1s* (2.19)
k Ue poierildal diftrence across the
capacitor will be
Since the impedanc: R and ac paruiled, therehs, 6-K (2.24)
termimls A and B 9ofi-
The curent oblnned oy sorung
u
of cure soue 91s e usianiancous o the capacdor al tis instant 1, then
cectei araliet 1n s ot being present Theref
cinut, te Where Qo =C8, maximum charge
soUuNCe impodanco g
:.(1-L)Rg =k R oquvakent auTEl
soute rmust be the sTe sthut gven in
onchade tez
above
e-Ri
auTi
hecument,of the equaio al

-Ri IRC
(2.20)

(2.20)
Aain, ia voltags svuve cicuit, the open crcunt emna votage is simply V, Theri
Since i W

te inlemal mpeuanoe K n curent souce circuit, wéen te

volage dp acDas
andB ae opencireuite, the whoie of the curet, ows thirough Rg. Thus lemine 0.534
Above equaton show that if is smal oampared o 1, han l,»l. Te soue then
berawes as &good cuTent souroe f the vake of load impedance is increases, the cureni \, s volage una
d reduce Ihmus, with the increase in load impodaocs, the tominel volage also incrascs Ihe RC
M characteristic of a 2.21)
practical cunent source is shown in figre l6. By integrahr
2.12 Conversion of voltage f ftuo represetation ol uie source arc to be cquivalent, then
source into current and curreat source time RC,
source The cuTent and cnarge are threfore both exponential fnctions of tume. At a t=
into voltage source Clog,- corstast
224)
the current has decreased to th of is initial valoe. The product RC is kponw as the ime
From apuation (220) and (221) Snce t , q0,
carsart or theredlsation time of the cicit. It is the time taken for the capacitor to acuire
69% of its maxdrum chergs
constant-Clog, is,aowed o discbarge through
of capacitance having initia chargeq,
a
Fa capacitor c

the instanjaneous curent in the circuit

resisance Rby conDocting the Jatter in seríes. Leit tebeemf
ud theq tie
charge on capacitorat instant
any equetion in this case-will be
Then equation (220) 2nd (221) roduces to

.2.23) lat, iR0

RO
The votage abd cuent sources
cuTents are Same in both the
are
indistinguishable tinom. each odher, if te valus of loa Using these relstions a volage source is converted into current source and VIcevers
cascs. 1he voltage source represenlation consistis of an ióeal
Ekta Pralkashan & Co. E
Ekta Prakashan & Ca
L
E l c t a Prakashan & Co. Elta Pralkashan & Co.
 48
B.Se. Sem -I Physics
B.Se. Sem -I Physics 7
Ina cireuit, a resistor of 10M2. a capacitor of 0.2 aP and a hattery
By untegrating
B.Sc. Sem -1
|

Esample3 :
of 20 voit are connected in series. Caleulate rate of growth of char
log, RC constant
As q,
a t -4 Solation Rate of rowth of charge, R
constant log,90 Answer
above equation becotnes, a x 10
exp-2/(1010-0.2w10) Which ty
(2) In which t
0/RC
7.4x10 Clsec 3 What is ti
Cunent during dischar
Example4 How longwill it take for voltage to drop from 100 V to 50 V in a RC
gold?
et/RC senes circuit of time constant 1 sec? (4) Which are
5) What is t
Since c - e ad initial curert 1
Solution V=Voet/BC
resistor?
6) What wi
et/Re
(2.26)
t =
RCx2.303xlogo
connected
The curret thus falls
exponentially. The initial current is due to the charge on the (7)What is t
condenser. In the close circuit it is in the directicn
opposite to that in the case of chnnging,
= 1«2.303w
laogso 50 (8) What wil

EXAMPLES 2.3030.3010 having

Example 1 : Adc.ource generating = 0.6931 sec 9) Which ty
600 v has an internal resistance of 990 0n. (10) Frequen
Find the load current
ifload resistance is ) 200 G) 60a,
(i) 1100 or false ?
RC Solutioa (11) Is the de
Load currentRiR 90+260.496A (12) What wi
time
(13) A resista
qure
) Load current I-990+100476 A
in serie
Gii) Load current I= 500
90+1100454A
wer
circ Example 2 : A 1uP capacitor is connected in series with 2MQ reaistor to a 300
volt d.c. source. Determine (a) the initial charging current
(b) the finsal charge and (c) time constant.

