Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239

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Journal of Water Process Engineering

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Preparation of activated carbon using fruit, paper and clothing wastes for T
wastewater treatment
Rakib Mustafa, Eylem Asmatulu*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260, United States

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The scarcity of clean drinking water is one of the biggest issues in the world and will be the most studied subject
Waste materials along with food and energy in the near future. Some freshwater sources are contaminated with sulfur, nitrogen,
Briquetting phosphorous, and other organic and inorganic contaminants. Desalination is a solution to this water problem,
Carbonization but it is costly and time-consuming. Thus, there is a growing need for developing an inexpensive water treatment
Activation
process for various contaminated freshwater sources. The objective of this study was to develop an inexpensive
Wastewater treatment
and sustainable processes for cleaning lake water and other drinking water sources using waste materials. Here,
old clothes, wastepaper, and fruit waste, such as date and olive seeds, were pelletized, carbonized, and activated
to produce activated carbons. Chemical activation was performed using zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and calcium
chloride (CaCl2). Additionally, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests
were performed to determine the surface area, morphology, and porosity of the produced activated carbon. From
BET surface area analysis, it can be seen that activated carbon produced from wastepaper and cotton with ZnCl2
activation provided better values (1496.97 m2/g and 1293.02 m2/g). According to the pore volume analysis,
activated carbon produced from cotton with ZnCl2 activation provided higher values (0.68654 cm3/g). This
system is a promising approach for wastewater treatment and future commercialization.

1. Introduction
1.1. General background
The demand for clean drinking water has been escalating for the
past few decades all over the world, whether it is an overpopulated city
or a rural area with limited resources. According to the World Wildlife
Organization, around 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access
to water [1,2]. In addition, the other half of the population has access
but lacks the quality resource. Air, water, or soil pollution that is con-
nected to water resources can be a major cause of lack of pure or usable
water. The industrial revolution along with improper waste disposal
have contaminated natural resources, thereby resulting in poor water
quality. Many aquatic species have become endangered as the result of
water degradation [2].
Water scarcity and quality treatments have been the research areas
most in demand. The lack of safe drinking water will be one of the
world’s leading problem in future decades. The lack of quality water is
not only due to climate change or a regional variance but is also the
result of physical shortage and economic issues. Economic issues are
most common in African countries. The amount of money being
invested in water resources and the relevant human capacity in a cer-
tain region are not quite enough to meet water demands in the area.
Also, individuals do not have the money to create an acceptable water
source on their own [3]. In 2006, the United Nations Economic Com-
mission for Africa estimated that 300 million out of 800 million people
on the African continent live in a water-scarce environment. The Middle
East has been suffering from the spilling or leaking of oil from factories
and boats into water. Tons of sea creatures have died in polluted water.
Therefore, the purification of water is a major issue in the world today.
However, there are few water purifying processes that are actually ef-
fective. Desalination, sedimentation, filtration, coagulation-floccula-
tion, chlorination, and aeration are a few. Among these, desalination is
the most effective for removing salt and minerals from a liquid. This
multi-stage process uses sedimentation, separation, filtration, and re-
verses osmosis to obtain clean drinkable water, but it is very expensive
[4].
Recently activated carbon has been used in many purification and
adsorption procedures. Water is no exception. Activated carbon is a
carbonaceous, highly porous substance that can attract and retain or-
ganic chemicals. It is meant to have small and low-volume pores that
would increase the surface area existing for adsorption or chemical

