CHM 111

STATES OF MATTER
LECTURER: DR. FRED-AHMADU O. H.
2022/2023 SESSION
 Outline
GASES: Empirical Gas Laws, Ideal Gas Equation, Kinetic Theory
Of Gases, Real Gases and Deviation From Ideal Gas Laws, and
Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speed.

LIQUIDS: Macroscopic Properties, Vapour Pressure, Surface

Tension, Viscosity

SOLIDS: Types and Properties

 Gases
In the gaseous state, the forces of attraction between the
molecules are minimum, hence the molecules are far apart
from one another and their positions are not fixed.
Gases have neither definite shape nor definite volume.
Gases have low intermolecular forces of attraction and they
are highly compressible.
Since the intermolecular space is very large, the gas
molecules can be moved closer if some external pressure is
applied on them.
 Empirical Gas Laws
These are laws that were arrived at based on observations
during experiments.
They express the behaviour of gases with respect to
relationships between temperature (T), pressure (P), volume (V)
and amount (no of moles, n).
In spite of the varied differences in chemical properties of gases,
most of them obey the gas laws.
Includes Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Gay Lussac’s law, Dalton’s
law of partial pressure, Avogadro’s law.
 Boyle’s Law – Pressure-Volume relationship
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) did experiments to confirm the inverse
relationship between Pressure and Volume at constant Temperature.
P α 1/V

PV = k (constant)

P1V1 = P2V2
• At normal temperatures and pressure, most gases obey Boyle’s law.
• Therefore, we call this ideal behaviour.
 Charles’ Law – Volume-Temperature relationship
States that the volume of a fixed sample of
gas at constant pressure is proportional to
the temperature.
Gases tend to expand when heat is applied
VαT
V = kT where k is constant
V/T = k
V1/T1 =V2/T2
 Charles Law
The law is valid only when T is expressed on an absolute scale
(usually Kelvin, K).
Lord Kelvin, a British physicist, noticed an extension of different
temp-vol line back to zero volume (dashed line) yields a common
intercept at -273.15oC or zero Kelvin on the temperature axis
Therefore, the relationship between Celcius and Kelvin temp.
scale is K = oC + 273.15
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature where nothing
could be colder and no heat energy remains in a substance.
 Gay-Lussac’s Law – Pressure-Temperature law
This law states that the pressure of
a given amount of gas held at
constant volume is directly
proportional to the Kelvin
temperature.
PαT
P = kT where k is constant
P/T = k
P1/T1 = P2/T2
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
States that the total pressure of a
mixture of non-reacting gases is the
sum of their individual partial pressures.
Consider the mixture of gases A, B,
and C;
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC
Using the ideal gas law, it can also be
re-written as;
Ptotal = (nA + nB + nC)RT/V
 Avogadro’s law
States that the volume of a gas is
proportional to its amount (no of
moles, n) when temperature and
pressure are held constant.
Vαn
V = kn where k is constant
V/n = k
V1/n1 = V2/n2
1 mole of a substance contains

NA = 6.022 x 1023 molecules

Same way 1 dozen of a substance contains 12 units of that
substance
 Common Units (Pressure, Temp., Vol.)
The units of pressure that are used are pascal (Pa), standard
atmosphere (atm), mmHg and torr.
The SI unit is the pascal. Pa = N/m2 = J/m3 = kg/ms2
101,325 pascals = 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg.
The units of volume are cm3, mL, dm3, L, m3

Temperature unit is Kelvin (K)

 Combined Gas Law
A combination of Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s laws give the
following relationship
PV α T
PV = kT
PV/T = k
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
This relationship does not consider the no of moles/particles of
gas.
 Ideal gas Equation
The previous laws assume that the gas being measured is an ideal gas.
An ideal gas that obeys the all gas laws exactly.
The volume (V) occupied by n moles of any gas has a pressure (P) at
temperature (T) in Kelvin. The relationship for these variables is