Sokution : (a) Initial cbaring ig- Ovo

current
2MN -1.5x10 Amp
06) Final charge qo = tc = 300V x
luP 3«10 Coulomb
=

Time constant, t- RC - 2MMx lyuP = 20ec

Ekta Prakashan &

Co. Eta Prakashan s
Co
 GBSe. Sem-I Physies
in a periodhc pattern (lattice). theretore, each ntom is in the
are arrangedfhekd B.Sc. Sem-I Physics B.Sc. Sem -I Physes
electrostatic ot the ne i 1f there are N in
In ua o
atoms eryst
the 3.4.1 Crystal Structureof Semiconductors
3 Semiconductor Physics atom
en the atons, each discrete energy evel 1h
au i0dividual
splitsinto Nclose sub-levels.Tho separation betwaensubievels 15 small
Sinoe Nis very iarge (about io Cn, the enery aie renoe berwecn the minimum aall
duction
N
ww
Conduct
materialsGermanium
in differentand
siicon are most commonly
devices. Both are te travalent Le.used
as semiconducting
there are four valence
electrons. Hence, to completeits outermost sheil,it requires four more electrons to
8.1 INTERODUCTION and marimun may be5ever hlevels ia Callod enorm. aum FORBIDDEN
are using many sumpie elertromis appiicn tuom in our daily ue suct a5
We band. Due to very small separation between successive sublevels in an
energy GAP FORBIDDEN dimensional pattern called a crystal.Thecrystalstructure of Ge and Siisthatof
mobile. TV, adio etc.A taese egue ranaformars etc are the band, the band tnay be considered o De contunuous. 1 e max un Ctect of the thediamond structure. in tais siructure each B surTounded 0
pmponents while diodes, transistos ete are the active companents. 1 1mteratomicinteractao 1s on valene teeros ormed by
the
equidistant nearest atoms, which lies at the cornetsaton
ofa tetrahedran. The1our
figure
modern eieetronic equipments ontain a y pasSe ne acee cpn
energy ieveis o mded with nucleus of emicndore ar SD om fure wee thata Ges)atomissurrounded
hence very less affected by Dy band Valence
neighbouring atoms. Therefore,theirenergy bands are aimost as narrow as the|iby IIIILLL byfour 4atoms; all are equidistant. The bindingfor ces arise between neighbouring
troem a speciai matera. known as Bemuconeuctan by tsprope. levalsaf electronsin an iaolated atom. the (a) Condductor atoms due to sharing ot vaienco electrons. Taus, tor eiectrons oevory atom aro
34 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
()nsulatur ( Semiconductor
shared with four neighbouring atons, forrming covalent bonds. As al the lou:
3.2
far the materals are cianed to Conductor band
As as
electricity s ouDera. their oaduction band. The vala nce electron can become
gones toal resistivity af cond uctors is very sma E These large conductuon electron very easily.
number of electrons flow under the infuence temperaturenear 0Kbecausethe erystal structure is true onlyat very low
electncal res af small applied voltages. tomperatu al
eilver is1.6x1 ohm- The electzical resistivity of insuiators is 1nan insulator, the forbidden énerev.
stivity of ver
resstivity euara is about 10 ohm-m. Asenioonductor is 3.2(6). 1t is Inore than 3 eV and almost lectyarge as8hown in ngure
no eled
obd materialwhone electrialresistivity is higher than thatofacondurter and 3" band (valenco band) impossible for the electrons in the valence band to jun1p to the on.
copo
Hece, it is
resistivity ot somiondactor lies At room temperature there are no conduction
ower than that af the snsulator. The electrical
a
clectrons in it. Howev ser