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: e.asmatulu@wichita.edu (E. Asmatulu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101239
Received 7 June 2019; Received in revised form 12 March 2020; Accepted 14 March 2020
Available online 21 March 2020
2214-7144/ Published by Elsevier Ltd.
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
reactions [5]. Activated carbon is formed by burning a carbonaceous
substance from any of its variety of sources in the absence of oxygen,
thereby resulting in the formation of carbon char. Some of the common
sources are coal, rye starch, and wood pulp with low ash content, as
well as any agricultural by-products such as nutshell, seeds or any
materials that are rich in carbon content. The carbon char is then
treated chemically or sometimes physically to develop a consistent in-
ternal sequence of pores. This step increases the surface area of the
char’s internal pore networks. As a result, a tremendous surface area is
achieved which can then take part in chemical reactions that attract
and retain the organic chemicals. Due to its adsorption property, acti-
vated carbon is used in the purification or cleaning process. This can be
any type of purification such as air and gold purification, poison re-
moval treatment, or gastric lavages. Absorption can easily occur in
order to capture chemical organic compounds that are smaller or si-
milar to the pore size but not those compounds with a size that is
greater than the pores. This creates a new platform of challenge in the
application of activated carbons. During the adsorption process, bond
attraction forces, like Van der Waals forces, trap the unwanted mole-
cules within the carbon’s internal pore structure and accumulate them
onto a solid surface. Activated carbon has several different applications
such as metal extraction, sewage treatment and purification, medicinal
purposes, clothing, automobile, and other accessories [6].
All of the mentioned initiatives have been performed for the sus-
tainable clean water sources. The objectives of this study are;
- To prepare activated carbons using low-cost materials i.e. waste
materials, and fruit wastes through chemical activation process
where ZnCl2 and CaCl2 were used as chemical agents.
- To investigate the BET surface area, pore volume, porosity, SEM
image, adsorption isotherms of the produced activated carbon in
order to find the best option for the filtration process.
- To prepare the water column filter using the produced activated
carbons.
- To investigate the quality of the water after the filtration using the
column filters based on the set parameters (Total Dissolved Solids,
Electrical Conductivity, pH, Turbidity).
The novelty of the present work is that, for the first time, activated
carbon for wastewater filitration was produced from old clothes, was-
tepaper, and fruit waste, which were treated with ZnCl2 and CaCl2. The
fundamental knowledge and experience gained through this study can
be used to advance new wastewater filtration systems for industrial and
public wastewater, produced water, and other wastewater sources.
1.2. Water treatment processes
Water treatment involves the removal of impurities and con-
taminants, such as bacteria, minerals, sulfur, nitrogen, manganese, and
other organic and inorganic substances. The water treatment process is
selected based on the type and concentration of contaminants. Some of
the most common water treatment processes used worldwide are de-
salination, filtration, sedimentation, coagulation-flocculation, and
aeration. Among these, sedimentation, filtration, and flocculation are
frequently used when only physical particles must be removed. For
dissolved organic and inorganic materials, aeration, desalination, ad-
sorption, and chemically activated membranes are recommended [7].
Carbonization is the process of converting organic materials into
carbon and carbon-embedded residue, among other byproducts.
Carbonization is generally performed by a thermochemical decom-
position process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is the chemical and physical
decomposition of organic precursor materials into carbon-rich com-
pounds at an elevated temperature. An inert environment is necessary
for effective pyrolysis. Typically, helium, argon, or nitrogen gas is used
to provide an inert environment [8]. The efficiency of carbonization
depends on the removal of oxygen from the system. Due to the presence
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Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
of oxygen, several stages of the chemical reaction occur before com-
plete carbonization. In the first stage, or combustion stage, existing
oxygen oxidizes carbon (C), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2), and sulfur
(S), and produces CO2, NO2, H2O, SO2, and some carbon monoxide
(CO). In the second stage, or gasification stage, almost no oxygen re-
mains, but the generated gases from the oxidation process start to react.
The little amount of remaining oxide is converted into CO. For pyr-
olysis, the temperature range 500°–900 °C is considered, but the tem-
perature setup depends highly on the materials used and the activation
process. For example, Amaya et al. used rice husks for carbonization at
500 °C for 2 h [9]. Johns et al. used granular activated carbon (GAC) for
absorbing dissolved metals and organics at a temperature of 750 °C
[10].
Activated carbon can be defined as processed carbon that has small
and low-volume pores in its structure, which provides a higher surface
area [11]. Activated carbon was first used during World War I in gas
masks to adsorb poisonous gases; since then, activated carbon has been
used in many fields. For example, it is used in the medical field to treat
poisonings [12,13]; activated carbon slows down the enterohepatic
circulation of toxins or drugs. Activated carbon is also used to remove
oil vapor, odor, and hydrocarbon from a gas [14]. Activated carbon
with iodine and sulfur is used to trap mercury (Hg) emissions [15–17].
The most popular application of activated carbon is the removal of
pollutants from air or water streams. It is widely used in groundwater
and drinking water filtration. There are actually two ways to activate
carbon: physical activation and chemical activation. In physical acti-
vation, the raw material is pyrolyzed at a higher temperature (i.e.,
600 °C–900 °C) in an inert atmosphere. Then the carbonized material is
exposed to the oxidizing atmosphere (oxygen or steam) at a higher
temperature. In chemical activation, before or after the carbonization,
the raw material is impregnated with certain chemicals. Generally, an
acid, strong base, or salt can be used. Many raw materials are used for
activating carbon with chemical agents to adsorb different ions from
the water. Coffee waste has been used to produce activated carbon at
700 °C to adsorb mercury, cadmium, and zinc from an aqueous solution.
ZnCl2 and KOH have been used as chemical agents [18]. GAC was used
in sorption cycles to remove nitrates [19,20]. The adsorption of cad-
mium (Cd) was investigated using coconut coir pith as raw material for
activated carbon [21]. Waste Rosa canina seeds were used to produce
GAC for adsorbing dye [22]. Calcium chloride-treated beech sawdust
was used as activated carbon to inspect the dye-adsorption rate in batch
and fluid-bed systems [23]. The methylene blue removal rate was in-
spected by using activated carbon prepared from cola nut shell, where
ZnCl2 was the activating agent [24]. The adsorption of copper ion from
textile industrial water was analyzed using activated carbon from co-
conut shell [25]. Nitrate removal from water using coconut shell-acti-
vated carbon was also investigated [26]. Hazelnut shells and wood
sawdust were used to produce activated carbons separately, which were
then used as adsorbents to compare the rate of methylene blue dye
removal [27]. Rice straw, pecan shells, peanut shells, walnuts, molasses
(as a binder), etc. have been used as raw materials to produce GAC to
adsorb dissolved metals and organics [8,10]. Palm kernel shells have
also been applied in water treatment. X-ray diffraction, X-ray photo
spectrum, and SEM images of palm kernel shells showed higher porosity
and surface area [28]. A proper carbonization and activation process
that will be efficient but not expensive needs to be developed.
Date seeds used as a raw material for activated carbon is becoming
popular due to its availability and price. In United Arab Emirates alone,
there are almost 10 million palm trees. A female palm tree bears ap-
proximately 200–1000 dates. Therefore, a single tree may provide 600
pounds of date seeds on average annually. Mane et al. studied phenol
removal from wastewater by using activated carbon that was prepared
with date seeds as the raw material [29]. It was seen that the amount of
phenol that was absorbed increased with the increase in the con-
centration of date seed carbon [30]. Nemr et al. studied activated
carbon from date palm seeds to treat wastewater containing toxic
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
chromium. From that investigation, it was seen that the chromium re-
moval rate had an inverse relation to pH values, and also increased with
time. It was easy to remove a lower concentration of chromium than a
higher concentration [31]. Islam et al. prepared activated carbon from
palm date seeds to study its mesoporous and adsorptive properties.
Here, to convert biomass into char, the hydrothermal carbonization
(HTC) method was applied. Some parameters such as surface area, BET
surface area, micropore surface area, and total pore values were eval-
uated, with values of 1233.89 m2/g, 1282.49 m2/g, 769.81 m2/g, and
0.66 cm3/g, respectively [32].
Many studies have employed olive seeds and its cake as the raw
materials for activating carbon. Skodras et al. studied several raw ma-
terials as activated carbon to enhance mercury adsorption. They pre-
pared seven different activated carbons from pine and oak woods, waste
tires, and olive seeds. The activation time was varied (1 h, 3 h) to ob-
serve the BET surface area, pore volume, and adsorption of mercury.
For a one-hour activation of olive carbon, the BET surface area, total
pore volume, and adsorption values of the activated carbon were 1058
m2/g, 0.66 cm3/g, and 795 ng/mg, respectively. For a three-hour acti-
vation of olive carbon, the BET surface area, total pore volume, and
adsorption values of the activated carbon were 1690 m2/g, 0.9 cm3/g,
and 869 ng/mg, respectively [33]. Martinez et al. prepared activated
carbon using olive stone and walnut shells to observe the iodine ad-
sorption. The iodine adsorption capacity was evaluated after the pre-
paration of granular and powder form of activated carbon and com-
pared with commercial carbon. It had been seen that the granular form
of activated carbon with 75 % KOH provided an almost similar ad-
sorption as the commercially activated carbon [34]. Stavropoulos et al.
investigated the properties and nitrogen removal using activated
carbon produced from olive seed waste residue. Activation temperature
and time were varied to observe the BET surface area and total pore
volume. It was seen that a higher pore volume and BET surface area
were observed at both higher activation temperatures and activation
times. A similar outcome was observed on N2 adsorption. Maximum
adsorption was found to be at 900 °C and 4 h activation time.
2. Experiment
2.1. Materials
In this study, the raw materials used to prepare activated carbon
were date seeds, olive seeds, waste paper, and waste cotton fabrics.
Waste paper and cotton fabrics are the most abandoned waste materials
in the U.S.A. Additionally, based on the past studies olive and date
seeds show promising surface structures, which make these wastes
appropriate for water filitration systems [35]. The briquetting method
was used for paper and cotton fabric. Molasses was selected as a binder