The ideal gas law PV = nRT

Where R is the Molar Gas Constant = 8.314 J/Kmol = 8.314 kgm2s-2K-1mol-1

Repeated experiments show that at standard temperature (273 K) and

pressure (1 atm or 101325 N/m2), one mole (n = 1) of gas occupies 22.4 L
volume.
 Ideal gas Equation
To evaluate Gas constant R,
𝑃𝑉 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 22.4 𝐿
R= = = 0.08205 Latm/Kmol
𝑛𝑇 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 273 𝐾

Using S.I. units,

P = 101325 Pa and Volume = 0.0224 m3 , the numerical value and units for
R are
𝑃𝑉 101325 𝑁/m20.0224m3
R= = = 8.314 J/Kmol
𝑛𝑇 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 273 𝐾

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
Note that no of moles n, =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
 Kinetic Theory of Gases
This theory (also known as kinetic-molecular theory) explains the
behaviour of a hypothetical ideal gas.
It assumes that all gases behave ideally. The assumptions include:
▪Gases consist of particles in constant, random motion. They continue
in a straight line until they collide with something—usually each other
or the walls of their container.
▪Particles are point masses with no volume. The particles are so small
compared to the space between them, that we do not consider their si
in ideal gases.
▪No molecular forces are at work. This means that there is no
attraction or repulsion between the particles.
 Kinetic Theory of Gases
▪Gas pressure is due to the molecules colliding with the walls of
the container. All of these collisions are perfectly elastic, meaning
that there is no change in energy of either the particles or the wall
upon collision. No energy is lost or gained from collisions.

▪The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the

absolute temperature of the gas, and all gases at the same
temperature have the same average kinetic energy.
Real Gases And Deviation From Ideal Gas Laws
Over a wide range of temperature, pressure, and
volume, real gases deviate slightly from ideal.
Real gases do not always behave ideally, especially at
low temperatures and high pressures
At low temperatures the molecules have very little kinetic
energy and move around much slower, so there is time
for static forces to take hold
At very high pressures, the molecules of a gas become
so tightly packed that their volume is significant
compared to the overall volume
Also note that before a gas ever reaches absolute zero,
it will condense to a liquid.
 Practice Questions
1. A) Write the balanced equation of the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to
form water.
(B) In terms of Avogadro’s number, how many molecules of oxygen, hydrogen
and water are present?
2. The volume of a gas was halved at constant pressure, what happens to the
Kelvin temperature?
3. Calculate the height of a column of mercury corresponding to 0.300 atm in
millimeters of mercury
4. A sample of methane gas is placed in a 3.7 L container at 47oC, the
pressure is 0.497 atm. How many moles of CH4 gas is present?
5.The volume of a gas with a pressure of 1.2 atm increases from 1.0 L to 4.0
L. What is the final pressure of the gas, assuming constant temperature?
 Kinetic energy and Molecular speed
The average kinetic energy (KE) of a gas particle is directly
proportional to the temperature. An increase in temperature
increases the speed in which the gas molecules move.
KE = ½mU2 ………………………………………….(1)
Where m is mass and u is velocity of gas particle.
All gases at a given temperature have the same average
kinetic energy.
Lighter gas molecules move faster than heavier molecules.
The most probable speed (Ump)
is the speed of the largest
number of molecules, and
corresponds to the peak of the
distribution.
The average speed (Uav) is the
mean speed of all gas
molecules in the sample.
The root-mean-square (rms)
speed (Urms) corresponds to
the speed of molecules having
exactly the same kinetic energy
as the average kinetic energy of
the sample.
 Kinetic energy and Molecular speed
This is the speed of a molecule, or the square root of the average
velocity squared

Denoted as Urms = 𝑼𝟐 …………………………………..(2)

Since all gases at a given temperature have the same
average kinetic energy,
KE = 3/2KT ………………………………… (3)
Average kinetic energy is related both to the absolute temperature
(T) and the molecular speed (U), we can combine the equations (1)
and (3) to determine the rms speed.
Kinetic energy and Molecular speed
The average kinetic energy of a molecule is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature
KE = 1/2mU2 = 3/2KT………………………..(4)
Where m= mass of gas particle, u = velocity, K is the proportionality constant
(or Boltzmann constant)which is the gas constant R divided by the
Avogadro’s constant (NA) and T is temperature.
Making 𝑼𝟐 the subject of the formula, equation (4) becomes