co gttperature or a very high voltage isapplied
between 10 to1 ohm- band
the temperuture is inceased above the roo temperature, the electrical
As DAKown ofinsulator which damages Electron band
resistivily (and hence ae ei a 3nnd
structure ot semiconductors is 8milar to
cular rane of temperature. band insulator.But the f that oft h e
sem as shown
iconductors echibits negative temperature coefiácent ot resista n .3.1 0) For silicon E, 1 . 1 eV and for u n 2e V gur
HOLE tax
Y, At K. Enorgies of
lectrical conductivity
elec
of a semiconductor can be increased to a large s gitude cannot beimparted toa n electron in the Garmacius
a valence electron aay ecuire suficient ener and iumps to Lhe i Pplhed
er
extent by addition of smal amount of suitable impurity, The conductivity ca eectrie ueld. Hence valence band remains full and conduction bar
a
herefore, these materials are insulators at low
also be comtroled by controling the amount of impunty added to
GertanrUn eystal structur E ELCTRON
it
statointhe eonduction band. Thisis the upper mostenergy band inthe crystal. temperatures.
There are three elements wach are classhed as semiconductors. 1hey
are he valerice band and copucto band ay bepratedy an energy l At
zoom temperature, some ol the vaience electron Day gain
thermal energy 7i33
silicoeST,german strueurk and eiectrical statefar anelectrot inthis region,eleetrons are neverfound inforbidden ener8Y d unpinto the conduction band. Theret e room
ere are semicanducting compound, such as Fse, Lo, ap. Theymay ump ron vlepe Dana o Conducion na v versa. The dirterence temperature, semiconductors can carry amall electric current. fore, at re S.4.2 Charge Carriers In Intrinsic Semiconductors
intinsic
msny
P o ae vaence Dand is the
semiconductors behaves as an insulator. A
width of the fortiddon enerov eron BP e
temperature, so me of the electrons may acquire suíicient thermal energy
GaásCáSe, CaTeand ternary aloys.
****
1e 3.4 INTRINSIC SEMcONDUCTORS
oom o
Inmetal thereislarge number offree clectrons at room temperature.In break the covalent bond and jump from valence bandto conduetion band. 1hat
3.3 ENERGY BANDSIN CRYSTAL
hal
Inan isolated unexat ber af orbits are availabie which metalic crystals, the valence bandovertaps the condiuction band as shown infígure To fabricate a semiconductor device, it is necesaary to obtain the means there aresonairee electrons available at room temporaureand tne crygta
trons The electron surrounding the 3.20). In fact there isnoforbidden energy gap hetwcen valence bandand re serniconductor in pure torm. The semiconductor in its pure form is called intrin will have low value of conductivaty. The munim um energy reguired tobrea
aa 3 equal to
nucleus of an isolated atom can have only discrete levels. The electron canno conduiction band. Therefore, no energy is required to moveelectrons intothe han 1onductor An inn1c semiconductor must have tho impurity contents less hich is 0. 72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si.
a crystal the atoms part tn l00 million part of semiconductor.
have any value of energy except certain permissible value. In wwEkta Pralashan &Co.
E k t a Prakashan &
Co Ellta Prakashan &Co.
3I Ekta Prakashan &
 B.Sc. Sem-I Pbysio
attracted towards the positive
tarminai
ot The battery and boies B.Se. Sem-I Physics
BSe Sem-I Pypia electeons are