to make the briquettes [36]. The paper and cotton were briquetted to
create a solid fixture and receive the full benefit from their improved
properties. Also, transportation handling and its costs will be less for
these materials due to compacting process. ZnCl2 and CaCl2 were
chosen due to previously obtained successful results from different
biomasses [37]. Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide were also
used to adjust the pH. After collecting the seeds, they were washed with
deionized water (DI) and dried for 24 h at room temperature. Then they
were crushed and sieved using a hydraulic press and mortar. Finally,
the seeds were sieved to a size of 3–4 mm.
ZnCl2 has been used for chemical activations of macadamia nut-
shells, hazelnut shells, almond shells, apricot seed, corn cob, and rice
husks [35]. Also, CaCl2 was used as a chemical activator for olive seed
[38], and Crocus sativus leaves [39]. Based on these past studies, ZnCl2
and CaCl2 were chosen to be the activation agents. For chemical acti-
vation, samples must be impregnated with chemical agents. In this
study ZnCl2 and CaCl2 were separately used to do the activation and to
observe the effects individually. Analytical reagent grade ZnCl2 powder
was purchased from Himeda, while CaCl2 (70–80 %) flakes was
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Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
purchased from Acros Organics company.
Here chemicals and activation parameters (e.g., time, temperature)
were chosen based on the previous studies for other fruit wastes [35].
Before impregnation, 25 % solution of ZnCl2 and CaCl2 were prepared
using 15 g of DI water and 5 g of ZnCl2 and CaCl2 powder. After pre-
paring the solution, 20 g of date/olive seeds were impregnated with
20 g of the ZnCl2/CaCl2 solution and stirred at 85 °C for 2 h on a
magnetic hotplate stirrer. The impregnated solution was then dehy-
drated at 110 °C for 24 h in an oven.
To prepare the briquettes, a binder was used to enhance the ad-
hesive forces in order to hold the materials together. In this study,
molasses was used as the binder. The goal here was to prepare 3 g of
briquettes. To serve this purpose, 3.2 g of a homogeneous mixture of
each sample with binder was targeted, where 94 % would be the base
material (paper and cloth) and 6% would be the binder, which amounts
to approximately 3.008 g of base material and 0.192 g of molasses. The
reason behind preparing 3.2 g of homogeneous mixture is the loss of
material during the briquetting process, so that after the loss, there
should be a briquette of approximately 3 g. Waste paper and cloth were
chopped to a size of 2–3 mm. A weighing scale was used to measure
3.008 g of base material and 0.192 g of molasses. Then the mixtures
were stirred manually. To create a homogeneous uniform mixture, the
prepared mixture was mixed properly for 5 min at 3000 rpm using a
vortex mixer (Fisher Scientific). Our team tried to solve the water issue
first in and around our campus, so used lake and pond water here. The
abrasive water jet has been used in our institution a lot, mainly for
cutting the composite samples, so we produced a good amount of
wastewater which needs to be cleaned before draining to lakes/creeks.
For water treatment, three sources had been considered in this study.
First one is wastewater from water jet machine (source: National
Institute of Aviation and Research, NIAR, WSU), while second one is
local pond water and third one is a local lake water (source: Wichita
State University).
In order to filter the water with the produced activated carbon, the
water column was required to build. Materials used for the water
column include PVC polymer pipe (3/8-inch OD and ½-inch ID), small
polymer tube (1/2-inch OD), sand, prepared activated carbon and clean
cotton fabrics.
SEM images used in this study were prepared by cutting sections of
activated carbon of cotton and paper briquettes. The activated date and
olive seed particles were placed on the conductive adhesive on the
holder. The specimen surfaces were thereafter sputter coated with a
thin film of silver, placed in the sample holder and imaged with a FEI
Nova Nano SEM 450.
2.2. Briquetting, carbonization, and activation
A negligible amount of vegetable oil was added to the die in order to
reduce the friction between the punch rod and the interior of the die
wall. The mixture was then inserted into the mold, and the punch was
inserted into the mold. The die punch was placed in the hydraulic press,
and 5 ton/cm2 of pressure was applied to the punch. That pressure was
kept for 2 min. After releasing the pressure, the bottom end of the die
was opened using an Allen wrench to remove the prepared briquette.
The prepared briquettes are shown in Fig. 1.
This process was quite similar to the impregnation of seeds. A 25 %
solution of ZnCl2/CaCl2 was placed in a larger beaker, and briquettes of
each kind were impregnated separately in that solution. A thin layer of
netting was used to stop any loss of materials in the solution. The bri-
quettes were impregnated for 2 h at 85 °C without any stirring. After
that, the impregnated briquettes were dried at 110 °C for 24 h in an
oven.
The dried samples were then placed inside a horizontal tube furnace
and pyrolyzed in an inert atmosphere under the flow of argon gas. The
temperature was ramped from room temperature to 750–850 °C at a
rate of 10 °C/min. For the date and olive samples, a temperature of
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 1. Briquettes: paper (left) and cotton fabric (right).
850 °C was held constant for 1 h, and for the briquettes, after reaching
750 °C, that temperature was held constant for 1 h. The pyrolyzed
samples were then cooled at room temperature.
After cooling the activated carbons, they were washed with 3 M HCl
solution by heating at 90 °C for 30 min and filtered. Then the carbons
were rinsed with DI water until the pH of the solution became nearly 7.
To neutralize the effect of the concentrated HCl, 1 M NaOH was used at
the beginning of the rinsing process. After washing and filtering mul-
tiple times, the solution of carbons was brought to a pH of 6.7–7. Then
the activated carbon was filtered and dried at 105 °C for 12 h in an
oven. Finally, the activated carbons were collected to use in the water
column.
Different waste materials require different conditions of briquetting,
carbonization and activation due to their natural structures. Unlike date
and olive seeds, cotton and paper have loose nature, so authors com-
pacted to generate better briquettes. Furthermore, pyrolysis tempera-
ture for cotton and paper briquettes were kept comparatively low
(750 °C) for preventing any heat damages. Activation process is the
same as for all the samples; however, stirring during the chemical im-
pregnation was not used for briquettes to prevent breakages.
2.3. Wastewater treatment through filtration
A water column filter was designed using the prepared activated
carbon. The total water column was divided into five layers. At the
bottom of the filter column, a clean cotton fabric layer was inserted
very tightly in order to hold the other layers properly. Over the cotton
layer, a sand layer was added, followed by the prepared activated
carbon layer for the purpose of adsorption. Another layer of sand was
added on top of the activated carbon layer. Finally, a clean cotton fabric
layer was added very tightly in order to make to entire water column
system more rigid. The weight of the prepared briquettes were about
3.2 g, 40–60 % of which was reduced after the activation process.
Regardless of the weight each column layer was designed for about 2-
cm thick. Based on the authors’ previous experiences and experimental
observations, a 2 cm layer thickness is optimum for this water filtration
setup. Characterizations of activated carbon samples such as BET sur-
face analysis, and the SEM have been performed in Nebraska Center for
Materials and Nanoscience at Lincoln.
In this filtration system, a vacuum pump was required to create
negative pressure. One end of the water column was submerged under
water, and the other end was connected to the vacuum pump via a
small polymer tube so that the pump could draw out water through the
4
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
water column by creating negative pressure. Another tube was con-
nected to the other part of the vacuum pump through which filtered
water was collected in another jar. The schematic design of the water
column, a prototype of the filter, and the experimental setup for the
filtering process are shown in Fig. 2. BET and SEM analysis techniques
were applied to the prepared samples, and test results were evaluated in
detail.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. BET surface analysis of adsorption
The adsorption isotherm was used to evaluate the gas adsorbed at
different relative pressures (P/Po), where P is the gas vapor pressure,
and Po is the saturation pressure of the adsorbent. The desorption iso-
therm was evaluated by measuring the gas-removal quantities from the
samples when the pressure was lowered. According to Brunauer et al.,
five types of standard isotherms are typically observed in actual testing
(Type I–Type V) which are shown in the following Figures [40].
Adsorption of the Type I isotherm increases at a much higher rate at
low relative pressure (P/Po) and slows down at moderate pressure. An
almost steady adsorption from moderate to high pressure ratio can be
seen, revealing that the adsorbent consists of micropores and meso-
pores. For the Type II isotherm, adsorption increases sharply at a very
low relative pressure, then increases at a steady rate during the mod-
erate pressure ratio. Again, adsorption increases at a drastic rate when
the relative pressure ratio is close to 1 (0.9–1). This isotherm reflects
the dominance of micropore filling. The Type III isotherm shows weak
relations between the adsorbent and the adsorbate, representing a
convexly curved relationship between relative pressure and adsorption.
The Type IV isotherm exhibits some similarities with the Type II iso-
therm, but there is a sharp increase in adsorption from the moderate
pressure ratio to the high pressure ratio. Finally, at higher pressure,
adsorption is almost constant, reflecting the various-sized pores, pri-
marily micropores and mesopores. The Type V adsorption isotherm
increases at a very slow rate at a low relative pressure, which reveals
poorly developed micropores. Then it sharply increases at moderate
pressure, thus revealing mesopore development and non-macropores.
In our study, samples were degassed under the vacuum at 90 °C until
the pressure reached 0.015 mm Hg, and then heated to 150 °C for 70 h
prior to adsorption measurements. It is assumed that the temperature of
150 °C would not give any structural damages to the prepared samples.
An Adsorption Isotherm BET was obtained by measuring the
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 2. Water filter column: (a) schematic design and (b) prototype.
amount of gas adsorbed across a wide range of relative pressures (p/po
0.05 to 0.3 with 0.025 steps). Adsorption Isotherm BJH (p/po 0.5 to
0.995) obtained by using geometric approach until the saturation.
Conversely, desorption Isotherm BJH were achieved (p/po 0.995 to 0.1)
through measuring gas removed when the pressure was reduced to the
saturation. Adsorption and desorption isotherms are not exactly re-
versible, so exhibits some hysteresis. Hysteresis loop leads to the shapes
of the pores, formation of mesopores and micro-pores. Type A hyster-
esis is associated with cylindrical pores. Type B hysteresis produces slit-
shaped pores. Types C and D hysteresis are attributed to wedge-shaped
pores, while Type E hysteresis shows bottleneck pores [40].
3.1.1. BET adsorption isotherms of date seed-based activated carbon
Fig. 3 shows a comparison of nitrogen adsorption isotherms from
date seed-based carbon. The first curve shows the adsorption isotherm