Urms = 3𝐾𝑇/𝑚 = 𝑼𝟐 ………………………………(5)

m is mass of gas particle in kg.
Kinetic energy and Molecular speed
This demonstrates that the rms speed is related to the temperature. We can further
manipulate equation (5) by multiplying the numerator and denominator by
Avogadro’s constant (NA) to give us a form using the gas constant (R) and molar
mass (M).
KNA = R and mNA = M

3𝑅𝑇/𝑀 = 𝑼𝟐 = Urms…………………………………….. (6)

Equation (6) demonstrates that the rms speed of gas molecules (in m/s) is also
related to the molar mass of the substance (kg/mol).
The constant K is Boltzmann's constant and is used if one is looking at the energy of
a single molecule. If you are looking at the energy of 1 mole of a substance we use
R.
For any KE relation involving R, stick with the gas constant in the units of Joules.
R = 8.314 J/Kmol
Molecular Speed
Distribution of Noble
Gases
Comparing several
gases of different molar
mass at the same
temperature, we see that
despite having the same
average kinetic energy,
the gas with the smaller
molar mass will have a
higher rms speed.
 More Exercises
1) When the volume of a gas is plotted against temperature, the x-intercept will
occur at what temperature? A) 0°C B) 273°C C) 100°C D) 5 E) 0 K (-273°C)

2) The force of gas particles hitting the walls of a container gives rise to __________
A) mass B) sound C) temperature D) volume E) pressure

3) A tank contains helium gas at 1.50 atm. What is the pressure of the gas in mm
Hg?

4) The gas with an initial volume of 24.0 L at a pressure of 565 mmHg is

compressed until the volume is 16.0 L. What is the final pressure of the gas,
assuming the temperature does not change?

5) Under what conditions would you expect a gas to behave significantly differently
than predicted by the ideal gas law?
 More Exercises
6) A doctor recommended 20 mg of glucose (C6H12O6) for a child per day. Find the number
of molecules of glucose in that amount.

7) What is the density of methane gas at STP?

8) Calculate the RMS velocity of nitrogen at 30oC. The molecular mass of nitrogen is 28.02
g/mol.

9) A fluorescent bulb of volume 4 m3 containing argon at a pressure of 6.8 x 106 N/m2 was
connected to a fluorescent bulb of volume 10 m3 containing krypton at a pressure of 4.25
x106 N/m2 and the gases were allowed to mix. Calculate

i) the partial pressure of argon ii) the partial pressure of krypton iii) the total pressure of the
mixture at constant temperature.

10) What is the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule at 25oC?

 Deduction of Kinetic Gas
Equation Uy

• Consider one molecule of gas with

mass m in the cube, moving in x
direction with velocity Ux.
• The momentum of the particle relative
to x-axis is mUx.
• After striking A, it rebounds with the A Ux
same velocity, -Ux and momentum A’
change –mUx
• For a single collision, Change in
momentum = mUx – (-mUx) =
2mUx...(1)
• Distance covered during rebound = 2l Uz
• Time (t) taken to cover the distance =
2𝑙
𝑈𝑥

31
 Deduction of Kinetic Gas Equation
• The rate of change of momentum relative to x axis
 in momentum at face A +  in momentum at face A’
= 𝑡
2𝑚𝑈𝑥+2𝑚𝑈𝑥 4𝑚𝑈𝑥 2𝑙
= = But t =
𝑡 𝑡 𝑈𝑥
4𝑚𝑈𝑥 2𝑚U 𝑥
2
= = ……………………………..(1)
2𝑙/𝑈𝑥 𝐿
Applying the same rate of change of momentum to y and z axes gives

2mU2Y 2mU2z
• and respectively.
𝐿 𝐿
• The total rate of change of momentum per molecule per second is
2mU2x 2mU2Y 2mU2z
• + + ……………………..(2)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
32
 Deduction of Kinetic Gas Equation
2m
= (Ux2 + Uy2 + Uz 2)
𝐿