Tbe random
movemens orOT
hOles and electrons
BSc. Sem- I Physics
towards the Degative terminai Dow
tbere occurs a net oles 3.5 EXTRINSIC
a now e-onent. Along with

1he
ransom
the mcvement,
randcm movement des not cnt eoe electre
ons SEMIÇONDUCTORS
The intrinsic
mOeDent
aled dratt. drnt net
semiconductors are
owards toe positrve termin sensituve resistance. Allnotthemore useful excopt few appications
enc
current The froe electrons terminal. th light
The direction of current inside fom the semiconductors
arda tbe Degative
which the l
e moves. The direction of the by adding Gemiconductor devices nade
types aof specitied are

e dactnr 15 thes drection m thesdaiton or lpurzties to a semiconductor materlis

t a highly pure semioonducting impurities. procass of e process of
The
cvEntional carnet Pposite
to the
motion of
the Degatively charged electrons d ng. bopingis added
chu
Though the
move in oppposite direction, the two material. A seniconductor
known Bs extrinsic s0miconductor with speciied
Our two pes thes add togather. The low of current due doping is Fi 37
currents are in called the drift
to drift of carriera tunder the application extortal field {voltago) is Fg 3.7 shows the energ band diagram of N-ype semi-conductor. The
ue
#OLI rh3.5.l Iype Seniconductor
Cure
additionof pentavalent im
Totai conveztional current ,
The addition o1 small amount ie, free elkctrone TE d
a
num ber of conduction electrons
the conductivity of semicond uctor. A
of
proper impurity is
sufífñicient to incTease accom.modated in the
alent a tom cannot be
valenoe d
of free electrons in the Bemicona ucorpentavalent impunty provides large number v e he conduction band. Few
a
thermally generated hole-electrd
Electno Dow areic,pbospliorous or antimony is 8 crystal
Let a
pentavalent impurzty suc uch as
B eUnDer ot therzne:y
Pi1.4 to the 1 generated holes 15 quite smail snd are known as minority charge carriers.
Wben as electrou broak a covwaiest bond and jumps to the comduction bacd of impurity added exiremeiy sTmall about 1 germanium crystal. The am0
is
rmOunt tor
y iow the elecrun vacancy is crested in the valescs band. The eictrun vacancy in the atoms. The Linpurity atom has
five valenc
to 2 atoms
of impurity for 10
Ge becausestands
noga tvely charged electrons in the N-type semicoadu
valenoe band is called a hole, (as sbowa in fçure 3.4 Breaking ofcne eovaient electrons are majority charge carriers. It doesa'
ree
t mean thatandN.t,
hales
alwavs in Dair Tn N.+ erated electzons
bond gives one free electron in coudurtion band and one bole in valezce band. Electron low ere
eed due to doping
Thus, iree eiectrons and boles are always crested in pair. Therelors, the The negative chargeofthal
of these electrons is balancea uy po810Ve criarge O witl
1n 00te
concetraio offre eletozA 8ad boiesllbealways equlin an intrinei REE ons.
semiconductor This type d geaeration of hie-electron pair iwona thermal
is as
Battery
LECTRON
3.5.2 P-Type Semiconductor
generation. However, tbe cryutaliseloctricaly peutral ha
Assoon a the energy oaf an electron in the covulent bond is increases Pig 3.6 Let
MNORITYHOLES) CARRIENs us see the ettect
of adding a trivalent impurnty hke
boron, galhun
sufßciontly,t breaks the coTaleat bocd and moves away, Jeaving behind s hlank 3.3
Ay the te Thevacangy han the tendency toattract thefree elouz, an anotber type ofcurrent is also tlowa, known as the
In a semiconductor, NTAVALENT
MPUIUTYY
+ nU
valenco Ounnu to a pure setnionduetor.
electrons. Let takes
The trivaientatom
atoms have three
difusion current. This type of current lows as a Tesult df concentratian gradient he
ATOM
a
Ga atom place ot
germanium as shbown in
at en t ehaves ssapontvechar dfequalinmagitudeto thetbolear
ofthe afcarriersie, difference of carrier concentration fron one region to another. I'he nt
figure 3.8{a). The three valence electrons of Ga atom
with the three
form three covsalent bonds
he iode is a positively chard Ae Ctd with The
CcDORttation gradient appoars near the boundary ofa PNgunction. diffarion he neighbouring Ge atoms
and detciency ot one electron gves
a

Fig. 3.6 vacancy in the torth bond. The debciency of one electron 18 nothing buta positivelyST
O the hole aleo moves randomly as the eiectron Aboe i p
Curent is aloo due to the motion of both holes and electrons in

charged bole. The electron ~rom the neighbouring atom can easily fall in this roo
simply oonoept which heipa in simpitying the explanation al tionm efeeurrent 3.44 Effeet of Temperature on Conductivity of Intrinsic As
ezieoaductors
in
and
shown in igure 3.6a), suppose an As atom has taken vacancy. inother word Ga atom accept an clectrun from neighbouring germanmun tet
Semiconductors ic i8, gurrounded by 4 place of Ge atom, atoms and therefore it is called an acceptor atom
The onergyreçuired to break covslent boad is 0.72eV for elecsand L.i eV
a
neighbouring Ge a'oms.
atom form the covalent bond The 4 valenca eloctrons of As
bC

or. A t l o r 5. The value of Eg ie more for Silicon. Therelore, lesas pumber of Ge The semiconductors at abeolute zero, beheves ns an insula tor. But at room and the ifth electron ronains by sharing
electrons with NDOETOR XONS