from the char produced by date seeds without any activation. The value
of quantity adsorbed was almost similar, regardless of the change of
relative pressure ratio, which fluctuated from approximately 5.2 cm3/g
to 7 cm3/g. This adsorption isotherm is almost like the Type II isotherm.
From the value of the quantity adsorbed, it can be said that the surface
will not be very porous. The shape of the second curve in Fig. 3, the
adsorption isotherm of date seed-based activated carbon with ZnCl2
activation, is similar to the Type I isotherm. One exception is that there
was no sharp increase adsorption value when the relative pressure ratio
Fig. 3. Comparison of adsorption isotherms for date seed-based activated carbon.
5
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
started to increase from 0. From moderate pressure to high pressure,
there was a steady increase in adsorption at a slow rate. The ZnCl2-
activated date seed carbon showed a high adsorption quantity. There
was no significant hysteresis formation between the adsorption and
desorption isotherms. It was a narrow Type A hysteresis loop. Cylind-
rical-shaped pores were expected from the isotherm analysis. At a lower
pressure ratio, the value of quantity adsorbed was 162.54 cm3/g, and
the maximum adsorption quantity found at the high-pressure ratio
(0.993 cm3/g) was 212.63 cm3/g. The shape of the adsorption isotherm
of the date seed-based activated carbon with CaCl2, the third curve in
Fig. 3, is similar to the Type II isotherm, with one exception. There was
no sharp increase in adsorption at the lower pressure ratio. From the
lower to moderate pressure ratio (0.8), the adsorption quantity did not
change much. At a higher pressure ratio, there was a sudden sharp
increase in the adsorption quantity. At a lower pressure ratio, the value
of quantity adsorbed was 23.68 cm3/g, and the maximum adsorption
quantity found at the high pressure ratio (0.989 cm3/g) was 60.62 cm3/
g. Slit-type pore structures were expected here. A hysteresis loop was
formed, and the loop width was increased as it approached to lower
pressure ratio. Hysteresis loop formed here is similar to Type B hys-
teresis.
3.1.2. BET adsorption isotherms of olive seed-based activated carbon
Fig. 4 provides a comparison of nitrogen adsorption isotherms from
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 4. Comparison of adsorption isotherms for olive seed-based activated carbon.
different olive seed-based carbon. The first cure is the isotherm of olive-
based char without any activation. Initially, the adsorption values were
higher but then started to decrease with the increase in the relative
pressure ratio. When the relative pressure ratio reached 0.933441, the
values of quantity adsorbed started to increase. The value of adsorption
quantity was 3.247 cm3/g at a relative pressure ratio of 0.994153. The
maximum adsorption quantity of 3.6628 cm3/g was found at a pressure
ratio of 0.124882. This adsorption curve is similar to the Type II iso-
therm. The desorption curve did not follow the same path as expected.
Desorption values were higher as the pressure ratio decreased, which
leaves a hysteresis in the isotherm plot. Considering the adsorption and
desorption values, a weak porous structure was expected. The second
curve in Fig. 4 is the isotherm of olive-based activated carbon with
ZnCl2. The adsorption quantity increased at a steady rate with the in-
crease in the relative pressure ratio. The maximum adsorption value
was 197.94 cm3/g at a pressure ratio of 0.995038. The desorption curve
followed an almost similar path as that of the adsorption curve. A very
narrow hysteresis was formed. Here, the pattern of the adsorption curve
is actually a combination of Types I and II isotherms. An inconclusive
hysteresis type had been noticed. Therefore, a cylindrical or slit-type
pore structure was expected in the SEM image. The last curve in Fig. 4 is
the isotherm of olive-based activated carbon with CaCl2. The adsorption
quantity was increased at a very low rate from a low to moderate
pressure ratio. At the moderate pressure ratio, the values of quantity
adsorbed remained almost constant. At the higher pressure ratio, the
adsorption quantity sharply increased. The maximum value of adsorp-
tion was about 134.2964 cm3/g at a relative pressure ratio of 0.992476.
The desorption curve followed the similar pattern with a little offset
path. A small hysteresis was formed. The isotherm curve reflected the
Type II isotherm, and a Type C hysteresis loop was seen.
3.1.3. BET adsorption isotherms of paper-based activated carbon
Fig. 5 shows a comparison of adsorption isotherms of three different
cases, i.e., char produced from waste paper, paper-based carbon with
ZnCl2 chemical activation, and paper-based carbon with CaCl2 chemical
activation. Here, the three different curves show three different pat-
terns. The first curve of the adsorption isotherm of char produced from
waste paper suggests a Type II isotherm, with one exception. At a lower
pressure ratio (0–0.18), there was a small sharp increase in the quantity
of adsorption. After that, there was a linear relationship between the
adsorption and relative pressure at a moderate pressure ratio. Then at a
higher-pressure ratio, there was a slight increase in the adsorption
quantity. The maximum quantity adsorbed was 57.94 cm3/g at a re-
lative pressure ratio of 0.9956 (approximately). A minimum adsorption
quantity of 45.52 cm3/g was found at a pressure ratio of 0.54. The
desorption isotherm did not follow the exact path of the adsorption
6
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
isotherm. A definite hysteresis was observed similar to Type B. A higher
adsorption quantity was seen in the ZnCl2-activated paper carbon,
shown in the second curve in Fig. 5. The shape of the isotherm is similar
to the Type I isotherm. The quantity of adsorption increased with the
increase in the relative pressure ratio. However, the progression rate
was higher from the lower to the moderate pressure ratio. From the
moderate to the high pressure ratio, the quantity of adsorption in-
creased at a steady rate, with the maximum quantity adsorbed being
570.62 cm3/g at a relative pressure ratio of 0.9944 (approximately).
The minimum adsorption quantity of 361.69 cm3/g was found at a
pressure ratio of 0.048. The desorption isotherm curve followed the
same path as the adsorption isotherm. A narrow hysteresis was formed.
A cylindrical pore was expected from the isotherm analysis. As can be
seen in the third curve of Fig. 5, a higher adsorption quantity was also
shown by the CaCl2-activated paper carbon. The shape of the isotherm
was similar to the Type III isotherm. A steady increase of quantity ad-
sorbed can be seen from the low to the moderate pressure ratio. At a
higher-pressure ratio (0.8–1), there was a sharp increase in adsorption
quantity. The maximum quantity adsorbed was 500.33 cm3/g at a re-
lative pressure ratio of 0.9914 (approximately). A minimum adsorption
quantity of 164.2 cm3/g was found at a pressure ratio of 0.048. The
desorption isotherm followed almost the same path as that of the ad-
sorption isotherm. A little deviation was noticed from the moderate to
the higher pressure ratio (0.65–1). A small hysteresis was formed for
this reason. A wedge-shaped porous structure was expected from this
analysis.
3.1.4. BET adsorption isotherms of cloth-based activated carbon
Fig. 6 provides a comparison of low-pressure nitrogen adsorption
isotherms for different cloth-based activated carbons. The pattern of
adsorption isotherm curves is similar to that of paper-based activated
carbon. Three curves show three different patterns. The adsorption
isotherm of char produced from cloth without any activation suggests a
Type II isotherm, as shown in the first curve in Fig. 6. At a low relative
pressure ratio, the adsorption quantity was low. From the lower to the
moderate pressure ratio, the amount of quantity adsorbed was in-
creased almost linearly at a smaller rate with the increase in pressure
ratio. From the moderate to high pressure ratio, there was a sudden
sharp increase in the quantity of adsorption with the increase in pres-
sure ratio (0.82–1.0). The maximum adsorbed quantity of 10.26 cm3/g
was observed at a pressure ratio of 1. A slit-type pore structure had been
expected. The desorption isotherm did not follow the same path of
adsorption isotherm. A diverging hysteresis was formed as the relative
pressure ratio was lowered. The second curve in Fig. 7 represents the
adsorption isotherm of cloth-based activated carbon with ZnCl2. A
higher adsorption quantity was noticed from the lower pressure ratio.
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 5. Comparison of adsorption isotherms for paper-based activated carbon.
This adsorption isotherm follows the trend of the Type I isotherm. From
a 0 to 0.4 pressure ratio, there was a small increase in adsorption
quantity. After that, the adsorption quantity became almost constant
with the change in the relative pressure ratio. The minimum quantity of
adsorption of 362.93 cm3/g was found at a relative pressure ratio of
0.0487. The maximum adsorption quantity of 444.61 cm3/g was found
at a relative pressure of 0.994753 (approximately). The adsorption
isotherm is similar to the Type I isotherm. Therefore, the cylindrical
pore structure was as expected. The desorption isotherm followed the
exact path of the adsorption isotherm. Therefore, no hysteresis was
observed. The third curve in Fig. 6 represents the adsorption isotherm
of cloth-based activated carbon with CaCl2. A higher quantity of ad-
sorption was achieved at a higher relative pressure ratio and followed a
combination of Types III and IV isotherms. From a 0.05–0.7 relative
pressure ratio, the adsorption quantity was increased at a slower linear
rate with the increase in pressure ratio. After that, there was a sudden
increase in the quantity of adsorption at a steeper rate. The minimum
quantity of adsorption of 150.52 cm3/g was found at the relative
pressure ratio of 0.0538. The maximum adsorption quantity of
429.986 cm3/g was found at a relative pressure of 0.993874 (approxi-
mately). The desorption isotherm followed almost a similar path with a
little variation in the middle. With the relative pressure ratio from 0.6
to 1.0, a small hysteresis was formed. A wedge-shaped pore structure
was expected from this adsorption isotherm.
3.2. BET pore volumes of activated carbons
Fig. 7 shows a comparison of pore volumes of different kinds of
produced carbons (without activation, activation with ZnCl2, and ac-
tivation with CaCl2). Fig. 7(a) shows that the pore volume data from
char produced from date seeds without any chemical activation after
Fig. 6. Comparison of adsorption isotherms for cloth-based activated carbon.
7
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
the degassing process was insufficient. Therefore, it can be concluded
that less porosity would be observed from this microscopic structure of
char. The pore size distribution of the date seed-based activated carbon
showed better pore volume in the micropore region. The maximum
pore volume was 0.103 cm3/g at a pore radius of 0.85 nm (approxi-
mately). In the beginning, the pore volume decreased at a drastic rate
from 0.85 nm to 2 nm. After a pore radius of 16 nm, the pore volume
was reduced to almost zero. From the date seed-based activated carbon
with CaCl2, the pore volume remained almost constant with a pore
radius 0.84 nm–6 nm. After a pore radius of 8 nm, the pore volume
decreased at a higher rate and became close to zero at a pore radius of
72 nm (approximately). The maximum pore volume of 0.0594 cm3/g
was observed at a pore radius of 0.847 nm. Initially the pore volume of
ZnCl2-activated carbon was higher; however, with the increase in pore
radius, the pore volume decreased quite sharply. On the other hand,
pore volume remained almost constant for the CaCl2-activated carbon
up to a pore radius of 8 nm and then slowly started to decrease. This