For ‘n’ particles, the total rate of change of momentum

2𝑚 2
= (U 1 + U22 + U23 +……..U2n)………………(3)
𝐿
U21 + U22 + U23 +……..U2n
But U2 =
𝑛

U21 + U22 + U23 +……..U2n = nU2...... (4)

33
 Deduction of Kinetic Gas Equation
2𝑚𝑛𝑈2
total rate of change of momentum for n particles = ………(5)
𝐿
Now from Newton’s second law of motion, which states that “the rate of
change of momentum is the force”, and pressure is force per unit area.
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
P= =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴)
2𝑚𝑛𝑈2……………… (6)
P=
𝐿𝐴

Since total area of the walls of the cube of six sides is 6L2

34
 Deduction of Kinetic Gas Equation
2𝑚𝑛𝑈2
P= ……..(7)
6𝐿3
But V = L3,
Where V is the volume of the cube
𝑚𝑛𝑈2
P= ,
3𝑉
1
PV = mnU2…….(8)
3
Equation (8) is the kinetic gas equation. This equation although derived for
a cubical vessel, is equally valid for a vessel of any shape.

35
 Deduction of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory
Boyle’s Law
According to the kinetic theory of gases, the total kinetic energy of ‘n’
molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
thus K.E α T
1
Therefore mnu2 α T
2
1
mnU2 = KT ……………..(9)
2
Where K is a constant of proportionality

1
But PV = mnU2
3

36
 Deduction of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory
You can re-write equation (8) to reflect KE by multiplying both sides by 2/3

2 𝟏
PV = × mnu2 = 2/3 kT…………….(10)
3 𝟐
the kinetic gas equation it gives;
2
PV = kT
3
The product PV, therefore , will have a constant value at a constant
temperature. This is Boyle’s law.

37
 LIQUIDS
If the forces of attraction among molecules are greater than the thermal
energy, we have matter in the liquid state.
Molecules in the liquid state too have kinetic energy.
Liquids have definite volume, but no definite shape. They take the shape of
the vessel in which they are placed.
In general, liquids are more dense and less compressible than gases.
Liquids can be obtained from gases by cooling the latter below their
respective critical temperatures, followed by the treatment of high pressure.
The effect of cooling is to decrease the thermal energies of molecules and
the effect of high pressure is to decrease the volume of the system so as to
allow the molecules to come closer, thereby increasing the forces of attraction
amongst them.
 Physical Properties of Liquids
1. Vapour Pressure
2. Surface Tension
- Cohesive and Adhesive Forces
- Capillary Action
- Contact Angles
3. Viscosity
 Vapour Pressure
If the space ‘above the liquid is a closed one, then the molecules escaping from the
surface of the liquid (referred to as vapour molecules) will go on collecting in the
empty space. After some time it is observed that a constant pressure is registered.
This pressure is due to vapour molecules of the liquid and hence it is known as the
vapour pressure of the liquid.
There is a two-way process; the molecules are leaving the liquid and are
simultaneously coming back to it.
We get a state of dynamic equilibrium when the rate of evaporation of liquid
molecules is equal to the rate of condensation of the vapour molecules.
Thus, the vapour pressure of a liquid may be defined as the pressure of the vapour
in equilibrium with the liquid or the pressure that the gaseous part of the substance
exerts on the container of said substance.
 Vapour Pressure and Temperature
Vapour pressures are dependent only on
temperature and nothing else.
The vapour pressure of a liquid does not
depend on the amount of the liquid in the
container, be it 1 L or 30 L; at the same
temperature, both samples will have the
same vapour pressure.
Vapour pressures have an exponential
relationship with temperature and always
increase as temperature increase
 Vapour Pressure and Temperature
The change in vapour pressure of a pure
substance as temperature changes can be
described using the equation known as the
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation (1):
Where:
P1 is the partial pressure of the liquid at T1
P2 is the partial pressure of the liquid at T2
Vapour Pressure and Temperature
Vapour Pressure of Solutions: Raoult's Law
While the Clausius-Clapeyron equation is useful for describing the vapour
pressure behaviour of a pure substance, it does not quite help us when we
need to describe the vapour pressure of a solution comprised of two ore more
different liquids with different vapor pressures, that is where Raoult's Law
comes in.
Raoult's Law is:

Where Pi is the vapor pressure of that particular substance and Xi is the

corresponding mole fraction of that substance. "i" is an indexing component
that keeps track of each substance in the solution.
Vapour Pressure of Solutions: Raoult's Law
A solution is comprised of 0.5000 mole H2O, 1.000 mole ethanol, and 2.000
moles acetaldehyde at 293 K. What is the total vapor pressure of this
solution? The partial pressures of these substances at 293 K are,
respectively, 18 mmHg, 67.5 mmHg, and 740 mmHg (assume the liquids mix
homogeneously).
 Practice Questions
1. Which methods can be used to measure vapour pressure?
2. The vapour pressure of water at 283 K is 9.2 mmHg, at what temperature
is the vapor pressure of water 546 mmHg?
3. At 393 K the vapor pressure of water is 1489 mmHg; what is the vapor
pressure of water at 343 K?
4. A solution's partial pressure is 34.93 mmHg. This solution is comprised of
propane and diethyl ether. The partial pressure of propane is 24.5 mmHg and
its mole fraction is 0.145. What is the partial pressure of diethyl ether?
5. Ethanol’s partial pressure is 35.5 mmHg and the partial pressure of water
is 895.5 mmHg. Their respective mole fractions are 0.79 and 0.21. What is
the partial pressure of a homogenous solution of ethanol and water?
 Surface Tension
The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force,
due to the cohesive nature of its molecules.
Surface tension is measured as the energy required to increase the surface
area of a liquid by a unit of area.
It is the force acting along the surface of a liquid at right angle to any line of
unit length.
Force per unit length
Since the intermolecular forces vary depending on the nature of the liquid
(e.g. water vs. gasoline) or solutes in the liquid (e.g. surfactants like
detergent), each solution exhibits differing surface tension properties.
Surface Tension Examples
 Surface Tension
The water molecules attract one another due to the water's polar property.
The hydrogen ends, which are positive in comparison to the negative ends of
the oxygen cause water to "stick" together.
This is why there is surface tension and takes a certain amount of energy to
break these intermolecular bonds. Same goes for other liquids, even
hydrophobic liquids such as oil.
There are forces between the liquid such as Van der Waals forces that are
responsible for the intermolecular forces found within the liquid.
Surface tension of water can cause things to float which are denser than
water, allowing organisms to literally walk on water.
 Surface Tension
The SI units of surface tension (ϒ) are Newtons per metre (N/m)

ϒ = ½ * F/L where F = force and L = length

ϒ = hρgr/2

Where
h = height of capillary rise
ρ = density of liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity
r = radius of capillary tube
This assumes that the contact angle is zero (ϴ = 0)
 Exercises
1. A capillary tube of internal diameter 0.21 mm is dipped into a liquid whose
density is 0.79 g/cm3 . The liquid rises in this capillary to a height of 6.30 cm.
Calculate the surface tension of the liquid (g = 980 cm/sec2 ).

2. Water rises to a height of 3 cm in capillary of radius 0.48 mm. If angle of

contact is zero then surface tension of the water is? (g = 980 cm/sec2 ).
 Cohesive and Adhesive Forces
Cohesive and adhesive Forces is one of the important concepts that are related to
surface tension.
Cohesive forces are those that hold the body of a liquid together with minimum
surface area and adhesive forces are those that try to make a body of a liquid
spread out.
So if the cohesive forces are stronger than the adhesive forces, the body of water
will maintain its shape, but if the opposite is true than the liquid will be spread out,
maximizing its surface area.
Any substance that you can add to a liquid that allows a liquid to increase its surface
area is called a wetting agent.
The surface tension of a liquid results from an imbalance of intermolecular attractive
forces, the cohesive forces between molecules.
Forces of attraction between a liquid and a solid surface are called adhesive forces.
The difference in strength between cohesive forces and adhesive forces determine
the behaviour of a liquid in contact with a solid surface.
 Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