Igy oPairs will be creaied in silicion than in germaniun at room temparature. Thus, hole pairs
etnperature, due to thermal encrgy, some electron-hole pairs are
are ganer ated. For
generatea. ror" due to d. 4 u I n s as
due to AS nucleus but 1s
as a free electron
tree electron. lt neighbouring Ge
experience the Sorce ot atoms
a Ult
That thecoaductivity ofthe iliconwillbelesthanthatafthegermeaiumatthesa
in
ezample, germaniumat room temperature intrinsic carrier
the concentration or band. ach o
is about 2.5 x 10"per m'. Theretora, the semiconductor has a small conductivity. u As atou
very 8uall. Hence, it can
n donates one
attraction
moved easily to conduction
HCS CARRIER
Tstel upareture one free
free elec
electron to el
Nwifthatenperature is increased, more hole-electron pairs are genoratod and pes dfircrona are available for camductiog af lcrystalgermanium t and hence Wt
eak a3.4.3 Conduction In Intrinsic
Semiconductor copnductivity is alno increasee. Thus, the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductord u atoms donates free electror B.
aNORUTY CAuEAS
BCTaONS) It
1al to Let us see how the conduction takes place in increases or resistivity decreases wjth increase in temperature. Thus or
an
intrinsic smiconductor. s . De
negativaly chargod oleCOnductivity
negatiuel of such
Let a battery i5 conected across a semioonductor shown in hgure 3.6. The semiconductoars exhibit negative temperature coofficient
a
doped semicon ctpr is mainly due to PAype 3.3
as
ofresistance. he otrons and beace
crystal as a whole remains
t is called Ntype
electrically neutral.
semconducor. Klowever
Ekta Prakashan & Co: JEkta Prakashan &CoE2Ua 53
Ekta Pralashan &Co.E
Elta Pralashan &Ce:1
 B.Se. Sem-1 Physies BSe. Sem - Pbysics
I

B.se. Sem-I Physics 3.6.1 Formation of Fue

trvalent a junction, tho barr poteattai s 0. and tor gormanium PN-junetion iti s anelectronenters the crystal form the negative terminal ofthe battery. Thusthea
cTystal ofG e or Si s depea with
Y

electrn from neighbouring aom. gailium beecmes a single

one side of
fone ther side ofthbesamecrystal with pentavajntot oma,a ure oftho externalpotentiaidifferencecompensatesfor the loss ofelectronsin
By acoepting
zegativeion. Oneholeiscnecreatedby eaeh impurityatom and benat ar
of holes will be present to concu
is formed as shown in lgur e Ntoe The P. aa 3.6.2 Forward Biased PN Junotion
Tbe junction is said ta be forward biaced wban the positive
theNregon and holes in tho Pregion. In the P region the current is carried by
ded tobe psitive atoms becomes P-pe aaa rin cantatns large number of alec troas terminal of the totaicurrent is due to the low of electronsonly. The current continues as longas
charged and bence this type af semiconductor iscalled P-type semioonductor. contains large nuin enclosed by acarcle representa the acooptor Gure 3 11 Tha a v terminal to the N-regionas the battery isin the cdircuit. If voltageisincreased, more majority carriers itfuse
ppied potential diterence acts in opposition to acrosa the junction resultingin bigher current through the PN-junctupn
llw cirdeoutsidethecirclerepreaens a i solid ptor he intornal potential berrier. 3

the positive sign enclosed by a circle

represetts the
P-
3.6.3 Reverse Biased PN-Junction
eirnle outside the circe tepr u Ajunction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminalot battery s
acouptar atom in P-rogion i asaocaated region and negative terminalisconnected to the P-regionas
Before the formation junct each
rmation otof junction i n isa s s o c i a t e witha troc eiectron chown n figure 3.12
un&bole, ana each donor
atom in thie N-regpon s aseociated