reflected the formation of meso- and macropores.
Fig. 7(b) shows the pore volume of olive seed-based carbons. For the
char with no activation, initially no pore surface was found until a 10-
nm pore radius. The average pore volume of that region was
0.0084 cm3/g (approximately). Overall, the pore volume was very low,
regardless of the pore radius. Better pore volume was found with the
ZnCl2-activated carbon. The maximum pore volume was
0.140547 cm3/g at a pressure ratio of 0.836273. In the micropore re-
gion (0–2 nm pore radius), the pore volume decreased sharply. After a
2-nm pore radius, the pore volume decreased at a lower rate with the
increase in pore radius. This reflected mesopore formation in the
structure. For the CaCl2-activated carbon, the maximum pore volume of
0.05055 cm3/g (approximately) was achieved at a 0.879-nm pore ra-
dius. From a pore radius of 0.87 nm–2 nm, the pore volume decreased
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 7. Comparison of pore volume: (a) date seeds, (b) olive seeds, (c) paper, and (d) cloth.
substantially. In the mesoporous region, initially the pore volume de-
creased at a lower rate until a pore radius of up to 14 nm. After that, the
pore volume started to decrease at a higher rate with the increase in
pore radius. The average pore volume in the mesoporous region was
0.024 cm3/g (approximately).
Fig. 7(c) shows the pore volume of paper-based carbons. Small pore
volume was observed from the char produced by waste paper. A sharp
decrease in pore volume was noticed from the pore radius of
0.8 nm–1.3 nm. At the micropore region, the average pore volume was
approximately 0.015 cm3/g. ZnCl2-activated carbon from paper showed
an inverse exponential relationship between pore volume and pore
radius. The average pore volume in the micropore region was ap-
proximately 0.3 cm3/g. The maximum pore volume was 0.455 cm3/g at
a pore radius of 0.84 nm. After the 8-nm pore radius, the pore volume
was almost close to zero. For CaCl2- activated carbon from paper, from
a pore radius 0.87 nm–4 nm, the pore volume decreased at a steady
(almost linear) rate. In the micropore region, the average pore volume
was 0.045 cm3/g. The maximum pore volume was 0.0776 cm3/g at a
pore radius of 0.87 nm. From a pore radius of 4 nm–20 nm, pore volume
decreased at a steeper rate with the increase in pore radius. The
minimum value of 0.012 cm3/g was found at a pore radius of 87.19 nm.
From the comparison of these three types of carbon, it can be seen that
the pore volume of CaCl2-activated carbon is higher than the other two,
and this decreased initially at a slow rate with the increase in pore
radius, whereas the pore volume of ZnCl2-activated carbon decreased at
a higher rate with the increase in pore radius.
Fig. 7(d) shows the pore volume of cloth-based carbons. A very
small pore volume was observed from the char produced by cloth. The
8
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
average pore volume in the micropore region was 0.015 cm3/g (ap-
proximately). Cloth-based activated carbon with ZnCl2 showed an in-
verse exponential relationship between pore volume and pore radius.
From a pore radius 0.854 nm–2 nm, the pore value decreased at a
drastic rate. The average pore volume in this region was 0.08 cm3/g
(approximately). After that, the pore volume decreased at a slower rate.
The pore volume was almost zero after the 16-nm pore radius. The
maximum pore volume of 0.152621 cm3/g was found at the 0.854-nm
pore radius. The cloth-based activated carbon with CaCl2 showed a
constant pore volume with pore radius from 0.84 nm to 4.5 nm. The
average pore volume in that region was approximately 0.47 cm3/g.
After that, a drastic decrease was seen in the pore volume of
6 nm–20 nm. A higher pore volume was achieved through CaCl2 che-
mical activation. The maximum pore volume was approximately
0.482 cm3/g.
3.3. BET surface areas of carbons
Fig. 8 shows a comparison of BET surface areas of various produced
carbons under different conditions. Fig. 8(a) shows the comparison of
BET surface area of date seed-based carbons. Activated carbon with
ZnCl2 chemical activation provided the highest surface area for date
seeds. The BET surface areas achieved by date seed char, ZnCl2 acti-
vation, and CaCl2 activation were 18.1671 m2/g, 591.4278 m2/g, and
76.9446 m2/g, respectively. ZnCl2 activation provided 32 times better
surface area than a char without any activation and almost 7.68 times
better surface area than CaCl2-activated carbons.
Fig. 8(b) shows the comparison of BET surface area of olive seed-
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 8. Comparison of BET surface area of different activated carbons.
based carbons. The activated carbon with ZnCl2 showed the maximum
surface area for olive seeds. The BET surface areas achieved by olive
seed char, ZnCl2 activation, and CaCl2 activation were 10.1841 m2/g,
501.4492 m2/g, and 340.5691 m2/g, respectively. There was an almost
49 times increase in BET surface area using ZnCl2 as the chemical ac-
tivation agent and a 33 times increase using CaCl2 as the chemical
activation agent. Between the chemical agents, ZnCl2 activation pro-
vided better BET surface area than the CaCl2 activation. Fig. 8(c) shows
the comparison of BET surface area of paper-based carbons, which in-
dicates a similar outcome. Activated carbon with ZnCl2 provides a
better surface area. The BET surface areas achieved by char from paper,
carbon with ZnCl2 activation, and carbon with CaCl2 activation were
158.8533 m2/g, 1496.97 m2/g, and 577.0856 m2/g, respectively. The
ZnCl2 activation provided 9.4 times better surface area and CaCl2 ac-
tivation provided 3.6 times better surface area than the char produced
from waste paper without any activation. The ZnCl2 activation provided
almost 2.6 times better surface area than the CaCl2 activation. The BET
results for olive seed agrees well with the previous studies performed by
Ioannidou and Zabaniotou 2007, Genc 2005 and Baçaoui et al. 2011
[35,41,42]
Fig. 8(d) shows the comparison of BET surface area of cloth-based
carbons. The BET surface areas achieved by cloth-based char, carbon
with ZnCl2 activation, and carbon with CaCl2 activation were
3.6576 m2/g, 1293.02 m2/g, and 514.6543 m2/g, respectively. A huge
improvement was seen after the chemical activation. The ZnCl2 acti-
vation provided 353 times better surface area and CaCl2 activation
provided almost 141 times better surface area than the cloth char
without any activation. The ZnCl2 activation resulted in almost 2.5
times improved surface area than the CaCl2 activation.
Considering chemical activation, this process is the major step
where new pore structures were developed in the carbonized materials.
Chemical activation techniques permit the improvement of meso-
porosity value and surface area that improves mass exchange paces of
ions and toxins. Note that the activation temperature and agent in the
chemical activation process provide an important job on the mass yield
9
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
and exchange [43].
Material response to the temperature and chemical activation agent
may vary; thus, the obtained surface enhancements differ some, as well.
The textural properties and surface chemistry of chemically activated
carbons rely on both synthesis parameters (e.g., time, temperature) and
different biomass sources used. Activating agents caused a lot of pores,
voids, and cavities on biomass materials. Biomass materials with the
greater lignin content create activated carbon with macroporous
structure whereas materials with the higher cellulose creates micro-
porous structure.
3.4. BET cumulative pore volumes of carbons
Fig. 9(a) shows a comparison of Barret, Joyner, and Halenda (BJH)
cumulative pore volume of date seed-based carbons. The BJH adsorp-
tion cumulative pore volume showed almost a similar pattern as the
BET surface area for date seeds. BJH cumulative pore volumes achieved
by date seed char, ZnCl2 activation, and CaCl2 activation were
0.00007 cm3/g, 0.102766 cm3/g, and 0.059418 cm3/g. The ZnCl2-ac-
tivated carbon provided 1,468 times more cumulative pore volume
than the char of date seeds without any activation and almost 1.8 times
more cumulative pore volumes than CaCl2-activated carbon.
Fig. 9(b) provides a comparison of BJH cumulative pore volume of
olive seed-based carbons. BJH cumulative pore volumes achieved by
olive seed char, ZnCl2 activation, and CaCl2 activation were
0.000919 cm3/g, 0.140547 cm3/g, and 0.050545 cm3/g. The ZnCl2-ac-
tivated carbon provided almost 153 times and CaCl2-activated carbon
provided 55 times more cumulative pore volume than the olive seed
char without any activation. ZnCl2-activated carbon showed 2.78 times
better pore volume than the CaCl2-activated carbon.
Fig. 9(c) shows a comparison of BJH cumulative pore volume of
waste paper-based carbons. The BJH cumulative pore volume com-
parison shows an interesting exception. Generally, a higher BET surface
area means a higher cumulative pore volume. However, in the case of
waste paper, activated carbon with CaCl2 showed higher cumulative
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
Fig. 9. Comparison of BJH cumulative pore volume of different activated carbons.
pore volume. BJH cumulative pore volumes of char from paper, ZnCl2-
activated carbon, and CaCl2-activated carbon were 0.021123 cm3/g,
0.454576 cm3/g, and 0.570119 cm3/g, respectively. ZnCl2 activation
provided 21.5 times better cumulative pore volume, and CaCl2 activa-
tion provided almost 27 times better cumulative pore volume than the
char produced from waste paper without any activation. CaCl2 activa-
tion provided almost 1.25 times higher pore volume than ZnCl2 acti-
vation.
Fig. 9(d) shows a comparison of BJH cumulative pore volume of
cloth-based carbons. BJH cumulative pore volume achieved by cloth-
based char, carbon with ZnCl2 activation and carbon with CaCl2 acti-
vation were 0.015246 cm3/g, 0.152621 cm3/g, and 0.481428 cm3/g,
respectively. In the case of cumulative pore volume, CaCl2-activated
carbon provided better pore volume than ZnCl2-activated carbon. ZnCl2
activation provided 10 times better cumulative pore volume and CaCl2
activation provided almost 32 times better cumulative pore volume
than a char without any activation. CaCl2 activation showed almost 3
times improved pore volume than ZnCl2 activation.
Fig. 10. SEM images: (a) date seeds without chemical activation (1641X), (b) date seeds with ZnCl2 activation (14,048X), and (c) date seeds with CaCl2 activation
(2,947X).
10
Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239
3.5. SEM analysis of activated carbons
SEM images of char prepared from date seeds and two types of date
seed-based activated carbon are shown in Fig. 10. The SEM image of
char produced from date seeds showed a structure with a very low pore
volume, which was expected. The image at 1641 times magnification is
shown here for better understanding. From the adsorption isotherm and
BET surface area analysis of ZnCl2-activated carbon from date seeds, a
good microporous surface was expected. From the SEM image at 14,048
times magnification, a porous structure was found. A dominant amount
of micropore formation was observed. From the SEM image of CaCl2-
activated carbon, a mesoporous surface can be seen. This surface was
discontinuous and rough. The image was taken at a 2947 times mag-
nification. A rough cylindrical micropore structure can be seen in the
SEM image showing ZnCl2 activation. From the magnified SEM image
of activated carbon with CaCl2, micro- and mesoporous structures can
be seen. Some macropore formation is also noticed.
SEM images of char prepared from olive seeds and two differently
chemically activated olive seed-based carbons are shown in Fig. 11. The
first SEM image is of char produced from olive seeds at a magnification
of 3813 × . As can be seen, there is visible formation of some meso- and
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239