(a) Illustrates the shape of the meniscus and the relative height of a mercury column when a glass capillary is put into liquid mercury.
The meniscus is convex and the surface of the liquid inside the tube is lower than the level of the liquid outside the tube. (b)
Because water adheres strongly to the polar surface of glass, it has a concave meniscus, whereas mercury, which does not adhere to
the glass, has a convex meniscus.
 Capillary Action
Another concept closely related to surface tension is Capillary Action.
Capillary action can be defined as the ascension of liquids through slim tube,
cylinder or permeable substance due to adhesive and cohesive forces
interacting between the liquid and the surface.
When intermolecular bonding of a liquid itself is substantially inferior to a
substances’ surface it is interacting, capillarity occurs.
Also, the diameter of the container as well as the gravitational forces will
determine amount of liquid raised.
While, water possesses this unique property, a liquid like mercury will not
display the same attributes due to the fact that it has higher cohesive force
than adhesive force.
 Contact Angles
When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, there occurs either a rise or a fall
Capillary Action of liquid in the tube.
The angle of contact, which is measured within the liquid from the side of the
tube to the tangent drawn at the meniscus touching the surface of the tube, in
this case, is less than 90° in Figure (x).
If the cohesive forces in the liquid are greater than the solid-liquid attraction
forces, the liquid detaches from the surface of the solid.
The meniscus of such a liquid in the tube is convex upwards and its level falls
within the tube.
The angle of contact, in this case, is greater than 90° as shown in Figure (y).
 Contact Angles

Figure (x): Wetting liquid, Figure (y): Non-wetting liquid,

angle <90 degrees angle >90 degrees
 Viscosity
Viscosity is another type of bulk property defined as a liquid’s resistance to
flow.
It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity
resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction.
When the intermolecular forces of attraction are strong within a liquid, there is
a larger viscosity.
What is the opposite of viscosity?
An example of this phenomenon is imagining a race between two liquids
down a windshield. Which would you expect to roll down the windshield faster
honey or water?
 Viscosity
When measuring viscosity with any
type of viscometer, accurate
temperature is so important that
viscosity can double with a change
of only 5 Celsius.
Which other methods are used for
measuring viscosity?
The SI unit for viscosity is newton-
second per square meter (N·s/m2).
Viscosity is also expressed in
terms of pascal-second (Pa·s),
kilogram per meter per second
(kg·m−1·s−1), poise (P or
g·cm−1·s−1 = 0.1 Pa·s) or
centipoise (cP). This makes the
viscosity of water at 20 °C about 1
cP or 1 mPa·s.
 SOLIDS
Solids are characterized by their high density and low compressibility
compared with those of the gas phase.
The values of these properties for solids indicate that the molecules (or ions)
in them are relatively close together.
Solids can very easily be distinguished from liquids by their definite shape,
considerable mechanical strength and rigidity.
These properties are due to the existence of very strong forces of attraction
amongst the molecules (or ions) of the solids.
It is because of these strong forces that the structural units (atoms, ions, etc.)
of the solid do not possess any translatory motion but can have only
vibrational motion about their mean positions.
 Solids