LAND N-ype
V,+ 'e
coeptor
Atan Dopletio
Pigure 3.9 sbowstheener band diagranafaP4ypeemiondurtor.Alng
b the holes free electronsare alo genersated due to thermalagitation.Butthe
totai nuber of holes is much more thas free eiectrona. Thua, in P-4pe
dator hoies are njontychergt caren and electrons are called minority
herpe aerre |-DEPLSTION Wlhen forward bias 1s applied, the holes inthe P-region are repelled by
3.5.3 Eect of Temperature on Extrinsic Semiconductors
LAYER
ucton and the electrons in the
N-region
'e 'e e
Fe bavesoen thet addition adenallamoent d trivalent er pentiezt
punDes produo a arge nuberd cherge riers nan extrinsicemiecaductor
potential is greaterthan the internalaso towards the Juncon. Ifthe epplind Depletion region-
and tae Degatve acceptor ions n the depletion layer re dOnor ions
ives As soon as the junce lectroas from the N-region and holes t and boles
hbe nera hat efte intrinse seniccndutor at inetion by the process at a pectively. And hence the depletion layer and the
e disappear. Thereiore, the electrons from the N-regionintarnal po
h perature Le s omider Ntype semizndutir.No ssppose te o random motion and thediferenoe intheir eaneentrationThe (majority rtare the electrons from the Nregion and
charge carriers) easiy tow acroes the Junction in bolea
boles irom
fron the
the P-zegco
P-ze
i temperstureisincread theenerg ofeleetrnsa amientbandincreases aad CTOsing thbe junction intothe P-regionreeombne wun te Lles o opposite direction
becoemen free by breakingthecorelent bosd Th,therly sented diarge Ppis very near to tbe the junctin.
juncn cSimilarly,the theboascrog very
eu
near to the
sticninecion and bence the fo ara current e wil otcharge carrierein the depletion
tor
Carers iacreases and bezoe the coettos a minorty cre ne into the Nregion recumbine with the electrons tbein N-region ajority charge carr.ers dif int h e cireuit. Even though the
Inreverse biasedcanditionthe applied potentialisin the sanedirection as
Uta r veat regon alhe
es Erinately sae to that of the unetion. Aa result the mobiie charges are D u E a l e a o v e r e gion and the aumber of electrons in therepon aways remainsotconsta hcles in P. that of the barrier potential. Hence the majority charge carriers are drawa away
around the Junction Thas region does
aot
eer beextrinnic semioondutor just behaves like an inteinsic sezicondactor thickness abeut 10 c to 10c Por each recom bination of electron and hale, an
electron fromthe junction. Due to this, the namber oinegat1veions in P-reg.on and nunbe
neased cooductiviy.Thistezperatereis caled the critical temperatura rontair, mobile charges,
rges,itiskoown as depletien regn orares negative i0ns on thea arminalof the batteryentersthe N-region and drita ction negative troun the of positiveionsin N-regionbesidesthe junctior.increases. 1herefore the width
the depletionregion and theinternal potential barrier increases. Thereareafno
t
aa 5 Chr permanin and 200 *C fr iloen be transitice region Inside the depletion regioc there orSimilarly, in P-repon nDear the poaitave terurnal ot the battery, an
letofjunctirnand poritivesans onthengts a lerene ecroslacovalent bond and ezters tbe poitiveterminal of the battery.The ren eeceron trea achile charge carriersinthe depletionregion,it actsasaninsulator.1Therefore.
14 PNJUNCTION between the acoeptar and the doner s rodct theoretically to eurrentwillfiow in the externalireut 5utpracticaily,a sai
dN.t ratee c9pe reznins joined
cantinuoes
with aat the terial barzier
denotedoss eecton Eom a covale
the hole in thePegion 1s Thus the
the junction Tis pote uten alent hoda may gsim suficient
af tbe barrier ar height of tbe barre:. For silizmaod owards Nzegon. Yor compensatad The holes created then moves ezargy fro
PNjuation is sthe einnductor y t aso ncwn as wdta each electron repion, which sombines witha hole; the beatto be ableto break some af thecovalent bonds. Hence,the pairsofboles
adary. Saa knoa diode
Ca
Elta Prakashan &
dEta Pralashan &Co. Elcta Pralkashan &Caz
JEaashan& Ca
 BSe. Sem- I Plysics

11V4CEAZACTERISTICcs OF APNJUNCTION DIODE BS Se-[Phyaics

It is soen that the lorward characterwtac is Gt a stranght hoe, Le. tàe ratio
w
bebaves der kirvart tad rEve ta he ndormatioa obta w Bc , ed n
ODEy oLms law. Theredore, a
azd curteat 3 kuown as V-I eharacteritie
rntica PN-jurctun u s Dom- Iinear dewea.
e pyh betwoen waiaga iDed ) P o r small values or 1orward votago , les than the taternal bartir
121 Forward Charactaristies
potertial ( ard
V,>V, prevents d holes ,
tae lugw cunt zero, becauae
andaelectzons acroas V,
theopposes
V, Here
depletion regon

vere Breakdows When V,beoomes greater than a

mal current owrs an chowa by partinu
OA of the characteristiC. The lorward voitage below which I, is zaro and
above whichl, increases rapidly 1s caled thresholI cut-in I ofeat ar break
Eima nalfon doures point voltage. 1e reanoie voltage s equsl to thbe potentzal barrier.