Fig. 11. SEM images: (a) olive seeds without chemical activation (3813X), (b) olive seeds with ZnCl2 activation (3142X), and (c) olive seeds with CaCl2 activation
(5268X).

Fig. 12. SEM images: (a) paper without chemical activation (572X), (b) paper with ZnCl2 activation (501X), and (c) paper with CaCl2 activation (849X).

Fig. 13. SEM images: (a) cloth without chemical activation (3519X), (b) cloth with ZnCl2 activation (2513X), and (c) cloth with CaCl2 activation (5456X).

macropores. These pore structures did not comprise a higher pore vo-
lume. Some slit-type pores were visible from the structure, which was
expected from the isotherm analysis. The second figure shows the SEM
image of ZnCl2-activated olive-based carbon at a magnification of
3142 × . A porous surface is easily visible from this image. From the
third SEM image of CaCl2-activated olive-based carbon, the porosity of
the surface is not visible. Micro- and mesopores in the ZnCl2 activated
carbon can easily be observed. Both cylindrical- and slit-type pores are
easily seen. From the SEM image of CaCl2-activated carbon at 5268X
magnification, the porous structure is visible. According to the ad-
sorption isotherm, slit-type pores were expected. Rough, micro and
mesopore surfaces were found in both cases. However, the pore struc-
ture of ZnCl2-activated carbon was more convincing for the adsorption.
SEM images of paper-based activated carbon and carbon from paper
without any activation are shown in Fig. 12. The first SEM image of
char produced from paper without any activation shows some porosity
in the structure. According to the adsorption isotherm, the slit-type pore
structure had been expected. The image at 572 times magnification is
shown here for better understanding. The second SEM image is of
paper-based activated carbon with ZnCl2. From the BET surface area
analysis, ZnCl2-activated carbon should have a higher porosity, and this
image reflected the same conclusion. A highly porous surface was ob-
served from this image, which was taken at a magnification of 501 × .
From the adsorption isotherm, a Type I isotherm was observed, which
reflected the cylindrical-type pore. From the higher magnification
image, the cylindrical pore structure can be seen, which matched the
expectation. The third SEM image is of the paper-based activated
carbon with CaCl2. The BET surface area analysis shows a moderate
porosity. This image was taken at a magnification of 849X to observe
the porosity of the structure. At higher magnification, a rough pore
structure was observed. According to the adsorption isotherm, a Type
III isotherm was observed, which represents a wedge-shaped structure.
From the SEM image, a slit- and wedge-shaped irregular pore structure
can be seen.
SEM images of char prepared from cloth and two types of cloth-
based activated carbon are shown in Fig. 13. From the first SEM image