Crystalline Amorphous

-Sharp melting point -No ordered

-Symmetric arrangement arrangement
-Sharp edges -Supercooled liquid with
-Definite pattern high viscosity
E.g. Metals, Ice E.g. Glass, plastics
 Types of Solids
Crystal Lattice:
Crystals are composed of three-dimensional patterns.
These patterns consist of atoms or groups of atoms in ordered and
symmetrical arrangements which are repeated at regular intervals keeping
the same orientation to one another.
A crystal lattice is a set of infinite, arranged points related to each other by
transitional symmetry. The outlines for such patterns are called lattices.
Lattices are comprised of the intersections of three parallel planes. The
planes intersect producing three-dimensional figures which have six faces
(like a cube) these are set in three sets of parallel planes, thus making a
figure known as a parallelepiped.
 Types of Solids by bonding types
Ionic Solids
Ionic Solids are solids composed of oppositely charged ions. They consist of
positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.
When Ionic Solids are dissolved in water the cations and the anions separate,
they become free to move about in the water allowing the solution to conduct
electrical current.
Made up of positive and negative ions and held together by electrostatic
attractions.
They are characterized by very high melting points and brittleness and are
poor conductors in the solid state. An example of an ionic solid is table salt,
NaCl.
 Types of Solids
Covalent Network Solids are giant covalent substances like diamond,
graphite and silicon dioxide (silicon(IV) oxide).
Also called atomic solids
Made up of atoms connected by covalent bonds; the intermolecular forces
are covalent bonds as well.
Characterized as being very hard with very high melting points and being
poor conductors.
Examples of this type of solid are diamond and graphite, and the fullerenes.
As you can see below, graphite has only 2-D hexagonal structure and
therefore is not hard like diamond. The sheets of graphite are held together
by only weak London forces!
 Types of Solids
Covalent Network Solids
 Types of Solids
Molecular solids: Made up of atoms or molecules held together by London
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, or hydrogen bonds.
Characterized by low melting points and flexibility and are poor conductors.
An example of a molecular solid is sucrose.
Molecular solids are composed of discrete molecules held together by
intermolecular forces. Because these interactions are relatively weak,
molecular solids tend to be soft.
Classes of molecular solids include organic compounds composed of carbon
and hydrogen, fullerenes, halogens (F, Cl, etc.), chalcogens (O, S, etc.), and
pnictogens (N, P, etc.).
Larger molecules are less volatile and have higher melting points because
their dispersion forces increase with the larger number of atoms. Decrease in
binding of outer electrons to the nucleus also increases van der Waals-type
interactions of the atom due to its increased polarisability.
 Types of Solids
Metallic solids: Made up of metal atoms that are held together by metallic
bonds.
Characterized by high melting points, can range from soft and malleable to
very hard, and are good conductors of electricity.
Metallic solids are composed of metal cations held together by a delocalized
"sea" of valence electrons. Because their electrons are mobile, metallic solids
are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They are malleable which means they can be pounded into sheets. They are
also ductile, which means they can be pulled into wires.
Examples of metallic solids include, copper, gold, zinc, Iron, Magnesium....
We tend to think about metallic solids as pure metals, but they can also be
combinations of metals like bronze, which is a mixture of copper and tin.
 Types of Solids
Metallic Solids:
Because the electrons are
delocalized, it is possible to
move the nuclei (the cations)
without a huge amount of
energy. It is a bit like breaking a
pi bond versus a sigma bond.
As such, metals tend to be
"soft."
Summary of Solids by bonding types
 th
Plasma – “the 4 state of matter”
Plasma is superheated matter – so hot that the electrons are ripped away
from the atoms forming an ionized gas.
It comprises over 99% of the visible universe. In the night sky, plasma glows
in the form of stars and nebulas.
The biggest chunk of plasma you will see is the sun. The sun's enormous
heat rips electrons off the hydrogen and helium molecules that make up the
sun. Essentially, the sun, like most stars, is a great big ball of plasma.
Plasma is often called “the fourth state of matter,” along with solid, liquid and
gas.
Just as a liquid will boil, changing into a gas when energy is added, heating a
gas will form a plasma – a soup of positively charged particles (ions) and
negatively charged particles (electrons).
 Applications of Plasma
Plasma is used in many high tech industries.
It is used in making many microelectronic or electronic devices such as
semiconductors. It can help make features on chips for computers.
Plasma is also used in making transmitters for microwaves or high
temperature films. It can even be used in work with minerals such as
diamond, and in extracting economically valuable metals from rock.
Other researchers pursue plasmas for making computer chips, rocket
propulsion, cleaning the environment, destroying biological hazards, healing
wounds and other exciting applications.
 References
Fundamental University Physical Chemistry by Abass A. Olajire
Chem.bd.psu.edu
Chem.libretexts.org
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/principles-of-general-
chemistry-v1.0/s15-06-critical-temperature-and-press.html
A Textbook of Physical Chemistry States of Matter and Ions in
Solution (SI Unit), 5e, Volume 1 (K. L. Kapoor)