P yusticn iarreasudidery Ta vean o Ifv, is further increased the current increases rapidily (part AE). As the
fprward votage ncreàsBes, he upeed ot taayority charge carrier incceases 317
This scoelareted charges coilide
with crystal atoms, breaks some af the (0) f,isthe increased fam zaro, 1, increases to a szmal Maximun valae of
meteaLg tad set a n t i y damagd the cyatel c oovalent botnas. 1his
gereraies the hole-electroa pairs, which in turn 4 the reverse
I , turtber inereased,
currentth
run wdzeurs to nornal a suz u
the eso reve vitag ia nmovd
creases the Sorward current. Tms increased current inczeases the
heating ar snavalues ot ofa
reverse voltage upto a certain critical
value
Terr are sw grES d ww effect in the crystal Tis heat 1s
dissipated in the material there by S independent
emans of the
Teverse current is Encwa as reverge saturation current or leakage
as a
uzcios beesztowz increasing the tenupera ture of the material. ihe generation of hola-electron
Since the
pair dopends an the temperature. Tua, increases n teuperature furtber curreat. T s ourrent i8 due to the mnornty charge cariers.
bence thas current
eiciesdy dapala vuta largs sumimdcietms iros the covient bnda increases the current For large of
valnes V, COpared to tihe cuTrent ainority carriers are thercally generated carriers,
V. 7%
Craeguetiy,a arg vnber d dharg cariera ae gserned sinitasea increases ezponentially with depends on the junction emperature. It mcreases approximately per
P 214 Thus, in
the portion AB of the N
characteristic, PN- junction ofíers low resistange tothe fow of current. C or both Ge and Si and becomes alnost double for every 1"C rise in
Teciri ensetinat udy tbe Lorwari characteristieota PNjunctio
Uder e v e biased candaina, ha nwcureat fows dae to mizoriey temperature.
a g is inerand, the einectre iteis smnis igae 314. Te oward voktagg a mcraaed in proper steps an .7.2 Keverse Characteristic ) V , i s increased beyond the critical value (point A), 1, increases rapidly.
rs Hethe
oity eletnaa pasog thrnh he degietics mgiee pais e rtig oarent ia netai writa the miliamntaz. Higure 3.15 showo the grapi
Thee sciread elo
The critical valus of V, is alled turn-over voltage. Point A' is called the
in
ery small
ithe eiears in he aiest buzd a
izyarting dciest koee point. Afer point B, a
increase produns arge
eserg wt Hene 5 1B caled
break he cales brnds sud a pair d eie and elatan in goerted. The 12crease n The
reverse voitage corresponding to point
the junction is said to be in te
d eiecua pneratas apaiz d hole and eiortrua. Similarly cacs breakdown voltage. Beyond this voltage
breakdown region.
pr m uipicative. This euzdatie
nechaniam direakdon 3.8 THE IDEAL DIODE
koows an avalanci L 14 cizzit o7mbal and plenner
ewE mA) From the study of the characteristics af diode, we
rteatatiot f a PNjunetion dinde is shows is the
igurs 2.13.
the haveseen that the
diode condurts well in forward bias and very poor in reverse bias. Thus it perits
unidirectional conduction. The diode is said to be an ideal, if it acts asa periect
conductoy in forward bias and as a perfect insulator in reverse bias, ie. during
1orward is no voltage drop across the diode and during reverse there is
Fig.3.16
tias there
his Paret eresetate Do CurTent ow tàrough
the diode. "Thus, it
behaves as a cdosed switch during
Figure 3.16 ahows the circuit daagram for the study of revere characteristic forward bias and as a open switch in reverse bias. The characteristicsof such an
d i propar ateps and the resulting ideal diode are shown in ígure 3.18.
urent s Do0d W1 the icro-ammeter. igure 3.17 ahowe the graph of reverse
Ea Prakasdhan &Ca Ekta Prakashan & Ca ent verses the appied reve ree voltag. Ekta Praliashan & Co.
Elcta Prakashan & Co:
 B.Se. Sem-I Plysies B.Sc. Sem-I Physies
B.Se. Sem-J Physics 6
BSC Se-I Physi A small changa in zhe appled voitage The toilowing paints to be noted from the characteristiC:
diodes operating in the breakdown regwns of thear characteristics are
all the
'Tbe corresponding change
the diode current
in
kno (1) Zener diode acts similar to ardinary PNjunction diode under sorward bias
s Zener diodes. The tigure 3.20 shows the arcuit symbol of the Zener dide. It is
imilar to that of the ordinary diode with the change that the bar is repla.ced by
the leter Z ( ) A small reverse saturation current lows through it under reverse bias
condition until the revarse voltago reach to the turnover voltage. Beyond
it upon the operating
resistanoe is eonstant but depends
dynamiebias
TheForward
not turn over voltage the reverse current inCreases rapidy
greater than cub-in voitage r,
varies inversely with the
roltage.
cuLTeat, but n t reverBe b125 T, 3 Verg arge Ths reverse voitago corresponding to point Bjust beyond the curvature
of the characteristic is çalled the breakdown voltaga.
N
3.10 ZENER BREAKDOWN ().The reverse current fowing under reverse bias (onditiog aftear breakdowa
which both P and N regions are beuvily doped, the voitage V1 caled breakdown current. This is quoted by unanufacturer
fa PN junctian dicde in