11
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239

of carbon produced from cloth without any activation, the fibrous

Not suitable for human consumption. Can be used for irrigation and other cleaning purpose. Used as drinking water for

Unacceptable for human consumption. Not suitable for livestock. Not usable for irrigation and other household usage.
structure of the cloth can be seen easily. This image was taken at a
magnification of 3519 × . According to the adsorption isotherm, a Type
II isotherm was found. Therefore, the slit-type pore structure was ex-
pected. From the SEM image, some really small pore structures can be
seen between the fibers. The second SEM image is of cloth-based acti-
Can be consumed by humans. May affect the people with a kidney problem. Usable for livestock.

vated carbon with ZnCl2 at 2513 times magnification. A more fibrous

surface can be observed here. From the adsorption isotherm, a Type I
isotherm was identified; therefore, a cylindrical pore structure should
be observed. Inside the fibrous structure, a cylindrical pore structure
can be seen, as expected. From this image, the inside part of the fiber is
visible and a detailed pore surface is noticed. The third SEM image is of
cloth-based activated carbon with CaCl2 at a magnification of 5456 × .
According to the adsorption isotherm, a combination of Types III and IV
isotherms were observed. Therefore, a wedge-shaped porous structure
was expected. A better pore structure can be seen in this magnification.
Suitable for drinking. Used in irrigation Suitable for livestock

3.6. Wastewater treatments

3.6.1. Parameters and their standard values for water

To inspect the quality of the water after cleaning with an activated
carbon filter, few parameters had been chosen. They were total dis-
solved solids (TDS), electro-conductivity (EC), pH, and turbidity. TDS is
comprised of inorganic and organic substances that can be dissolved in
the water. Different inorganic salts such as sodium, potassium, bi-
carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, calcium, nitrates can be
dissolved in water at different concentration [44]. These substances can
be dissolved in ionized, molecular, colloidal or granular form. TDS can
be called the sum of the concentration of the individual ions from a full
macro analysis [45]. Table 1 shows the preferable level of TDS in water
livestock.

which is set by the World Health Organization (WHO), and accessible

Use

level of electrical conductivity in water [46–49].

Electrical Conductivity (EC) is the measure of the ability to conduct
Electrical Conductivity Rating

electricity of an electrolyte solution [47]. It is one of the reliable ways

to observe the ionic content of the solution. The value of electrical
conductivity depends on the minerals that dissolved in the aquatic so-
lution. Therefore, electrical conductivity is directly related to total
dissolved solids (TDS) [44]. Higher the mineral content, higher the
Unacceptable

electrical conductivity. Increase in ions concentration can enhance

Medium

electrical conductivity. Therefore, clean water with less ionic contents

Good

Poor

is supposed to have lower electric conductivity. Pure water is actually a

good insulator.
Electrical Conductivity (μS/cm)
Acceptability of Water According to TDS and Electrical Conductivity [47,50].

pH is a measure of whether a solution is acidic or basic (alkaline).

Pure water is supposed to have a pH of 7. According to WHO in 1958,
the suggested standard for drinking water was set from 6.5 to 9.2 [46].
In 1984, a new guideline had been provided for the pH of the drinking
water and it was established a range of 6.5–8.5 [49]. This range has
2500 – 10000
800 – 2,500

been taken as the standard pH range till now although sometimes the
Over 10000

optimum pH range is considered from 6.5 - 9.5.

0 – 800

Turbidity is the measure of haziness or cloudiness of a fluid. It is

caused by the large number of particles that are not visible in the naked
eye. Turbidity is one of the key parameters of water quality. The less the
Unacceptable
TDS Rating

value of turbidity the better the quality of the water. Turbidity can be
caused by phytoplankton, agricultural waste, sediment, industrial waste
Good

Poor
Fair

etc. There are many units for the measurement turbidity. In this study,
NTU was considered the most popular one. An instrument named ne-
Level of TDS (milligrams per liter)

phelometer has been used here with a detector to the side of the light
beam. Based on the reflected light and color, turbidity value is pro-
vided. Based on the research of WHO, the turbidity of drinking water
should not be exceeded 5 NTU [51]. Deionized and distilled water has a
turbidity value of 0.00 to 0.1. However, turbidity values close to 1 NTU
is desirable in many cases [52].
Above 1200

For water treatment, three sources had been considered in this

900-1200
300-600
600-900

study. First one is wastewater from water jet machine (source: National
Table 1

Institute of Aviation and Research, NIAR, Wichita State University).

Second one is pond water, and third one is lake water (source: Wichita

12
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu Journal of Water Process Engineering 35 (2020) 101239

Table 2
Filtration Data of Wastewater From Water Jet Machine.
Source: Wastewater from Water Jet Machine Total Dissolved Solids Electroconductivity pH Turbidity

Values (ppm) % Removal Values (μS/cm) % Removal Values % Values (NTU) % Removal
Removal

No treatment 450 900 9.43 147

with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Cloth) 410 8.89 820 8.89 8.17 13.4 1.8 98.77
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Cloth) 431 4.22 862 4.22 8.42 10.7 1.8 98.77
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Paper) 430 4.44 860 4.44 8.21 12.9 2.4 98.36
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Paper) 420 6.67 840 6.67 8.38 11.1 2.2 98.5
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Date) 419 6.89 838 6.89 8.49 9.97 2.3 98.43
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Date) 420 6.67 840 6.67 8.52 9.65 1 99.32
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Olive) 441 2 882 2 8.54 9.44 1.2 99.18
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Olive) 440 2.22 880 2.22 8.58 9.02 1.7 98.84

Table 3
Data of the Water Quality After The Filtration of Pond Water.
Source: Pond Water Total Dissolved Solids Electroconductivity pH Turbidity

Values (ppm) % Removal Values (μS/cm) % Removal Values % Removal Values (NTU) % Removal

No treatment 416 832 8.14 16.7

with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Cloth) 368 11.54 736 11.54 8.53 −4.79 1.5 91.02
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Cloth) 368 11.54 736 11.54 8.62 −5.89 1.3 92.21
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Paper) 409 1.68 818 1.68 8.47 −4.05 1.9 88.62
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Paper) 410 1.44 820 1.44 8.52 −4.67 1.6 90.42
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Date) 389 6.49 778 6.49 8.49 −4.29 0.9 94.61
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Date) 431 −3.6 862 −3.6 8.51 −4.55 1.3 92.22
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Olive) 399 4.08 798 4.08 8.45 −3.8 1.6 90.42
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Olive) 368 11.54 736 11.54 8.44 −3.68 1.2 92.81

Table 4
Data of The Water Quality After The Filtration of Lake Water.
Source: Lake Water Total Dissolved Solids (ppm) Electroconductivity (μS/cm) pH Turbidity (NTU)

Values % Values (μS/cm) % Removal Values % Removal Values (NTU) % Removal

(ppm) Removal

No treatment 197 394 9.2 18.4

with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Cloth) 189 4.06 378 4.06 8.59 6.63 2.2 88.04
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Cloth) 190 3.55 380 3.55 8.64 6.09 1.9 89.67
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Paper) 190 3.55 380 3.55 8.63 6.19 2.1 88.59
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Paper) 180 8.63 360 8.63 8.56 6.96 1.7 90.76
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Date) 191 3.05 382 3.05 8.6 6.52 1.7 90.76
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Date) 191 3.05 382 3.05 8.52 7.39 1.6 91.3
with ZnCl2 activated carbon (Olive) 181 8.12 362 8.12 8.47 7.93 1.6 91.3
with CaCl2 activated carbon (Olive) 180 8.63 360 8.63 8.58 6.74 2.1 88.59

State University). All these waters had been filtered using the water
column containing the activated produced earlier. Water quality had
been evaluated based on the four parameters (TDS, EC, pH, turbidity)
before and after the filtration.
3.6.2. Data from the filtration of wastewater from water jet machine
Table 2 shows the data of the quality of water from the filtration
process with the different activated carbon-based water column. The
turbidity of wastewater became 17.7 NTU if only filter paper was used
to remove sludge. Least total dissolved concentration had been
achieved from the cloth-based activated carbon with ZnCl2 activation.
pH and turbidity levels were also in the acceptable reason. Paper-based
activated carbon did not show good results as expected. On the other
hand, date-based activated carbon with CaCl2 activation showed the
promising result in turbidity. Other parameters i.e. TDS, EC, and pH
were also in the acceptable drinking water range. This may be caused
by the material interaction properties and rich amount of carbon con-
tents. Olive-based activated carbon also showed good results in tur-
bidity and pH limit but not good in dissolved particle concentration and
electrical conductivity.
3.6.3. Data from the filtration of pond water
Table 3 shows the data of the quality of water from the filtration
process with the different activated carbon-based water column. Cloth-
based activated carbon showed overall better results. Both chemical
activations showed TDS of 368 ppm and conductivity of 736 μS/cm
which were the least respective values. All the water columns provided
a good pH level, which is suitable for human consumption. For the pond
water, % removal of pH is negative after the filtration process, which
may be due to the interactions between certain water type and ions
coming from chemical activators. Date seed-based activated carbon
with ZnCl2 activation had provided promising results too. All of the
values reflected that the water was suitable for drinking after the fil-
tration. There was one problem which could not be solved by filtration.
The color of the pond water yellowish. After the filtration, it was still
little yellowish, and a mild odor could not be eliminated in case of that
pond water.

13
R. Mustafa and E. Asmatulu
3.6.4. Data from the filtration of lake water
Table 4 shows the data of the quality of water from the filtration
process with the different activated carbon-based water column. From
the table, it can be seen that almost all the activated carbons provided
better quality after the filtration. Among them, CaCl2 treated activated
carbon from paper and date seeds and ZnCl2 activated carbon from
olive seeds showed a noticeable decrease in turbidity, TDS and electro-
conductivity.
Overall, TDS and electrical conductivity are interrelated para-
meters: if one goes up the second one too or vice versa. This condition is
valid for all three water samples regardless of the chosen chemical for
activation and the activated materials. Considering electrical con-
ductivity initial electrical conductivity of the water obtained from the
waterjet machine is higher than any other water sources. In addition,
the water filtration system provided a better turbidity value for all three
water sources, while the activated date gave higher turbidity reductions
among the all.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the effectiveness of activated carbons produced from
different materials was investigated in terms of some parameters such
as surface area, pore volume, pore radius, adsorption isotherms. The
chemical activation process had been conducted using two different
chemical agents i.e. ZnCl2 and CaCl2. It was found that activated carbon
always provided better porosity, surface area and adsorption when
compared to the char produced without activation. From BET surface
area analysis, it can be seen that activated carbon produced from waste
paper and cotton with ZnCl2 activation provided better surface area
values (1496.97 m2/g and 1293.02 m2/g). According to the BJH pore
volume analysis, the activated carbon produced from cotton with ZnCl2
activation provided higher values compared to the others. As a result,
activated carbon from cloth fabric provided the highest porosity and
adsorption characteristics. A filtration process with specific layers (in
columns) was also designed using the activated carbons produced in
this work. The water quality was investigated before and after the fil-
tration processes. It was determined that porosity, surface area, and
adsorption level of fruit, paper, and clothing waste materials were
improved by the chemical activation process; however, only date and
olive seeds showed a significant reduction in the turbidity levels of the
different wastewater samples.
Conflict of interest and authorship conformation form
• All authors have participated in (a) conception and design, or ana-
lysis and interpretation of the data; (b) drafting the article or re-
vising it critically for important intellectual content; and (c) ap-
proval of the final version.
• This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is under review at,
another journal or other publishing venue.
•
The authors have no affiliation with any organization with a direct
or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in the
manuscript
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