e
Fig. 3.20 as minimum value of current to avoid the curvature. b)

9 STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTANCE OF ADIODE smal, df the order of 6x10"m. Wben reve:se
width of the depletion region. is very For normal operation of a Zaner diode in the The ratio of asmal change in the iszoner voltage V, to corresponding
is incrersed, the reverse current incroases very erse
breakdowa rogion, the curront the called the static zener resistance
19.1 Static Resistanee roltags acruas such & PNjuncticn Dail change in Zener eurrent I,
npidiy at s cartain reverse valtage beion 6Vand the junction is breakdown. The through the diode should be limited by an exteraal ireuit to a suitable valae or impedanoe. It is denoted by, or a, and ia grven by
a
of retandiered by theaodewben a steady da. curmeat isfiwu
Ea the electric Seld at the junction becomes very high at this low voltage. The eiectrie The such that tbe power dissipated across tihe junction 18 within its
powar-bandling
af tbe appied voltage Vto the steady current 1at the given point.duude
u
trik
atio
Thas feld exerts a large force on the vaknce electrons of the
atoms in the depletion capability. If this precaution is ignored a large current can cause destruction of
number of hole-electron to ho diode. 11
the cbwalent bends ara bzoken, and a large
ugion. ienc ron
are also accslernted away irom the junction by Va0 then r, 0, but practically r, may vary from a low value to a
pair r e prod Ded. i hese carriers
the applied voltage and the reverse current increasos rapidly. This process by r g e va.de depenaing upon the partaeular Zener diode.

r t w a a d a aot a useftd partaete

3.10.2 Zener diode characteristie
y
13

broken by a strong electric (14

covulent bords in the depletina ragOn directiy Pigure 3.21 shows typical current-oltago characteristicof aZenar dioda.
which are
orm
Teinla wwer directinn
nt which the breakdown 15
T a e bypical vals ar ir Gr , = 10 2,. &,1 MO ad ar ima Seld ia called Zenet breakdown, and the ceverse voltago
ccur is called the Zener breakdown.
1 0 a., =i5 MO. Whes the tetuperature of the junction increa.sos the valence electzons gain
ae3.9.2 Dynamic Resistance eerg. 1heretare, i smaler revere voltage is suficient to produce required electric
arg
lled seldto breakovalentbondsinthe dapietionregion. Thus,themagnitade ofZener
breakdown voltage decredses as the jun:tion temperature increases. 19
-V,
161 Zener Diode
ATecer diode is a PNjunction ivde. It is normaly operated under reverse V,
23
bias enndition in breakdown region. By propet adjustuent ofimpurities in both
mgjona, the characteristic beyond varn over voltago becimes almost vertieal Thus,ot
ect the rverse volcage acras the dinde remsins almoat constamt for a large change of s, A)
the zererse current. Theredore, a Zecer iode is used as a voltage reference devioe of
19
whea tbe
forward
eurreat
fowiag thrtcAi dinde
varies abeut te avruge arstailining vatage predesermit.ed valoe. Taser divdes
a desigond to operata
are

an
iae(a.4 current), the resutanoe ctered by the dode in the soreari duraetionto
a 1twalduehandred volta 7hedinde operating belom 6V the breakdown of 27
ent te urents calid the dynazir
t a siso caied neremental resustancs. it a
gven by,
reaistance.Sametima te junction is to lner eflet, those operating betmeen 5 and 8 volts the
breakdewn is due to beth Zener effset azd avalanche Fg 8.31 25,
In multiplication. gezeral,
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